PSYC 2140 exam 4

participant characteristics

aspects of the participant, such as age, sex, or personality traits, which are treated as if they were IVs

explain how instrumentation and automation can control experimenter expectancies

automated equipment and instruments to present instructions and record dara are frequently used to control for experimenter expectancies because they help minimize experimenter contact with the participants. By minimizing contact with the participants, the experimenter is less likely to influence the outcome of the experiment

___________ is a control technique that achieves group equality by distributing extraneous variables equally to all groups.

balancing

What is meant by synergistic effects?

dramatic consequences that occur when you combine two or more substances, conditions, or organisms. The effects are greater (or less) than what is individually possible.

Variability in DV scores due to factors other than the IV is known as _______ variability.

error

Researchers are _________ when they view other cultures as an extension of their own culture.

ethnocentric

why is the goal of cross cultural research incompatible with ethnocentrism

ethnocentrism views other cultures as an extension of that culture. Hence, according to an ethnocentric view, there is no need for cross-cultural research

What is the difference between an etic and emic?

etic: a finding that is the same in different cultures emic: a culture-specific finding

Be sure you can write the results section

ex: Results from the mixed factorial ANOVA showed no effect of the customer sex, F(1, 10)= 2.42, p=.15. The clothing effect was significant, F(1, 10)= 25.21, p=.001. This main effect however, was qualified by a significant customer-sex-by-clothing interaction, F(1, 10)= 14.06, p=.004. This interaction shows that salesclerks who waited on sloppily dressed male customers were slower in responding than clerks who waited on casually dressed men or women dressed in either manner.

A single-blind insures that the ___________________________ is unaware of the nature of the treatment (or IV) condition.

experimenter

rosenthal effects

experimenter expectancies

The double-blind control technique controls:

experimenter expectancies and participant effects.

If we find a significant interaction in a 2 x 2 design, we should

ignore the main effects of factor A and factor B.

In a factorial design, the combined effect of the IVs on the DV is called a _________ effect.

interaction

When the effects of one IV in a factorial design depend on the level of another IV in that same design, we have a(n)

interaction

When the effects of one independent variable depend on the particular level of another independent variable, you have a(n)

interaction

If you graph the results of a 2 by 2 factorial design and you notice that the lines in the graph are NOT parallel, but crossed, it is likely that you are looking at a(n)

interaction effect

If you have a factorial design and run statistical analysis on it and you find significant main effects and a significant interaction, what should you primarily focus on?

interaction is the whole reason we use factorial design . We are interested in the synergistic (combined effect) of our two (or more) IVs

What ratio is an ANOVA based on?

interaction variability/error variability

Lyndal is conducting a study in which both her experimental and control participants must sit in a darkened room looking at a computer monitor and responding on a key board in sessions that sometimes last up to 6 hours. Lyndal may have a problem with which kind of threat to internal validity?

interaction with selection

confounding

a situation in which the results of an experiment can be attributed to either the operation of an IV or an extraneous variable

non experimental designs: ex post facto study

a study in which the variables to be studied are selected after they have occurred

source table

a table containing the results of ANOVA. Source refers to the source of different types of variation

reactive arrangements

a threat to external validity caused by an experimental situation that alters participants' behavior, regardless of the IV involved

interaction of selection and treatment

a threat to external validity that can occur when a treatment effect is found only for a specific sample of participants

interaction of testing and treatment

a threat to external validity that occurs when a pretest sensitizes participants to the treatment yet to come

multiple treatment interference

a threat to external validity that occurs when a set of findings results only when participants experience multiple treatments in the same experiment

selection

a threat to internal validity that can occur if participants are chosen in such a way that the groups are not equal before the experiment; the researcher cannot then be certain that the IV caused any difference observed after the experiment

diffusion or imitation of treatment

a threat to internal validity that can occur if participants in one treatment group become familiar with the treatment of another group and copy that treatment

instrumentation

a threat to internal validity that occurs if the equipment or human measuring the DV changes the measuring criterion over time

testing

a threat to internal validity the occurs because measuring the DV causes a change in the DV

history

a threat to internal validity; refers to events that occur between the DV measurements in a repeated measurements design

mortality

a threat to interval validity that can occur if experimental participants from different groups drop out of the experiment at different rates

statistical regression

a threat to interval validity that occurs when low scorers improve or high scorers fall on a second administration of a test solely as a result of statistically reasons

maturation

a threat to validity; refers to changes in participants that occur overtime during an experiment, could include actual physical maturation or tiredness, boredom, hunger, and so on

internal validity

a type of evaluation of your experiment; it asks whether your IV is the only possible explanation of the results shown for your DV

type 1 error

accepting the experimental hypothesis when the null hypothesis is true

why is the notion of external validity for a single experiment virtually impossible to achieve

because of the large number of threats to external validity. Usually an experiment can answer only one such threat at a time.

emic

a culture specific finding

elimination

complete removal of the extraneous variable

Why do need to be sensitive to cultural differences?

-Ethnocentricity -If other cultures are viewed as an extension of one's own, the result may be research findings that cannot be generalized beyond one's own culture.

within subjects one way ANOVA

-Focus on the IV df in your source table -Focus on with within cells df -A one way within subject ANOVA revealed that there were significant differences in perceptions of smokers across the three age groups F(2,18) = 6.76, p <.01. A Tukey's test (p<.05) revealed that participants' perceptions became more positive with age. Specifically, children had significantly higher perceptions of smokers at age 12 (M= 11.80, SD=5.94) than when they were 8 (M =9.70, SD = 5.89). However, children's perceptions did not differ from age 8 to 10 (M =10.40 , SD =5.58 ) years of age or age 10 to 12.

Be able to interpret and understand a design- example- what does a 2 X 3 X 2 mean?

-Has three IVS; one has 2 levels, another has 3 and another has two levels- if it's a between subject design it will have 12 groups. You have potential for 3 main effects- one for each IV, 3 two way interactions and 1 3 way interaction

be able to differentiate between the independent and dependent variables

-IV: a stimulus or aspect of the environment that the experimenter directly manipulates to determine its influence on behavior -DV: a response or behavior that the experimenter measures. Changes in the DV should be caused by manipulation of the IV.

What is an order effect? What about a carryover effect? How are they similar? What makes them different?

-Order effect: When order that participants receive the IV changes their behavior/reaction to IV (so the order or sequence changes how people respond to the IV levels) -Carryover effect: a form of sequence effect in which systematic changes in performance occur as a result of completing one sequence of conditions rather than a different sequence -They are the same because they will both have negative impacts on your results. It happens when you have repeated measures (within groups design)

-why is counterbalancing used?

-a procedure for controlling order effects by presenting different treatment sequences -within-subject counterbalancing: presentation of different treatment sequences to the same participant -within-group counterbalancing: presentation of different treatment sequences to different participants

Why are participant characteristics not considered "True IVs"?

-aspects of the participant, such as age, sex, or personality traits, which are treated as if they were IVs -you cannot manipulate these characteristics

be able to understand correlation- what does r mean? What is the difference between a positive or negative relationship?

-correlation: determination of the relation between two variables -positive correlation: as scores on one variable increase, scores on the second variable also increase -negative correlation: as scores on one variable increase, scores on the second variable decrease -r: the pearson product-moment correlation coefficient. The most common measure of correlation. Used to calculate when both the X variable and the Y variable are interval or ratio scale measurements and the data appear to be linear.

be able to produce a directional or nondirectional hypothesis (or differentiate between them)

-directional: prediction of the specific outcome of an experiment -nondirectional: a specific prediction concerning the outcome of an experiment is not made

Why do we have to be conscious of cultural ethnocentricity when conducting research?

-emic: culturally specific -etic: universal

be able to describe the differences between nonexperimental and experimental designs

-experimental design: the general plan for selecting participants, assigning participants to experimental conditions, controlling extraneous variables, and gathering data -non-experimental design: Non-experimental research is the label given to a study when a researcher cannot control, manipulate or alter the predictor variable or subjects, but instead, relies on interpretation, observation or interactions to come to a conclusion.

How can we increase external validity? What role does replication and replication with extension play?

-external validity is a type of evaluation of an experiment; do the results apply to populations and situations that are different from those of the experiment? -apply generalization: applying the results to a different situation or population -replication: an additional scientific study that is conducted in exactly the same manner as the original research project -replication with extension: an experiment that seeks to confirm a previous finding but does so in a different setting or with different participants or under different conditions

what is the difference between an extraneous variable vs. a nuisance variable?

-extraneous variable: undesired variables that may operate to influence the DV and thus invalidate an experiment -nuisance variable: unwanted variables that can cause the variability of scores within groups to increase

Why do we choose to use a factorial design over others?

-factorial designs provide considerable flexibility in devising an experiment to answer your questions -you should consider issues of control in your design choice because experimental design is primarily concerned with the notion of control -due to the wide degree of experimental choices possible with factorial designs, considerations of a practical nature are also important

What is meant by generalization? know differences between different kinds-population, environmental, temporal

-generalization: applying the results from an experiment to a different situation or population -population generalization: applying the results from an experiment to a group of participants that is different and more encompassing than those used in the original experiment -environmental generalization: applying the results from an experiment to a situation or environment that differs from that of the original experiment -temporal generalization: applying the results from an experiment to a time that is different from the time when the original experiment was conducted

What is the good participant effect? Response biases?

-good participant effect: the tendency of participants to behave as they perceive the experimenter wants them to have -yea-sayers: participants who tend to answer yes to all questions -nay-sayers: participants who tend to answer no to all questions -response set: the result when an experimental context or testing situation influences the participants responses

Threats to external validity: interaction of testing and treatment, interaction of selection and treatment, reactive arrangements, multiple treatment interference

-interaction of testing and treatment: occurs when a pretest sensitizes participants to the treatment yet to come -reactive arrangements: caused by an experimental situation that alters participants behavior, regardless of the IV involved -interaction of selection and treatment: can occur when a treatment effect is found only for a specific sample of participants -multiple Treatment interference: occurs when a set of findings result only when participants experience multiple treatments in the same experiment

What is the difference between internal and external validity (know their definitions)? Which one is more important and why?

-internal validity: a type of evaluation of your experiment; it asks whether your IV is the only possible explanation of the results shown for your DV -external validity: a type of evaluation of an experiment; do the results apply to populations and situations that are different from those of the experiment? internal validity is more important because without it your experiment is meaningless

-what is matching and when would it be used?

-matched pairs: research participants in a two-group design who are measured and equated on some variable before the experiment -matching variable: a potential extraneous variable on which we measure our research participants and from which we form sets of participants who are equal on the variable

what is an "operational definition"? Why is it so important to establish them from the outset of your research?

-operational definition: defining the IV, DV, and extraneous variables in terms of the operations needed to produce them

What is an independent variable? Know the different types!!!- physiological, experience, stimulus etc....

-physiological IV: a physiological state of the participant manipulated by the experimenter -experience IV: manipulation of the amount or type of training or learning -stimulus or environmental IV: an aspect of the environment manipulated by the experimenter

what types of IVs are there?

-physiological IV: a physiological state of the participant manipulated by the experimenter -experience IV: manipulation of the amount or type of training or learning -stimulus or environmental IV: an aspect of the environment manipulated by the experimenter

what is a random sample (be sure you know different types of samples- strengths and weaknesses of each)?

-random sample: a sample in which every member of the population has an equal likelihood of being included -random sampling with replacement: once chosen, a score, event, or participant can be returned to the population to be selected again -random sampling without replacement: once chosen, a score, event, or participant cannot be returned to the population to be selected again -stratified random sampling: random samples are drawn from specific subpopulations or strata of the general population

what control methods do experimenters have at their disposal to control extraneous and nuisance variables (for example: randomization, constancy, elimination, balancing)

-randomization: a control technique that ensures that each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any group in an experiment -elimination: a control technique whereby extraneous variables are completely removed from an experiment -constancy: a control technique by which an extraneous variables is reached to a single value that is experienced by all participants -balancing: a control procedure that achieves group equality by distributing extraneous variables equally to all groups

What is meant by a main effect?

-refers to the sole effect of one IV in a factorial design

How do we interpret main effects when we have a significant interaction?

-refers to the sole effect of one IV in a factorial design -we find significant interactions when the effects of one IV change as the levels of the other IV changes

what is "reliability" and "validity"?

-reliability: extent to which a test to inventory is consistent in its evaluation of the same individuals -validity: the extent to which a test or inventory measures what it is supposed to measure

One way independent groups design ANOVA

-report the within and between groups df (ignore total) -Type of ANOVA (one way between subjects or one way within subjects ANOVA); F with degrees of freedom, p value. Also report post hoc analysis results and p values with means and SD. -A one way between subject ANOVA showed that level of processing had a significant effect on word recall F(1,13) = 4.67, p<.05. A Tukey's post hoc comparison test (p<.05) showed that the three processing groups were all significantly different from each other. Specifically, the deepest processing was significantly higher (M = 45, SD = 5.67) than the intermediate (M = 34, SD = 3.67) and low processing groups (M = 24, SD = 8.67). Furthermore, the intermediate group had higher recall than the low processing group.

know the strengths and weaknesses of different nonexperimental designs

-research conducted in a natural setting that seeks to understand a complex human behavior by developing a complete narrative description of that behavior

how should one go about selecting an IV and DV? What makes them good or bad?

-selecting the DV depends on the experimental hypothesis. The "if, then" form means the then is usually going to be the DV.

Why and when are the following used: single blind vs. double blind experiment? What do each of them control for? how do participants' expectations play into doing research? What is meant by demand characteristics? How can they be controlled?

-single-blind experiment: an experiment in which the experimenter is unaware of the treatment the participants are receiving -double blind experiment: an experiment in which both the experimenter and the participants are unaware of which treatment the participants are receiving -demand characteristics: features of the experiment that inadvertently lead participants to respond in a particular manner

When are post-hoc analyses applied?

-statistical comparisons made between group means after finding a significant f ratio -if you find overall significance on a one way ANOVA

what does "reactance" or reactive measures mean (recall Hawthorne effect)? How can it be controlled?

-the finding that participants respond differently when they know they are being observed

What makes factorial designs different than other designs we have talked about?

-the number of questions you can ask during an experiment increases greatly -more IVs: means greater control but more complex issues

What is meant by apparatus? How do researchers decide on how they will present their IV? Record their DV? Best practices?

-their apparatus or equipment is based on the nature of their IV and the things they are testing for -the experimenter should not rely too heavily on expensive or fancy equipment. If a simple stopwatch produces accurate results then you should use that over an elaborate computer set up. -if the experimenter relies too much on the equipment then the choice of the research problems may start to be dictated by the equipment

How can researchers maintain as much objectivity as possible?

-using a single blind or double blind experiment -proper training and using objective, reliable, and valid measures

-be able to distinguish a within subject vs. a between subject design

-within subject: refers to a contrast between groups of participants who were assigned to groups through matched pairs, natural pairs, or repeated measures -between subject:refers to a contrast between groups of participants who were randomly assigned to groups

a researcher has conducted a 2x3 experiment. How many interactions will be calculated?

1

Researchers assume random assignment to groups is effective if all groups in the experiment have about __________ participants per group

10

A 2 by 3 by 4 independent groups factorial design has ___________ different IV combinations

24

A factorial experiment had 9 groups. If the 1st factor had 3 levels, how many levels does 2 have?

3 levels because 3 x 3 = 9

A study involving three IVs would have how many possible interactions?

4

A 2 x 3 design would require ____ treatment conditions.

6

non experimental designs: focus group

7-10 participants with shared experiences or similar characteristics who meet for 1-1 1/2 hours to discuss a topic of common interest

If you have a between subject design with 2x2x2 design, how many groups will you have?

8 groups (multiply out 2 x 2 x 2)

A factorial design involving two IVs, each having three levels (3 by 3 factorial design) would have how many possible combinations of conditions?

9

Why are placebos so important? What is a placebo effect?

A remarkable phenomenon in which a placebo -- a fake treatment, an inactive substance like sugar, distilled water, or saline solution -- can sometimes improve a patient's condition simply because the person has the expectation that it will be helpful.

A researcher observes 10 Ss/group in a 2x2 factorial design. There were 40 Ss. What was the design?

Between Subject factorial design

Which of the following is true regarding experimenter characteristics?

Both physiological and psychological characteristics of the experimenter can have an effect on participants.

reactive measures

DV ,measurements that actually change the DV being measured

nonreactive measures

DV measurements that do not influence the DV being measured

Define the Rosenthal effect. Give an example.

Experimenter expectations effect the performance of the groups -if the experimenter treats one group as if they're better than another, the one that is better treated is going to out-perform the later group

you would like to assess the effects of trauma in peoples lives, but have ethical problems with causing traumatic events to occur to people. You have a problem with

IV presentation

Why is counterbalancing used? Which type of design should it be used with when possible?

In repeated measures- to make sure that participants are in more then one level of the IV

under what conditions should you record more than one DV?

if the additional DVs add meaningful info

A researcher has 25 Ss in each group in a 2x2 design. If 50 Ss total were included, what was the design?

Mixed factorial design

Why do we use placebos?

Placebos are most commonly used in blinded trials, where subjects do not know whether they are receiving real or placebo treatment. The purpose of the placebo group is to account for the placebo effect, that is, effects from treatment that do not depend on the treatment itself.

Which of the following is true regarding physiological and psychological experimenter effects, according to the text?

Researchers usually pay little attention to these factors because they are difficult to control.

Which of the following is a technique used by researchers to control yea-saying?

Rewrite items so that sometimes a negative response represents agreement, and sometimes a negative response represents disagreement.

Culture may affect which of the following elements of the research process?

Selection of participants Choice of the research problem Characteristics of the experimental hypotheses

what is meant by experimental control?

The control group is composed of participants who do not receive the experimental treatment. When conducting an experiment, these people are randomly selected to be in this group.

What is meant by experimenter expectation effects? How can they be controlled if at all?

The experimenter has an idea of how the results are going to turn out or how they want the results to turn out and this could influence some of his words or behaviors when giving the experiment -could be controlled by switching experimenter, single or double blind experiments

Suppose you were interested in conducting an experiment with two independent variables. Why should you use a factorial design instead of two separate experiments?

The factorial design allows you to test for interactions.

one IV with two levels t-test

You need to report the statistical test used, t value, df, p and means and standard deviations.(You can also report the effect size which is calculated with Cohen's d) A two-tailed independent groups t-test revealed a significant effect of the drug Happimee t(12) = 4.78, p<.05 with participants that received the drug showing significantly lower depression scores (M=32, SD=3.4) than those that took the placebo (M=68, SD=7.4). The effect was large with a Cohen's d of 1.01.

practice effect

a beneficial effect on a DV measurement caused by previous experience with the DV

cross cultural psychology

a branch of psychology whose goal is to determine the universality of research results

balancing

a control procedure that achieves group equality by distributing extraneous variables equally to all groups

constancy

a control technique by which an extraneous variable is reduced to a single value that is experienced by all participants

controlling "extraneous variables": constancy

a control technique by which an extraneous variable is reduced to a single value that is experienced by all participants

controlling "extraneous variables": balancing

a control technique that achieves group equality by distributing extraneous variables equally to all groups

controlling "extraneous variables": randomization

a control technique that ensures each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any group in an experiment

randomization

a control technique that ensures that each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any group in an experiment

controlling "extraneous variables": elimination

a control technique whereby extraneous variables are completely removed from an experiment

elimination

a control technique whereby extraneous variables are completely removed from an experiment

the tendency of a culture to behave in a certain way best describes

a cultural response set

What is meant by mixed designs?

a factorial design that has a mixture of independent groups for one IV and correlated groups for another IV. In larger factorial designs at least one IV has independent groups and at least one has correlated groups.

mixed assignment

a factorial design that has mixture of independent groups for one IV and correlated groups for another IV. In larger factorial designs at least one IV has independent groups and at least one has correlated groups

three way design

a factorial design with 3 IVs

etic

a finding that is the same in different cultures

physiological IV

a physiological state of the participant manipulated by the experimenter

controlling "extraneous variables": counterbalancing

a procedure for controlling order effects by presenting different treatment sequences

counterbalancing

a procedure for controlling order effects by presenting different treatment sequences

non experimental designs: grounded theory

a qualitative research approach that attempts to develop theories of understanding based on data from the real world

changing a behavior simply by measuring it refers to

a reactive measure

ex post facto research

a research approach in which the experimenter cannot directly manipulate the IV but can only classify, categorize, or measure the IV because it is predetermined in the participants

what does "ex post facto" research mean?

a research approach in which the experimenter cannot directly manipulate the IV but can only classify, categorize, or measure the IV because it is predetermined in the participants

What is a convenience sample? Can we generalize from them?

a researchers sampling of participants based on ease of locating the participants; often it does not involve true random selection

convenience sampling

a researchers sampling of participants based on ease of locating the participants; often it does not involve true random selection

programmatic research

a series of research experiments concerning a related topic or question

participant variable

age

complete counterbalancing

all possible treatment sequences are presented

controlling "extraneous variables": complete counterbalancing

all possible treatment sequences are presented

experience IV

amount of previous learning

stimulus or environmental IV

an aspect of the environment manipulated by the experimenter

multiple treatment interference

an effect occurs only if participants experience all the experiments treatment conditions

a finding linked to a specific culture best describes

an emic

precedent

an established pattern

variable

an event or behavior that can assume two or more values

what is a variable?

an event or behavior that can assume two or more values

double blind experiment

an experiment in which both the experimenter and the participants are unaware of which treatment the participants are receiving

single blind experiment

an experiment in which the experimenter or participants is unaware of the treatment they participants are receiving

factorial design

an experimental design with more than one IV

Extraneous variables influence variability ________________________ whereas nuisance variables influence variability _______________________.

between groups; within groups

A factorial design in which both IVs involve random assignment is referred to as a __________ factorial design.

between-subjects

A mixed factorial design involves

both independent and correlated groups in the design.

extraneous variable

can damage the experiment and its results

There are several ways to control for experimenter expectancies, including

careful preparation of the instructions. automation. instrumentation.

Randi is conducting a study using a psychotropic drug as her IV and physical agility in hamsters as her DV. She is using three levels of the drug. Her study lasts for 6 weeks with drug injections occurring every other day. Early in her study, she notes that when she injects hamsters with the largest dosage of the drug, her hamsters' agility is decreased more for the next several sessions than when she injects hamsters with either of the other two levels of the drug. Using the highest level of the drug is producing a ____________________ effect

carryover

Demand characteristics are features of the experimental situation that:

cause participants to respond in a particular way.

physiological IV

change in normal biological state

DV

changes as a function of changes in IV

Ways to control for internal validity threats?

check for history, maturation, regression to the mean (statistical regression), selection, testing, diffusion of treatment, instrumentation, placebo effect

Each is an example of a subject variable except... A. Age B. Ethnicity C. Gender D. Class Size

class size

If an experiment is plagued by the researcher being unable to determine that the results of her study were due to the IV or some other variable, then the experiment is said to be:

confounded

Experimenter expectancies are best categorized as

confounding variables.

suppose a friend told you about her 2x4x3 experimental design

consists of 3 IVs, one has two levels and one has four levels, and one has three levels

balancing is a logical extension of

constancy

double-blind experiment

control for demand characteristics and experimenter expectancies

single-blind experiments

control for experimenter expectancies

Which control technique is represented in the following example? Maura is running a study in which she will expose a group of rats to three different levels of a drug—Group A receives dose levels 1, 2 and 3 in that order. Group B receives dose levels 3, 1, and 2 in that order, and Group C receives dose levels 2, 3, and 1 in that order.

counterbalancing

Which of the following control techniques is most applicable to studies in which the participants are in all the conditions of the experiment?

counterbalancing

what is cross cultural psychology? why is it of particular relevance to this section of the chapter?

cross cultural psychology involves testing psychological principles in different cultures to determine the generality of those principles. It irrelevant to this chapter because it deals with external validity.

demand characteristics refer to

cues that tell the participants how to act

in what ways can culture affect the conduct of psychological research

culture can influence the choice of the research problem, the nature of the experimental hypothesis, selection of the IVs, selection of the DVs, selection of participants, sampling procedures, and the type of questionnaire that is used

generally speaking, as internal validity increases, external validity

decreases

operational definition

defining the independent, dependent, and extraneous variables in terms of the operations needed to produce them

your research involves determining the effects of persuasion on the strength of attitudes. You are using a ___ measurement of the DV

degree

reactive arrangements

demand characteristics provide cues to the participants about how they should respond

Try to describe demand characteristics. Provide an example.

demand characteristics refers to an experimental artifact where participants form an interpretation of the experiment's purpose and unconsciously change their behavior to fit that interpretation

Within groups design

dependent assignment; repeated measures; correlated; can also be matched sets, natural sets too

the goal of cross cultural psychology is best described as

determine whether psychological findings are universal

A "blabbermouth" would be an accurate description of a participant who engages in which of the following types of threats to internal validity?

diffusion of treatment

An experiment in which both the experimenter and the participants are unaware of which treatment the participants are receiving is known as a ___________ experiment.

double-blind

what is external validity? why is it important to psychology?

external validity is the ability to take your experimental findings and apply them beyond the experimental participants to the larger population. It is important to psychology so that we can develop general findings that apply to larger groups of organisms.

Any variable that has an unintended influence on a study by impacting the increasing or decreasing differences between the experimental and control groups is called a(n) ____________ variable.

extraneous

balancing

extraneous variable is distributed equally to all groups

constancy

extraneous variable is reduced to a single value

Another common name for an IV in studies involving more than one IV is

factor

An experimental design with more than one IV is referred to as a(n) ________ design.

factorial

True or False: Random assignment can only be used with within subject designs.

false

demand characteristics

features of the experiment that inadvertently lead participants to respond in a particular manner

totally within groups design

fraternity members matched for family income measured twice

mixed factorial design

fraternity members versus nonmembers measured twice

totally between groups design

fraternity members versus nonmembers; men versus women

correlated groups

groups of participants formed by matching, natural pairs, or repeated measures

independent groups

groups of participants formed by random assignment

you want to compare the formal education of college students and senior citizens. You select a group of each type of participant and give each a written test of math, social studies, and grammatical information. What threat to internal validity appears likely this situation. Why?

in this experiment the internal validity threat of selection is likely. Because the selected participants are senior citizens, it is possible that they will have less formal education then college students today. Obtaining a college education was not as common for todays senior citizens when they were young as it is for todays youth.

The power of a statistical test can be increased by

increasing the number of participants in the study.

A completely randomized factorial design is also known as a(n) ____________ design.

independent or between-subjects

If you can be absolutely certain that changes in a DV were due to the IV, then your experiment is very likely to be

internally valid

non experimental designs: artifact analysis

involves the examination and analysis of extant artifacts, such as text-based materials

an experiment in which the researcher doesn't know which treatment the participants are receiving

is a blind experiment

why is it important to evaluate your experiment for internal validity

it is important to evaluate your experiment for internal validity because you cannot place any confidence in your results if your experiment does not have internal validity. Cause and effect statement cannot be made without this

culture

lasting values, attitudes, and behaviors that are shared by a group and transmitted to subsequent generations

In a 3 x 4 design, the "4" refers to the number of

levels in the second independent variable.

DVs may be measureable in terms of their:

magnitude, latency, duration

In a factorial design, the solitary effect of one of the IVs is called a(n) ____________ effect.

main

A source of variation associated with mean differences across the levels of a single factor is...

main effect

stimulus IV

manipulation of environment

experience IV

manipulation of the amount or type of training to learning

mortality

many participants find one treatment condition very boring and quit

suppose you wish to test children from two different racial groups. You would be dealing with a ___IV

measured

valid

measuring what is supposed to be measured

randomization

most widely used control procedure

What is an interaction?

the joint, simultaneous effect on the DV of more than one IV

If you conduct an experiment with one IV that has four levels, you have used a(n) ___________ design, and if you conduct an experiment with two IVs that each have two levels, you have used a(n) _____________ design.

multiple-groups; factorial

what can n! be used for? calculate the value of 4!

n! refers to factoring or breaking a number into its component parts and then multiplying these component parts. n! can be used to determine the number of sequences required for complete counterbalancing. 4!= 4 x 3 x 2 x 1= 24

which of the following is an example of response bias

nay saying

variables that result in greater within-group variability in the data are called

nuisance variables

explain the reaction between precedent and the type of participant used in a research project

once a precedent or established pattern for using a particular type of research participant is begun, it is likely that that type of participant will be used in experiments in the research area in question

What is a mixed design

one IV is between/independent groups or between subjects design and another is within/correlated/repeated measures subjects

A researcher conducts a 3x7 experiment. How many interactions will be possible?

one interaction

interaction

the joint, simultaneous effect on the DV of more than one IV

incomplete counterbalancing

only a portion of all possible sequences are presented

controlling "extraneous variables": incomplete counterbalancing

only a portion of all treatment sequences are presented

testing-treatment interaction

only participants who are pretested demonstrate an experimental effect

Soleus is conducting an experiment in which he is studying the relationship of time of day to road rage. He's simply looking at each hour of the day and then counting the corresponding number of reported cases of road rage that took place in that time frame. Rather than counting any accident as an incident of road rage, he is counting only acts of aggressive driving and acts of verbal or physical aggression of one driver toward another driver. Soleus' conception of "road rage" is an attempt to _______________ the term.

operationally define

What does ethnocentric mean?

other cultures are viewed an extension of ones own culture

ethnocentric

other cultures are viewed as an extension of ones own culture

Which of the following types of variables is often treated as an IV, but really is not an IV?

participant

nay sayers

participants who tend to answer no to all questions

yea sayers

participants who tend to answer yes to all questions

one of the best guidelines for the number of participants to be used in a successful research project is

past research

age, sex, race

physiological experimenter effects

distinguish among population, environmental, and temporal generalization

population generalization involves applying results from participants to the larger group. Environmental generalization involves applying results to different settings from those in the original experiment. Temporal generalization involves applying experimental results to different times from those in the original experiment

within group counterbalancing

presentation fo different treatment sequences to different participants

within subject counterbalancing

presentation fo different treatment sequences to the same participants

controlling "extraneous variables": within group counterbalancing

presentation of different treatment sequences to different participants

controlling "extraneous variables": within subject counterbalancing

presentation of different treatment sequences to the same participant

reliable

producing consistent measurements

hostility or anxiety

psychological experimenter effects

Derek conducts a study in which half of the participants read a job application from a male candidate, and the other half read the same job application from a female candidate. He wants to make sure that each participant has an equal chance of reading the male job application as the female job application, so he uses the control technique known as

randomization

The control technique that essentially insures that any participant selected for a study has an equal chance of being assigned to either the experimental group or the control group is called:

randomization

the most widely used control technique is

randomization

between groups design

randomly assigned groups; independent groups

Sometimes the artificiality of the experimental situation poses a threat to external validity. This threat is called ________________________.

reactive arrangements

_________________________ is a threat to internal validity that may occur simply as a result of measuring the DV.

reactive measures

What does it mean if something is marginally significant?

refers to statistical results with a probability of chance between 5% and 10%; in other words, almost significant, but not quite.

main effect

refers to the sole effect of one IV in a factorial design

non experimental designs: ethnographic inquiry

research in which the goal is to learn about a culture or some aspect of a culture from the perspective of the members of that culture

non experimental designs: participant observation

research in which the researcher becomes part of the group being studied

non experimental designs: narrative study

researchers actively gather and interpret stories that individuals in their target group use to describe their lives

Another name for experimenter expectations is the ______________ effect.

rosenthal

non experimental design: naturalistic observation

seeking answers to research questions by observing behavior in the real world

If you are using a laptop computer to measure the responses of your participants in a research study and it suddenly stops accurately measuring those responses, then you have a problem with

selection

comparing intact groups is likely to cause a problem because of

selection

Morris is conducting a study to determine the average height of Auburn University women. He decides to use a convenience sample—members of the women's basketball team. He discovers that their average height is 6' 0". He thus concludes that the average height of AU women is 6 feet. He commits two error here—what are they? (choose two)

selection, poor generalization

A research participant is repeatedly exposed to the presentation of four different stimuli. Each presentation scrambles the order of the four stimuli, so that sometimes, for example, the order is ABCD, sometimes DCAB, and sometimes DCBA However, the participant only makes a response when presented with the 3rd stimulus, regardless of whether it is C, A, or B. In this study, there appears to be a ____________ effect.

sequence

Why are treating our groups the same so important?

so we don't alter their behavior and therefore potentially alter their response to the experiment

How does social desirability come into play?

social desirability bias is a type of response bias that is the tendency of survey respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others.

post hoc comparisons

statistical comparisons made between group means after finding a significant f ratio

IVs

stimuli or aspects of the environment that are directly manipulated by the experimenter to determine their influences on behavior

diffusion of treatments

students in your control groups talk to students in the experimental group and imitate their treatment

non experimental designs: case studies

studies involving the intensive observation of a single participant over an extended period of time

non experimental designs: symbolic interaction

study of common symbols that give meaning to human interaction within a social group context

An advantage of using factorial designs over two-group and One-Way ANOVA designs is that factorial designs allow the researcher to

study the interaction of the IVs.

________ effects occur when the effects of combining two or more conditions are greater than what is individually possible.

synergistic

factors

synonymous with IVs

A practice effect falls under the category of which of the following types of threats to internal validity?

testing

group homogeneity is best associated with

testing smaller numbers of participants

principle of parsimony

the belief that explanations of phenomena and events should remain simple until the simple explanations are no longer valid

non experimental designs: historiography

the collection and analysis of information and data in order to reconstruct past events

you have conducted a 2x2 experiment; what info will you obtain from the analysis?

the effects of IV A, the effects of IV B, the effects of AxB

carryover effect

the effects of one treatment persist or carry over and influence responses to the next treatment

why are carry over effects so harmful? How are they controlled?

the effects of one treatment persist or carry over and influence responses to the next treatment

describe the concern the experimenter must be aware of when using automated equipment to present the IV or the DV

the experimenter must be careful not to become a slave to elaborate pieces of equipment. If this situation occurs, then it is likely that the equipment may begin dictating the type of research that is conducted and/or type of DV that is recorded

explain how the experimenter can be extraneous variable

the experiments physiological characteristics, psychological characteristics, and personal expectancies for the outcome of the experiment can operate as extraneous variables and influence the responses of the participants

know the strengths and weaknesses of experimental designs

the general plan for selecting participants, assigning participants to experimental conditions, controlling extraneous variables, and gathering data

what is incomplete counterbalancing?

the incomplete counterbalancing procedure refers to the use of some, but not all, of the possible sequences of treatment administration

sequence of order effects

the position of a treatment in a series determines, in part, the participants response

what is an order effect?

the position of a treatment in a series determines, in part, the participants' response

The power of a statistical test is

the probability of finding a statistically significant effect.

power

the probability that a statistical test will be significant

response set

the result when an experimental contact or testing situation influences the participants responses

What is the Rosenthal effect? How can it be controlled?

the result when an experimenters preconceived idea of appropriate responding influences the treatment of participants and their behavior

rosenthal effect

the result when an experimenters preconceived idea of appropriate responding influences the treatment of participants and their behavior

comparative psychology

the study of behavior in different species, including humans

cultural response set

the tendency of a particular culture to respond in a certain manner

good participant effect

the tendency of participants to behave as they perceive the experimenter wants them to behave

how is the two group design related to the factorial design

the two group design is related to the factorial design because it forms the underlying basis of a factorial design. For example, a 2x2 factorial design is simply two two-group designs combined

In what ways can the experimenter's characteristics have an impact on their data collection?

their expectations for how the results are going to turn out can alter how they act towards the participants which can then effect the participants behavior

What role does experimenter expectancies play in data collection?

their expectations for how the results are going to turn out can alter how they act towards the participants which can then effect the participants behavior

In what ways can the experimenter introduce bias into their experiment?

their expectations for how the results are going to turn out can alter how they act towards the participants which can then effect the participants behavior -they can favor one group of participants over another

why is there a practical limit to the number of IVs you could use in an experiment

there is a practical limit to the number of IVs you can use in an experiment so that you will be able to interpret the results easily. Interactions involving many variables can be quite difficult to understand

interactions with selection

threats to internal validity that can occur if there are systematic differences between or among selected treatment groups based on maturation, history, or instrumentation

What is the purpose of cross cultural research?

to determine the universality of research results

describe a totally between groups, totally within groups, and mixed groups designs. How are they similar? how are they different?

totally between groups designs use independent groups of participants for each IV. Totally within groups designs use correlated groups of participants for all IVs. Mixed groups designs have at least on IV that uses independent groups of participants and one that used correlated groups. These designs are similar in that they are all factorial designs. They differ in the way that the experimenter assigns participants to groups

True or False: Interaction = effects of an IV changes as the levels of the other IV changes.

true

the simplest factorial design would have ___ IVs and ___ total treatment groups

two; four

In selecting participants for a research study, the key factors in determining the type of participants are:

type of project, precedent, and availability.

nuisance variable

unwanted variables that can cause the variability of scores within groups to increase

counterbalancing

used to control for order effects

why should we be concerned about trying to use different types of participants in psychology studies

using different types of participants help increase the external validity of our findings

a good DV has two primary qualities; it is both ___ and___

valid, reliable

Which of the following is NOT one of the techniques to control extraneous variables?

validation

treatment variability

variability in the DV is due to the effects of the IV

error variability

variability in the DV scores due to the factors other than the IV, such as individual differences, measurement error, and extraneous variation

an event or behavior that can assume at least two values is a

variable

distinguish between within subject and within group counterbalancing

when within subject counterbalancing is used, each participant experiences more than one sequence of IV presentations. When within group counterbalancing is used, each participant experiences a different sequence of IV presentations

why are white rats and college student the favorite participants in psychological research

white rats and college students are the favorite participants in psychological research because of precedent and availability. An established pattern of research with these two populations has been established, and they are easy to obtain

selection-treatment interaction

women, but not men, demonstrate an experimental effect

Is it possible to have more than one IV and one DV in any one experiment?

yes

history

you are conducting an experiment on racial prejudice and a race riot occurs between tests

selection

you choose boys from lower class homes and girls from upper class environments

statistical regression

you select the worst students in the class and try a new tutoring strategy

testing

you use a before and after DV measurement and the participants remember some of their answers

instrumentation

your DV scorer gets sick and you recruit a new person to help you

why should your experimental questions be your first consideration in choosing a factorial design?

your experimental questions should be your first consideration in choosing a factorial design because the number of questions you ask will determine how many IVs your experiment will have

maturation

your participants grow bored and disinterested during your experimental sessions