PSY 442 Exam 3
Describe how a tendency to focus on positive information could interfere with an individual's ability to accurately evaluate the risks associated with: a) medical treatment options, and b) financial decisions.
An individual who focuses only on the positive information has a tendency to repress bad information, medical treatments can have a lot of negative side effects and being blind to them could be fatal. Same with financial. Also, could lead to avoiding the consequences of life, or not living carefully enough. Ignoring the bad for the positive outcomes.
Describe the potential adverse effects of anti-anxiety and antidepressant medications.
Anti-Anxiety drugs: Addicting and can cause impairment in cognitive functioning Antidepressants: Risk of polypharmacy. Side effects (e.g., sexual dysfunction). Reoccurrence when medication discontinued
Describe how divorce rates in the United States have changed over the past 70 years. What history-graded (i.e., cohort) related factors have influenced divorce rates?
Approximately 40% of marriages in the U.S. end in divorce Modal length of marriage at time of divorce is approximately 4 years Increasing divorce trend: 1940: 18% of marriages 2018: 40% of marriages Decrease in negative views and stigma Higher expectations for marriage Divorce rates among adults 65 and older have roughly tripled since 1990
Why did the Food and Drug Administration issue black box warnings against the use of antipsychotic medications in older persons with dementia?
Due to the fact that there was a higher death rate in those with amnesia prescribed antipsychotics. May be toxic in older patients.
Describe the link between spirituality and health. What is spiritual support?
Older adults often use spiritual support more than any other strategy to cope with life's problems. It provides a strong influence on identity. Greater personal well-being (lower feelings of self-worth in older adults who have little religious commitment).
What is a stereotype?
special type of social knowledge structure or social belief. They represent socially shared beliefs about characteristics and behaviors of a particular social group.
What is "surrogate-parent" grandparenting? List five family circumstances that increase the likelihood of a grandparent taking on the role of a surrogate-parent. How does surrogate-parent grandparenting affect the health of grandmothers? How can these health effects be explained?
30% increase in the number of children living with their grandparents from 1990 to 2017 40% of children in the U.S. are born to unwed mothers Higher incidence of depression Nurses' Health Study: 55% greater risk of heart disease among grandmothers who provide 21 or more hours of care per week Many grandmothers were caring for very young children (infants and toddlers) Is risk due to heavy caregiving burden? Deficits in self-care? Help is often needed because of a difficult situation for the parent (teen parents, divorce, financial problems, drug abuse, prison)
Be prepared to describe factors that may contribute to differences in older and younger couples' ability to negotiate conflict.
Age- associated changes in emotional arousal Increased skill in emotional regulation Less motivation to change the other person Focus on quality of relationship in the here and now Consistent with Carstensen's Socioemotional Selectivity theory Improved coping with (acceptance of) what person doesn't like about the partner "Choose your battles"
Describe findings from research on factors that affect marital satisfaction across the lifespan.
Age: Women under age 20 at first marriage are 3x more likely to divorce than women who marry in their 20s 6x more likely to divorce than those who marry for the first time in their 30s Similarity of values and interests Feeling of equality: Each partner contributes something significant to the relationship Partners perceive exchange as fair Satisfaction: "U" shaped distribution over the lifespan Satisfaction is highest in beginning Declines during child raising years Increases in late life Factors affecting satisfaction: Dependence is mutual and equal When dependence becomes unbalanced stress and conflict occurs
What is the positivity bias?
Avoid negative information and focus more on positive information when making decisions and judgements and when remembering events. SAVI model explains how physiological vulnerabilities as one ages make regulating high levels of emotional arousal harder. This is why they may focus on the positive which can increase their well-being. Also, a positive outlook predicts one will be more socially active and mentally active.
How is risk of financial exploitation influenced by the age-associated tendency to focus on positive information?
By only focusing on positive information, a person may ignore the signs that someone is using them for their money or taking advantage of them. By only seeing the good in people, you become blind to the bad. It is easier to be manipulated.
abuse scenario
Caregiver chronically highly stressed depressed angry sleep deprived unskilled or inexperienced in providing care feels trapped, dependent on care receiver Care receiver confused or demanding (e.g., highly dependent, complaining, agitated, engaging in challenging behaviors) Situational demands overwhelm caregiver resources
What is generativity? How is generativity expressed? What are the psychological benefits of generativity? Why is the population of older adults consistently found to be the most generous group within communities?
Caring about generations: one's own generation and future generations Lowest levels among young adults Generativity a large concern for "healthy aging" Expressed through: community service and prioritizing parenting and grandparenting Comes with experience, time, shifting priorities
What explanations have been offered to account for increases in men's empathy skills over the lifespan? What explanations have been offered to account for increases in women's assertiveness over the lifespan?
Cumulative consistency: Environment provides consequences that reinforce behavioral characteristics (e.g. acting with hostility will produce consequences that contribute to the feeling of hostility) Interactional consistency: Immediate social consequences of a particular "personality style" (or behavioral repertoire) will reinforce the style
Older adults reported that turning problems over to God was a three-step process. Be prepared to describe: a) each step in this three-step process and b) the benefits of this form of religious belief.
Differentiating between things that can or can't be changed Focusing one's own efforts (what can be changed) Emotionally disconnecting from those aspects of the problem that cannot be changed with the belief that God will provide the best outcome possible It creates a better sense of well-being, helps cope with stress, do not focus on the small things as much which will help someone be more relaxed. Changes in brain activity associated with spiritual practices that help people cope More positive outlook associated with Task-oriented and Social Diversion coping. It means that people characterized by a high level of spirituality will try to solve problems through efforts aimed at solving the problem and seeking out social support
Be prepared to describe how the progression of Alzheimer's disease differs from the progression of symptoms in vascular dementia.
Disease trajectory -Gradual, insidious onset -Duration: 2- 20 years until death -Average duration of disease is 8 years after diagnosis -Rate of decline varies across patients -Eventually requires 24 hour supervision -End phase dementia: Patient is completely bedridden, unable to swallow, and in a fetal position Alzheimers affect progressive memory
What is delirium ? What are the symptoms of delirium? What area of functioning is most clearly affected when an individual is delirious?
Disturbance of consciousness in cognition that develops over a short period of time Symptoms: - Attention Impairment is major symptom -Memory -Orientation (severe confusion) -Language -Perception (hallucinations & delusions) -Behavior changes (sudden onset of aggression, anxiety, accusations)
How do the symptoms of depression differ between young and older persons? Are treatments of depression as effective in older adults as they are in the rest of the adult population?
Elderly: Fewer reports of feelings of guilt & suicidal thoughts -More somatic complaints -Increased agitation -More lethal suicidal methods in elderly (especially older white men) CBT is especially effective for older adults.
Describe history graded factors that might lead to differences in the social and emotional development of the current cohort of children vs. their grandparents' generation.
Electronic social media: Texting, Snapchat, Instagram, Facebook, Twitter. Internet, Email, Access to pornography, and Chat rooms Grandparents generation didn't have any of this therefore they always called their friends and hung out with them face to face however smartphones and social media have changed that for the current young generation therefore they normally text their friends and communicate with them on social media platforms Epidemic of loneliness in young adults
describe findings from recent research on the lasting emotional and psychological effects of early childhood experiences.
Environmental influences can actually affect whether and how genes are expressed "Epigenetics" Early life experiences can have lasting effects- Amount of exposure to verbal stimuli from birth to age 5 predicts intellectual development Lack of nurturing (e.g., children in neglectful orphanages) predicts poor cognitive development and relationship attachment problems later in life Severe childhood adversity predicts psychological problems later in life (e.g., depressive symptoms, antisocial behavior, and drug use in early adulthood) Twin studies- separated at birth
describe client variables and therapist variables that might impact the assessment and treatment of problems in late life.
Experience completing assessment measures Therapeutic nihilism Freud's influence Empirical data: No significant differences in treatment effectiveness Experience in working with older adults Few receive formal training Only 5% of psychologists trained to work with older adults Assumptions about interacting with older adults Potential age-associated differences: Sensory functioning Access issues
life-event (contextual approach)
Focus on the behavior of the individual and the context in which the behavior developed and is currently occurring. A learning model essentially- people learn the behaviors they exhibit. Consequences of behavior (operant conditioning). Explains changes through the process of learning consequences of behaviors.
Describe the four types of grandparenting styles described in class. How do grandmothers and grandfathers tend to differ in their roles as grandparents?
Fun-seeking grandparents: tend to be younger, active; role changes as grandchildren grow up Formal grandparents: tend to be older, more peripherally involved; authority figures Distant grandparents: rarely see their grandchildren "Surrogate parent" grandparents: assume day-to-day parenting (usually grandmothers) Grandmothers tend to be more hands on and engage in the emotional aspects, especially mother's mother
Describe the relationship between depression and physical illness. How is functional disability related to depression in late life? Applying Peter Lewinsohn's behavioral model of depression, how is this relationship explained?
Functional impairment is greater predictor than medical diagnosis -Risk of depression is high in persons with: -Coronary artery disease -Neurological disorders -Metabolic disorders (e.g. diabetes, hyper or hypothyroidism) -Cancer -Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease -Chronic pain -Exercise and depression are linked. More exercise equals less risk of depression. If you have a functional disability it limits you to exercise so you have an increased chance of depression. Peter Lewinsohn argued that depression is caused by a combination of stressors in a person's environment and a lack of personal skills. More specifically, the environmental stressors cause a person to receive less positive reinforcement.
What is "dementia"? Describe the progressive changes that occur in persons with Alzheimer's disease. What type(s) of memory are most affected by Alzheimer's disease?
Group of diseases characterized by cognitive and behavioral deficits due to organic cause Severe cognitive and behavioral deficits Memory loss Impairment in verbal abilities Impairment in judgment Impairment in new learning Changes in "personality" Changes in affect and behavior
Why is it difficult to empirically evaluate claims based on stage theories of personality development?
Hard to determine whether someone has completed a stage, no reliable method of relevant variables, research has relied mainly on inferential methods of assessment, and tend to focus on crises in life which are actually rare. Personal life events and role transitions have greater explanatory value than concept of "stages"
What is comorbidity?
Having two or more disorders or health conditions. Plays a role in medication interaction and ability to treat multiple conditions at once.
Describe the assumptions of Carstensen's socioemotional selectivity (SES) theory?
Humans are uniquely able to monitor time - including lifetime Goals are always set in temporal contexts. Because chronological age is associated with time left in life, goals change across the lifespan Perceived constraints on time motivate people to pursue emotionally meaningful goals. Motivation to pursue emotionally meaningful goals directs cognitive resources to emotional information. Focusing on emotionally meaningful goals is good for well-being. Younger people show preferences similar to old when time horizons are shortened and older people show preferences similar to young when time horizons are expanded (spending time with loved ones vs. an interesting stranger).
Be prepared to describe how impairment in verbal abilities complicates the detection and treatment of comorbid conditions (e.g. infection, delirium, acute and chronic disease), pain, discomfort, and distress in persons with dementia.
Impairment of verbal abilities can be due to other diseases and they must rule all of those factors out before dementia. A person may not be able to express how they are feeling if they have verbal impairments. They can also not tell you what they need or what exactly is wrong.
What hypotheses have been proposed to explain the observation that as humans gain more experience (i.e., as they age) they tend to use less detailed information when forming an initial impression
Improved skill in discriminating important detail Improved emotion regulation skills Decline in working memory capacity
Discuss findings regarding age-associated changes in gender roles. What is Androgyny?
Increased androgyny is present- a combination of male and female characteristics to the point that gender is ambiguous. Men become more empathic and nurturant, women more assertive.Gender roles become more fluid, less restrictive.
What are some of the adverse effects of antipsychotic drug use in older adults living with dementia? Why is antipsychotic medication contraindicated when a person has Lewy body dementia? What are the effects of antipsychotic medication use in persons experiencing Lewy body dementia?
Increased mortality in elderly receiving long term antipsychotic medication (may be toxic in older adults). (patients with dementia) Higher death rate associated with the use of conventional antipsychotics and atypical antipsychotics compared to patients receiving a placebo. (This is why FDA used black box warnings)
What is behavioral activation? Describe evidence for the effectiveness of behavioral activation for the treatment of depression.
Increasing access to pleasant experiences by trying out new behaviors At first, client may follow "rule" to become more active Natural consequences of pleasant experiences quickly come to maintain continued activity. Much evidence for effectiveness.
What is a stereotype threat?
It is an evoked fear of being judged in accordance with a negative stereotype about a group to which you belong. If one belongs to a group in which there are stereotypes about academic ability one could perform more poorly on a task in an environment where they perceive they are being judged regardless of high competence or intelligence.
Ego Integrity vs. Despair
Life review, majority experience satisfaction Minority experience regret, resentment, and dissatisfaction with the choices made Positive view: life as meaningful and satisfying Negative view: feel they have not created the life they wanted or blame others Death anxiety Happiness, love, success= "zero sum game"
how do rates of schizophrenia, substance abuse, suicidality, and depression vary across the lifespan? Are history graded factors impacting the prevalence of any of these conditions? If yes, what are the specific history graded factors and how are they impacting the prevalence (i.e., is the prevalence increasing or decreasing?).
Lifetime incidence rates of psychological problems -Lowest incidence rates for most psychological disorders found than at any point in the lifespan -Exceptions: Cognitive disorders and suicidality -Consistent findings from longitudinal research is improved functioning over the lifespan Depression Anxiety Substance use Schizophrenia Personality disorders
describe findings from Caspi, Bem, & Elder's longitudinal research on personality starting in childhood.
Longitudinal study of three groups of children: 1) severe temper tantrums 2) unusually shy 3) excessively dependent Studied again in middle age: Shy group - did best later in life "Explosive" group - had most problems at work; more likely to be divorced Dependent group - sex differences- Girls had more problems; Boys turned out to be unusually happy as men
According to lecture and the film, "Caring for Your Parents", which family members are most likely to care for elderly persons?
Middle age sometimes referred to as "sandwich generation" Caring for children and elderly parents 25% of adult children (approx. 50 million) provide care for elderly parent(s) due to health problems Daughters and daughters-in-law most likely to provide intensive, hands-on care Geographic proximity also a predictor Both stressful and rewarding Significant cultural differences in caregiving
Describe barriers to grandparents having contact with their grandchildren. What is the matrifocal influence on social activities within families?
Norm of noninterference - Unacceptable to "meddle" in how grandchildren are being Raised Can create double bind when adult children are dependent on grandparents for childcare Grandparents responsible for grandchildren but don't have authority to intervene when problems arise Matrifocal orientation to the family: Women control family's social relationships Implication: Father's mother must get along with son and daughter-in-law
Dementia is the third most expensive condition to treat after cancer and cardiac disease. Given that, currently, there are no effective medications or medical procedures for curing or reversing neurocognitive disorders, why is the treatment of persons living with dementia so Expensive?
Often leads to institutionalization as disease progresses due to impairment. Families often cannot provide daily care as adl become affected and must place them in care units, which are very expensive. In-home care is also very expensive and only 10% of in-care home costs are covered by third party payers or the government
According to Levenson & Carstensen's observational research of couples, how were the interactions of couples in long term marriage different from those of younger couples?
Older couples show: Less potential for conflict Better negotiation skills More potential for pleasure in several areas Equivalent levels of mental and physical health Fewer gender differences in sources of pleasure More positive emotions More empathic listening More patience and flexibility
abuse victim characteristics
Over age 80 Female Excessively loyal to caregiver History of frequent intergenerational conflict History of abuse Socially isolated Viewed by abuser as aversive: Unpleasant or demanding
Based on the research of Becca Levy and her colleagues how are positive views of aging associated with health outcomes in later life?
Participants who viewed old age in negative terms were much more likely to experience some kind of cardiovascular disorder over the next four decades. Volunteers who didn't have any heart problems until after they were 60 - at least 21 years later - were likely to have been negative about aging from early on. Episodes of heart disease could not be explained by smoking, depression, cholesterol, family history, or other risk factors. Ageism in early life and poor heart health later on.
Describe methodological and cohort related factors that can impact research on psychological problems and aging
Possible under-reporting by older adults Cohort factors: Language used to describe problems. Attributions for behavior may vary across cohorts. Gender differences in comfort with emotional expression Cross-sectional designs vs. longitudinal designs Cohorts may have dramatically different treatment histories Selective attrition- individuals with severe problems Sampling issues- community vs. institutionalized
Describe the findings from the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) Epidemiologic Catchment Area Study regarding age-associated differences in the prevalence and incidence of psychological disorders.
Problems are most prevalent early in life and decrease with age. Rates of disorders for 18-24 year olds were almost double for those over the age of 65. Lowest incidence rates for most psychological disorders found than at any point in the lifespan. Exceptions: Cognitive disorders and suicidality Consistent findings from longitudinal research is improved functioning over the lifespan.
describe the four possible developmental courses psychological problems may take over the lifespan.
Problems may develop for the first time in late life Problems first evident earlier in life may continue in old age and remain unchanged by aging processes Problems first evident earlier in life may continue into old age but be significantly altered by aging processes Problems first evident earlier in life may remit in late life
What factors have been found to promote the quality of life of persons living with dementia and their families?
Promoting adaptive behavior, preventing excess disability, preventing, not eliminating challenging behaviors. "Restraint-free" approach. Increase salience of situational cues to aid situational-appropriate behavior Meet social or environmental needs communicated by the behavior...making the behavior Unnecessary Reduce task demands Promote pleasant and meaningful activities
Describe risks associated with elder abuse or domestic violence in families, couples, and parent/adult child dyads.
Risk factors: Alcohol abuse Job stress Financial problems Unemployment Social isolation Within older couples - Domestic violence is more likely to be perpetrated by woman
Describe findings from research on factors influencing marital success. What hypotheses have been proposed to explain why persons who marry before age 20 are at higher risk for divorce than people who marry at a later age?
Similarity of values and interests Feeling of equality - Each partner contributes something significant to the relationship Partners perceive exchange as fair More experience, less stress, better able to negotiate conflict
Describe the assumptions of Carstensen's socioemotional selectivity theory. According to Carstensen, how does motivation for social contact differ over the lifespan?
Social contact is motivated by a variety of goals: Information seeking - Exploring the world, finding a niche in life, etc. Self-concept Emotion regulation Late life: Increased importance of friendship Emphasis on emotion regulation Fewer friends but increased importance of friendship People become increasingly selective in whom they choose to have contact with
Describe Erikson's stage theory of psychosocial development over the lifespan. How does Erikson characterize the emotional concerns experienced by persons in middle adulthood and late adulthood?
Stages: trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame and doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. identity confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs. stagnation, and ego integrity vs. despair. Generativity is particularly apparent among middle-aged adults. Focus on resolution of life crises 8 stages of psychosocial development
What conditions are associated with the development of delirium? What factors contribute to the low rates of detection of delirium in older adults? Why is delirium often missed in persons with dementia?
Stroke Medication side effects Cardiovascular disease Infection Toxins Dehydration Invasive medical procedures (e.g., catherization, IVs) symptoms of delirium often prescribed to other causes
What is epidemiology? What is an incidence rate? What is a prevalence rate?
Study of the prevalence (overall frequency) & Incidence (rate of new cases) of a disorder within a population at a particular point in time. Negative stereotypes of late life: Rates of psychological disorders increase with age
abuser characteristics
Substance abuse Mental health problems Inexperience as a caregiver Financial problems Little help from other family members Hypercritical style History of being abused
Describe how age-associated differences in the absorption, distribution, and metabolism of substances might affect physicians' judgments about whether an older person has a substance abuse problem.
Substance abuse is more prevalent among the young than the elderly. Tolerance for alcohol is reduced in old age. Medication misuse occurs at a high rate. Metabolize more slowly, meaning it remains in the bloodstream longer. Distributes slower, but older adults are more likely to feel the effects of alcohol quickly.
Describe age-associated differences in suicide rates. What are the risk factors for suicide in late life? For which age/gender groups are suicide rates increasing?
Suicide rates peak in late life -Older people are more likely to experience suicide risk factors such as illness, social isolation, loss of loved ones, and financial pressure -Suicide rates increase for men as they age and decrease slightly for women -Older people are less likely to communicate suicidal intent and are more successful in their suicide attempts Late life Risk Factors: - Male -White -Marital status - Loneliness, social isolation (widowed, living alone) Lack of social connectedness -Social class -Chronic health problems, pain -Hopelessness -Alcohol use Suicide rates increase for men and slightly decrease for women as they age Percent increases in rates were greatest for females aged 10-14 and for males, those aged 45-64. Greatest for elderly white men
changes in processing resource capacity and social impressions
The ability to make unbiased social judgements depends on the cognitive demand accompanying those judgements. We all make snap initial judgements, but then reconsider and evaluate possible extenuating circumstances to revise those judgements. Older adults consistently hold on to their initial judgements or conclusions of why negative events occur more often than younger adults. Older adults may have limited cognitive resources to process detailed information presented after the initial impression is formed. This information can overwork processing resources, but can also lead to wrong impressions.
Be prepared to describe changes in the prevalence of substance abuse in late life. How have the number of deaths due to opioid overdose changed over the last 20 years? Which forms of opioid medication account for the largest percentage of deaths due to overdose? Which age group(s) accounts for the highest number of opioid overdose deaths?
The number of deaths due to opioid overdose have increased over the last 20 years. Pain medications are the largest source of opioids (codeine, hydrocodone). Elderly accounts for largest group because they often are given these pain meds and become addicted. Cannot function without it.
What is polypharmacy? Describe potential risks associated with polypharmacy in older adults.
The use of multiple medications, usually 5 or more. It is the norm within geriatric care. Side effects can mimic symptoms of psychological problems, falls, and adverse effects. Adherence becomes less likely as the number of medications increases. The average amount of medications an adult takes is 6.5 medications a day
In the film, "Caring for Parents", how did financial resources affect access to support services and quality of life of the elderly persons and their caregiving families?
Those that had smaller funds were not able to have access to 24/7 care or good quality care because it was too expensive, therefore they had to rely a lot on their families to care for them everyday which got really hard on that family member because they barley had a life anymore since they had to constantly take care of their parents responsibilities $250,000 a year to have private in home care, not a possibility for many people Woman wanted to go home because financially she had to be stronger with the amount of care family members could offer.
Be prepared to describe the research findings concerning religious beliefs and ethnicity.
Turning problems "over to God" was especially true for African Americans Mexican Americans who pray to the saints and the Virgin Mary have greater optimism and better health
Describe findings from the survey of older adults': 1) perceptions of their subjective age vs. their actual chronological age, 2) preferred age if given the choice vs. their actual chronological age
Usually "feel" younger. People in their 70's tend to subjectively say they're in their 60's and if given the choice most people wanted to be in their 50's. People usually think that those who are older want to be younger, but there is a lot of life experiences gained and it could lead to happiness in later years.
what is behavioral health?
Variety of behaviors are available to the person for doing what they want to do in life accessing gratifying experiences in life producing outcomes they value coping with life's Challenges. A person's behavior is not motivated escape or avoidance of aversive consequences.
What environmental and lifestyle factors have been found to increase/decrease the risk of developing a neurocognitive disorders?
Viral infection Head trauma Chronic inflammation Dietary factors: Iron supplements (e.g., Scandinavia), anti-inflammatory foods (e.g., India)
How do sources of conflict differ for older and younger couples? How can these differences be explained?
When discussing a problem, older couples: Less emotionally negative More affectionate Middle Aged Couples: Children, Money, Communication, Recreation, Sex, In-laws, Friends, Jealousy Older couples: Communication, Recreation, Money, Children, Sex, In-Laws, Friends, Religion
According to lecture, what is excess disability ? What are risk factors for excess disability in an older adult with dementia? Can excess disability be reversed?
When impairment in functioning exceeds what is expected due to disease. Become hypervigilance- self critical: avoid correction on what they say; depression: feeling stigmatized because people start to treat them differently. Can not be reversed
how do age-associated changes in emotion regulation and judgments of the relative seriousness of life stressors impact contentment and as individuals gain experience (in other words - as they age)?
With experience people become more sensitive to emotional cues when making social judgments -Influences who people choose to spend time with -Perceptions of interactions and perceptions of Conflict In later life, humans tend to weigh negative information more heavily in their social judgments than young adults do -In particular, older adults are more willing to change their initial impression from positive to negative - But are less willing to change an initial from negative to positive even in light of new positive information -Role of a history of aversive consequences
Discuss differences in friendships between women and the friendships between men.
Women tend to have more close friends and base friendships on emotional sharing Friendship is a means of confiding in others Gatherings involve discussing personal matters Men tend to have fewer close friends and base social contact on shared activities Confiding in others is inconsistent with need to compete Friendships are less emotionally intimate
What factors contribute to a decrease in the number of friends between young adulthood and late life? How does the importance of friendship vary across adulthood?
Young adulthood: Historically young adulthood has been characterized by more friends and acquaintances than later in life, Emphasis on information seeking 30s: Increased attention on new family relationships (marriage, parenting), Balance of goals Late life: there is more of a focus on comfort and family, less of a desire for new people and friends, and Rather maintaining closeness with those one does still have.
Define personality
a hypothetical construct that developed as a way of describing how and sometimes why people behave the way they do. Personality labels are used to describe persistent characteristics of a person's behavior when these characteristics are stable over time and consistent across settings. Believed that it can be used to predict behavior. Enduring patterns of: behaving, perceiving, relating to, and thinking about the environment and oneself
trait approach
focuses on traits that one is born with or develops and how that explains behavior. Explains a person's behavior with the trait they possess- risk of circular reasoning or tautological explanations. Changes that occur are due to changes in traits that one possesses- can change with experience.
How has the median age of first marriage has changed over the past 50 years? How do economic factors impact decisions to marry and/or have children?
it's getting older, for women average age now is 27 compared to 20 in 1950, and for men the average age is 29 compared to 22
What is the age-based double standard of perceived competence in young and older adults?
operating when an individual attributes an older person's failure in memory as more serious than a memory failure observed in a young adult. Most evident when younger people are judging the memory failure. Older adults are stereotyped as warm and incompetent.
"mid-life crisis"
sense of stagnation in personal relationships and work Data doesn't support that people will inevitably experience this
How would Carstensen's socioemotional selectivity theory account for the finding that older adults tend to not replace friendships that are lost when friends die?
there is more of an emphasis on emotion regulation therefore they have less importance to keep those friendships in tact, More selective and Have fewer opportunities to make new friends
In the YouTube video the Sudanese man John Dau demonstrated unusually high levels of Generativity given his young age. Describe how his life experiences may have contributed to his valuing of and caring for his family, younger persons, and community.
they were taken away from their families at a very young age and many of their parents or family passed away, this makes them care a lot more about their family and carrying on those genetics, therefore makes them care a lot about their generativity Lost so much growing up, yet still believed in the importance of giving back because he was able to persevere
stage approach
views behavior in the context of the stage of life that a person is in. For instance, he is spending more time alone which is normal for the "disengagement" stage of life. Changes occur when someone enters a new stage of life. (Erikson)
What is the negativity bias ?
weighing negative information more heavily than positive information in a social judgement. Older adults are more willing to change their initial impression from positive to negative, but less willing to change an initially negative impression to positive in the light of new positive information. Possible history of aversive consequences, draw on past experience when making social judgement; could serve a protective function.
