PSYC 100A Chapter 7

reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

postive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

Learning is defined as "the process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring _______ or _____________ ."

information; behaviours

Children learn many social behaviors by imitating parents and other models. This type of learning is called ___________________ _____________

observational learning

Extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

What are two things that Pavlov showed us?

(1) Classical conditioning is one way that virtually all organisms learn to adapt to their environment (2) Showed us how a process such as learning can be studies objectively

What are the four major drawback of physical punishment?

(1) Punished behaviour is suppressed, not forgotten. This temporary state may (negatively) reinforce parents' punishing behaviour (2) Punishment teaches discrimination among situations. In operant conditioning, dis- crimination occurs when an organism learns that certain responses, but not others, will be reinforced. (3) Punishment can teach fear. In operant conditioning, generalization occurs when an organism's response to similar stimuli is also reinforced (4) Physical punishment may increase aggression by modelling aggression as a way to cope with problems

What might mirror neurons provide?

A neural basis for everyday imitation and observational learning

How do different reinforcement schedules affect behavior?

A reinforcement schedule defines how often a response will be reinforced. In continuous reinforcement (reinforcing desired responses every time they occur), learning is rapid, but so is extinction if rewards cease. In partial (intermittent) reinforcement (reinforcing responses only sometimes), initial learning is slower, but the behavior is much more resistant to extinc- tion. Fixed-ratio schedules reinforce behaviors after a set number of responses; variable-ratio schedules, after an unpredictable number. Fixed-interval schedules reinforce behaviors after set time periods; variable-interval schedules, after unpredictable time periods.

"Sex sells!" is a common saying in advertising. Using classical conditioning terms, explain how sexual images in advertisements can condition your response to a product.

A sexual image is a US that triggers a UR of interest or arousal. Before the advertisement pairs a product with a sexual image, the product is an NS. Over time the product can become a CS that triggers the CR of interest or arousal.

What is the method of successive approximations?

You only give food to the rat when it does things that are closer to your desired. You reward responses that are even closer to the final desired behaviour, and you ignore all other responds

How could your psychology instructor use negative reinforcement to encourage your attentive behavior during class?

Your instructor could reinforce your attentive behavior by taking away something you dislike. For example, your instructor could offer to shorten the length of an assigned paper or replace lecture time with an in-class activity. In both cases, the instructor would remove something aversive in order to negatively reinforce your focused attention.

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

operant behaviour. Example...

behaviour that operates on the environment, producing consequences. We learn to repeat acts followed by good results and avoid acts followed by bad results

Most experts agree that repeated viewing of media violencea. makes all viewers significantly more aggressive.b. has little effect on viewers.c. dulls viewers' sensitivity to violence. d. makes viewers angry and frustrated

c

Two forms of associative learning are classical in which the organism associates ________________, and operant conditioning, in which the organism associates ____________ a. two or more responses; a response and consequence b. two or more stimuli; two or more responses c. two or more stimuli; a response and consequence d. two or more responses; two or more stimuli

c

a medieval proverb notes that "a burnt child dreads the fire." in operant conditioning, the burning would be an example of a a. primary reinforcer.b. negative reinforcer.c. punisher.d. positive reinforcer

c

Learning

the process of acquiring through experience new information or behaviors.

Conditioning

the process of learning associations

Modelling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior(native language)

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

How does observational learning differ from associative learning? How may observational learning be enabled by mirror neurons?

In observational learning, as we observe and imitate others we learn to anticipate a behav- ior's consequences because we experience vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punish- ment. In associative learning, we merely learn associations between different events. Our brain's frontal lobes have a demonstrated ability to mirror the activity of anoth- er's brain. Some psychologists believe mirror neurons enable this process. The same areas fire when we perform certain actions (such as responding to pain or moving our mouth to form words) as when we observe someone else performing those actions.

How does operant conditioning differ from classical conditioning?

In operant conditioning, an organism learns associations between its own behavior and resulting events; this form of conditioning involves operant behavior (behavior that operates on the environment, producing rewarding or punishing consequences). In classical conditioning, the organism forms associations between stimuli—events it does not control; this form of conditioning involves respondent behavior (automatic responses to some stimulus).

What is operant conditioning?

In operant conditioning, behaviors followed by reinforcers increase; those followed by punishers often decrease.

negative reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.) (aversive)

What can be said about Conditioning and animals?

It helps them survive

variable-interval schedule

Unpredictably often: reinforcement for behaviour after a ransom amount of time, as when checking for a facebook response

By 8-16 months, what do infants imitate

Various novel gestures

What do we experience by watching a model?

Vicarious reinforfdemnt or vicarious punishment, and we learn to anticipate a behaviours consequences in situation like those which we are observing

An example of classical conditioning

We learn that a flash of lighting signals and impending crack of thunder; when lighting flashes nearby, we start to brace ourselves

An example of generalization...

When an angry face appears on a computer screen, abused children's brain-wave response are dramatically stronger and longer lasting

What helps explain smokers cravings?

When observing movie characters smoking, smokers' brains spontaneously simulate smoking

When are response rates higher?

When reinforment is linked to the number of response (a ration schedule) rather than to time (an interval schedule)

When is responding more consistent?

When reinforment is unpredicatibel (a variable schedule) than when its predictable (a fixed schedule)

What does the tendency to learn behaviours favoured by natural selection help explain?

Why we humans seem naturally disposed to learn associations between the color red and sexuality. (nearing ovulation, red blood flow erection)

5 steps of reinforcing your own desired behaviours

1. State a realistic goal in measurably terms 2. decide how, when, and where you will work toward your goal 3. Monitor how often you engage in your desired behaviour 4. Reinforce the desired behaviour 5. Reduce the rewards gradually

Match the examples (1-5) to the appropriate underlying learning principle (a-e): a. Classical conditioning d. Observational learning b. Operant conditioning e. Biological predispositions c. Latent learning 1. Knowing the way from your bed to the bathroom in the dark 2. Your little brother getting in a fight after watching a violent action movie 3. Salivating when you smell brownies in the oven 4. Disliking the taste of chili after becoming violently sick a few hours after eating chili 5. Your dog racing to greet you on your arrival home

1. c 2. d 3. a 4. e 5. b

(PR) (NR) (PP) (NP) Desired [Give it] = 1. PR [Take it away] = 2. Undesired [Give it] = 3. [Take it away] = 4.

2. NP 3. PP 4. NR

Behaviour Chain

A behaviour chain is a series of related behaviors, each of which provides the cue for the next and the last that produces a reinforcer.

The first step of classical conditioning, when an NS becomes a CS, is called ______________. When a US no longer follows the CS, and the CR becomes weakened, this is called ______________.

Acquisition; Extinction

postive punishment. Example

Administer something that's undesired. Spray water on a barking dog

variable-ratio schedule

After an unpredictable number: reinforcement after a random number of behaviours, as when playing slot machines or fly fishing

What do children who receive physical punishment tend to display?

Aggression

What can become conditioned stimuli for sexual arousal?

Anything associated with sexual pleasure

Who was Skinner, and how is operant behavior reinforced and shaped?

B. F. Skinner was a college English major and aspiring writer who later entered psychol- ogy graduate school. He became modern behaviorism's most influential and controver- sial figure. Expanding on Edward Thorndike's law of effect, Skinner and others found that the behavior of rats or pigeons placed in an operant chamber (Skinner box) can be shapedby using reinforcers to guide closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

Class demo... CS= US= CR= UR=

CS=Counting down, hand movement• US=Balloon Pop• CR= Tightening of muscles to avoid startle or flinching• UR=Startle response

What is the impact of prosocial modeling and of antisocial modeling?

Children tend to imitate what a model does and says, whether the behavior being mod- eled is prosocial (positive, constructive, and helpful) or antisocial. If a model's actions and words are inconsistent, children may imitate the hypocrisy they observe.

How do biological constraints affect classical and operant conditioning?

Classical conditioning principles, we now know, are constrained by biological predis- positions, so that learning some associations is easier than learning others. Learning is adaptive: Each species learns behaviors that aid its survival. Biological constraints also place limits on operant conditioning. Training that attempts to override biological con- straints will probably not endure because animals will revert to predisposed patterns.

What have been some applications of Pavlov's work to human health and well-being? How did Watson apply these principles to learned fears?

Classical conditioning techniques are used to improve human health and well-being in many areas, including behavioral therapy for some types of psychological disorders. The body's immune system may also respond to classical conditioning. Pavlov's work also provided a basis for Watson's idea that human emotions and behav- iors, though biologically influenced, are mainly a bundle of conditioned responses. Watson applied classical conditioning principles in his studies of "Little Albert" to dem- onstrate how specific fears might be conditioned.

With ______________ conditioning, we learn associations between events we do not control. With ______________ conditioning, we learn associations between our behavior and resulting events.

Classical; Operant

Relation between computers and Skinner...

Computers have helped realize skinner's goal of individually paced instruction with immediate feedback.

One example of a subtle learned association operating...

Give people a red pen (associated with error marking) rather than a black pen and, when correcting essays, they will spot more errors and give lower grades

Why did Skinner's ideas provoke controversy, and how might his operant conditioning principles be applied at school, in sports, at work, and at home?

Critics of Skinner's principles believed the approach dehumanized people by neglect- ing their personal freedom and seeking to control their actions. Skinner replied that people's actions are already controlled by external consequences, and that reinforce- ment is more humane than punishment as a means for controlling behavior. At school, teachers can use shaping techniques to guide students' behaviors, and they can use interactive software and websites to provide immediate feedback. In sports, coaches can build players' skills and self-confidence by rewarding small improve- ments. At work, managers can boost productivity and morale by rewarding well-defined and achievable behaviors. At home, parents can reward desired behaviors but not unde- sirable ones. We can shape our own behaviors by stating our goals, monitoring the frequency of desired behaviors, reinforcing desired behaviors, and gradually reducing rewards as behaviors become habitual.

What does research on taste aversion support?

Darwin's principle that natural selection favours traits that aid survival

Negative punishment. Example

End something thats desired . Take away a misbehaving teen's driving privatges

fixed-interval schedule

Every so often: reinforcement for behaviour after a fixed time, such as Tuesday discount price

What can destroy intrinsic motivation?

Excessive rewards

Mirror neurons

Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy.

Why are habits such as having something sweet with that cup of coffee so hard to break?

Habits form when we repeat behaviors in a given context and, as a result, learn associations— often without our awareness. For example, we may have eaten a sweet pastry with a cup of coffee often enough to associate the flavor of the coffee with the treat, so that the cup of coffee alone just doesn't seem right anymore!

How much time should elapse between presenting the NS and the US?

Half a second

What did Ivan Pavlov do?

He was a russian physiologist that conducted a 'conditioned reflex' experiment, which made dogs drool at the sound of a bell. (classical conditioning)

unconditioned stimulus (US)

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers an unconditioned response (UR).

In classical conditioning, what are the processes of acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination?

In classical conditioning, acquisition is associating an NS with the US so that the NS begins triggering the CR. Acquisition occurs most readily when the NS is presented just before (ideally, about a half-second before) a US, preparing the organism for the upcoming event. This finding supports the view that classical conditioning is biologi- cally adaptive. Through higher-order conditioning, a new NS can become a new CS. Extinction is diminished responding when the CS no longer signals an impending US. Spontaneous recovery is the appearance of a formerly extinguished response, fol- lowing a rest period. Generalization is the tendency to respond to stimuli that are simi- lar to a CS. Discrimination is the learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other irrelevant stimuli.

How do cognitive processes affect classical and operant conditioning?

In classical conditioning, animals may learn when to expect a US and may be aware of the link between stimuli and responses. In operant conditioning, cognitive map- ping and latent learning research demonstrate the importance of cognitive processes in learning. Other research shows that excessive rewards (driving extrinsic motivation) can undermine intrinsic motivation.

Acquisition

In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

unconditioned response (UR)

In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

What does the brains's response to observing others do?

It makes observing others contagious

What was behaviorism's view of learning?

Ivan Pavlov's work on classical conditioning laid the foundation for behaviorism, the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without ref- erence to mental processes. The behaviorists believed that the basic laws of learning are the same for all species, including humans.

Who was Pavlov, and what are the basic components of classical conditioning?

Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, created novel experiments on learning. His early twentieth-century research over the last three decades of his life demonstrated that classical conditioning is a basic form of learning. Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. In classical conditioning, an NS is a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning. A UR is an event that occurs naturally (such as salivation), in response to some stimulus. A US is something that naturally and automatically (without learning) triggers the unlearned response (as food in the mouth triggers salivation). A CS is a previously neutral stimulus (such as a tone) that, after association with a US (such as food) comes to trigger a CR. A CR is the learned response (salivating) to the originally neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus.

Jason's parents and older friends all smoke, but they advise him not to. Juan's parents and friends don't smoke, but they say nothing to deter him from doing so. Will Jason or Juan be more likely to start smoking?

Jason may be more likely to smoke, because observational learning studies suggest that children tend to do as others do and say what they say.

What is learning, and what are some basic forms of learning?

Learning is the process of acquiring through experience new information or behav- iors. In associative learning, we learn that certain events occur together. In classical conditioning, we learn to associate two or more stimuli (a stimulus is any event or situation that evokes a response). We associate stimuli that we do not control, and we respond automatically. This is called respondent behavior. In operant conditioning, we learn to associate a response and its consequences. These associations produce operant behaviors. Through cognitive learning, we acquire mental information that guides our behavior. For example, in observational learning, we learn new behaviors by observing events and watching others.

In an experiment, compared to those who were not exposed to the adult mode, those who did were? Why?

More likely to lash out at the doll. Observing the aggressive outburst lowered their inhibitions

Would conditioning happen when the NS follows the US

Not likely

Name one from of cognitive learning? What does it do?

Observational learning, it lets us learn from others' experiences

Why does Pavlov's work remain so important?

Pavlov taught us that significant psychological phenomena can be studied objectively, and that classical conditioning is a basic form of learning that applies to all species.

Who are we likely to learn from?

People we perceive as being similar to ourselves, as successful, or as admirable

Peddling to keep the TV on, and example of what?

Postive reinforcement

How does punishment differ from negative reinforcement, and how does punishment affect behavior?

Punishment administers an undesirable consequence (such as spanking) or withdraws something desirable (such as taking away a favorite toy) in an attempt to decrease the fre- quency of a behavior (a child's disobedience). Negative reinforcement (taking an aspirin) removes an aversive stimulus (a headache). This desired consequence (freedom from pain) increases the likelihood that the behavior (taking aspirin to end pain) will be repeated. Punishment can have undesirable side effects, such as suppressing rather than changing unwanted behaviors; teaching aggression; creating fear; encouraging discrim- ination (so that the undesirable behavior appears when the punisher is not present); and fostering depression and feelings of helplessness.

What do biological contrast predispose organisms to do?

To learn association that are naturally adaptive

How do positive and negative reinforcement differ, and what are the basic types of reinforcers?

Reinforcement is any consequence that strengthens behavior. Positive reinforcementadds a desirable stimulus to increase the frequency of a behavior. Negative reinforce- ment removes an aversive stimulus to increase the frequency of a behavior. Primary reinforcers (such as receiving food when hungry or having nausea end during an illness) are innately satisfying—no learning is required. Conditioned (or secondary) reinforcers (such as cash) are satisfying because we have learned to associate them with more basic rewards (such as the food or medicine we buy with them). Immediate rein- forcers (such as a purchased treat) offer immediate payback; delayed reinforcers (such as a weekly paycheck) require the ability to delay gratification.

Relation between sports and Skinner...

Reinforcing small successes and gradually increasing the challenge. Faster improvement skills

Salivating in response to a tone paired with food is a(n) ______________ behavior; press- ing a bar to obtain food is a(n) ______________ behavior.

Respondant; Operant

One way to change behavior is to reward natural behaviors in small steps, as the organism gets closer and closer to a desired behavior. This process is called:

Shaping

law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

Thorndike's law of effect was the basis for ______________ work on operant conditioning and behavior control.

Skinner's

What is criminal behaviour more influenced by?

Swift and sure punishers than by the threat of severe sentences

Telemarketers are reinforced by which schedule? People checking the oven to see if the cookies are done are on which schedule? Airline frequent-flyer programs that offer a free flight after every 25,000 miles of travel are using which reinforcement schedule?

Telemarketers are reinforced on a variable-ratio schedule (after a varying number of calls). Cookie checkers are reinforced on a fixed-interval schedule. Frequent-flyer programs use a fixed-ratio schedule.

What did the sponaneous recovery suggest to Pavlov?

That extinction was suppressing the CR rather than eliminating it

What do learning theorists, today, recognize?

That learning is the product of the interaction of biological, psychological, and social-cultrual influences

What does the operant chamber create a stage for?

That which rats and other animals act out reinforcement

In Watson and Rayner's experiments, "Little Albert" learned to fear a white rat after repeatedly experiencing a loud noise as the rat was presented. In this experiment, what was the US? The UR? The NS? The CS? The CR?

The US was the loud noise; the Ur was the fear response to the noise; the nS was the rat before it was paired with the noise; the CS was the rat after pairing; the Cr was fear of the rat.

If the aroma of a baking cake sets your mouth to watering, what is the US? The CS? The CR?

The cake (and its taste) are the US. The associated aroma is the CS. Salivation to the aroma is the Cr.

Behaviourism

The view that psychology 1) should be an objective science that 2) studies behaviour without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with 1) but not 2)

By age 12 months, what do infants do? 14 months?

They look where an adult is looking. Imitate acts modelled on TV.

When exposed to a hypocritem, what do Children do?

They tend to imitate the hypocrisy—by doing what the model did and saying what the model said

Taste-aversion research has shown that some animals develop aversions to certain tastes but not to sights or sounds. What evolutionary psychology finding does this support?

This finding supports Darwin's principle that natural selec- tion favors traits that aid survival.

Parents are most effective in getting their children to imitate them if their words and actions are consistent. they have outgoing personalities. one parent works and the other stays home to care for the children. they carefully explain why a behavior is acceptable in adults but not in children.

a

a restaurant is running a special deal. after you buy four meals at full price, your fifth meal will be free. This is an example of a schedule of reinforcement. a. fixed-ratiob. variable-ratioc. fixed-intervald. variable-interval

a

instrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

Cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. for example, after exploring a maze, rates act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

higher-order conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)

delayed reinforcer

a reinforcer that is delayed in time for a certain behavior

conditioned reinforcer. AKA?

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer

Operant conditions

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

Respondent behaviour

behaviour that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus (out-of-control)

Punishment

an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows

primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need (unlearned)

Shaping. Example

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behaviour (pay check)

Stimulus

any event or situation that evokes a response

Your dog is barking so loudly that it's making your ears ring. You clap your hands, the dog stops barking, your ears stop ringing, and you think to yourself, "i'll have to do that when he barks again." The end of the barking was for you a a. positive reinforcer.b. negative reinforcer.c. positive punishment.d. negative punishment.

b

after Watson and rayner classically conditioned Little albert to fear a white rat, the child later showed fear in response to a rabbit, a dog, and a sealskin coat. This illustrates a. extinction.b. generalization.c. spontaneous recovery.d. discrimination between two stimuli.

b

evidence that cognitive processes play an important role in learning comes in part from studies in which ratsa. spontaneously recover previously learned behavior.b. develop cognitive maps.c. exhibit respondent behavior.d. generalize responses.

b

in Pavlov's experiments, the tone started as a neutral stimulus, and then became a(n) ____________ stimulus.

conditioned

Dogs have been taught to salivate to a circle but not to a square. This process is an example of:

discrimination

fixed-ratio schedule

every so many; reinforcement after every nth behaviour, such as buy 10 coffee, get 1 free

In slasher movies, sexually arousing images of women are sometimes paired with violence against women. Based on classical conditioning principles, what might be an effect of this pairing?

if viewing an attractive nude or seminude woman (a US) elicits sexual arousal (a Ur), then pairing the US with a new stimulus (violence) could turn the violence into a conditioned stimulus (CS) that also becomes sexually arousing, a conditioned response (Cr).

Taste aversion example

if you become violently ill after eating oyster, you'd probably have a hard time eating them again. Their smell and taste would have become a CS for nausea. This learning occurs easily because our biology prepares us to learn taste aversions to toxic foods

neutral stimulus (NS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning (a tone)

conditioned stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response.

conditioned response (CR) Example

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned stimulus (CS)) The dog's salivation in response to the tone

operant chamber

in operant condi-tioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

Reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

rats that explored a maze without any reward were later able to run the maze as well as other rats that had received food rewards for running the maze. The rats that had learned without reinforcement demonstrated _________________ _______________ .

latent leraning

Observational learning

learning by observing others

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

Latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

Some scientists believe that the brain has ________________ neurons that enable empathy and imitation.

mirror

An experimenter sounds a tone just before delivering an air puff to your blinking eye. After several repetitions, you blink to the tone alone. What is the NS? The US? The UR? The CS? The CR?

nS = tone before conditioning; US = air puff; Ur = blink to air puff; CS = tone after conditioning; Cr = blink to tone.

reinforcing a desired response only some of the times it occurs is called _________________ reinforcement.

partial

example of positive reinforcement

pet a dog that comes when you call it; pay the person who paints your house

Discrimination

the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior

Difference between punishment and reinforcement?

punishment tells you what not to do; reinforcement tells you what to do

partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule. Example?

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement. Slot machines

Contiuous reinforcement. Downside?

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs. Extinction also occurs rapidly

Example of a negative reinforcement

take painkillers to end pain; fasten seatbelt to end loud beeping

garcia and Koelling's ___________-__________ showed that conditioning can occur even when the unconditioned stimulus (US) does not immediately follow the neutral stimulus (nS).

taste-aversion

cognitive learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

Generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

he partial reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after unpredictable time periods is a _______________- ______________ schedule.

variable-interval

according to Bandura, we learn by watching models because we experience ______________ reinforcement or _______________ punishment.

vicarious; vicarious

When are models most effective?

when their actions and words are consistent. (bc sometimes models say one thing, but do another)