PSYC 2140 exam 4
participant characteristics
aspects of the participant, such as age, sex, or personality traits, which are treated as if they were IVs
explain how instrumentation and automation can control experimenter expectancies
automated equipment and instruments to present instructions and record dara are frequently used to control for experimenter expectancies because they help minimize experimenter contact with the participants. By minimizing contact with the participants, the experimenter is less likely to influence the outcome of the experiment
___________ is a control technique that achieves group equality by distributing extraneous variables equally to all groups.
balancing
What is meant by synergistic effects?
dramatic consequences that occur when you combine two or more substances, conditions, or organisms. The effects are greater (or less) than what is individually possible.
Variability in DV scores due to factors other than the IV is known as _______ variability.
error
Researchers are _________ when they view other cultures as an extension of their own culture.
ethnocentric
why is the goal of cross cultural research incompatible with ethnocentrism
ethnocentrism views other cultures as an extension of that culture. Hence, according to an ethnocentric view, there is no need for cross-cultural research
What is the difference between an etic and emic?
etic: a finding that is the same in different cultures emic: a culture-specific finding
Be sure you can write the results section
ex: Results from the mixed factorial ANOVA showed no effect of the customer sex, F(1, 10)= 2.42, p=.15. The clothing effect was significant, F(1, 10)= 25.21, p=.001. This main effect however, was qualified by a significant customer-sex-by-clothing interaction, F(1, 10)= 14.06, p=.004. This interaction shows that salesclerks who waited on sloppily dressed male customers were slower in responding than clerks who waited on casually dressed men or women dressed in either manner.
A single-blind insures that the ___________________________ is unaware of the nature of the treatment (or IV) condition.
experimenter
rosenthal effects
experimenter expectancies
The double-blind control technique controls:
experimenter expectancies and participant effects.
If we find a significant interaction in a 2 x 2 design, we should
ignore the main effects of factor A and factor B.
In a factorial design, the combined effect of the IVs on the DV is called a _________ effect.
interaction
When the effects of one IV in a factorial design depend on the level of another IV in that same design, we have a(n)
interaction
When the effects of one independent variable depend on the particular level of another independent variable, you have a(n)
interaction
If you graph the results of a 2 by 2 factorial design and you notice that the lines in the graph are NOT parallel, but crossed, it is likely that you are looking at a(n)
interaction effect
If you have a factorial design and run statistical analysis on it and you find significant main effects and a significant interaction, what should you primarily focus on?
interaction is the whole reason we use factorial design . We are interested in the synergistic (combined effect) of our two (or more) IVs
What ratio is an ANOVA based on?
interaction variability/error variability
Lyndal is conducting a study in which both her experimental and control participants must sit in a darkened room looking at a computer monitor and responding on a key board in sessions that sometimes last up to 6 hours. Lyndal may have a problem with which kind of threat to internal validity?
interaction with selection
confounding
a situation in which the results of an experiment can be attributed to either the operation of an IV or an extraneous variable
non experimental designs: ex post facto study
a study in which the variables to be studied are selected after they have occurred
source table
a table containing the results of ANOVA. Source refers to the source of different types of variation
reactive arrangements
a threat to external validity caused by an experimental situation that alters participants' behavior, regardless of the IV involved
interaction of selection and treatment
a threat to external validity that can occur when a treatment effect is found only for a specific sample of participants
interaction of testing and treatment
a threat to external validity that occurs when a pretest sensitizes participants to the treatment yet to come
multiple treatment interference
a threat to external validity that occurs when a set of findings results only when participants experience multiple treatments in the same experiment
selection
a threat to internal validity that can occur if participants are chosen in such a way that the groups are not equal before the experiment; the researcher cannot then be certain that the IV caused any difference observed after the experiment
diffusion or imitation of treatment
a threat to internal validity that can occur if participants in one treatment group become familiar with the treatment of another group and copy that treatment
instrumentation
a threat to internal validity that occurs if the equipment or human measuring the DV changes the measuring criterion over time
testing
a threat to internal validity the occurs because measuring the DV causes a change in the DV
history
a threat to internal validity; refers to events that occur between the DV measurements in a repeated measurements design
mortality
a threat to interval validity that can occur if experimental participants from different groups drop out of the experiment at different rates
statistical regression
a threat to interval validity that occurs when low scorers improve or high scorers fall on a second administration of a test solely as a result of statistically reasons
maturation
a threat to validity; refers to changes in participants that occur overtime during an experiment, could include actual physical maturation or tiredness, boredom, hunger, and so on
internal validity
a type of evaluation of your experiment; it asks whether your IV is the only possible explanation of the results shown for your DV
type 1 error
accepting the experimental hypothesis when the null hypothesis is true
why is the notion of external validity for a single experiment virtually impossible to achieve
because of the large number of threats to external validity. Usually an experiment can answer only one such threat at a time.
emic
a culture specific finding
elimination
complete removal of the extraneous variable
Why do need to be sensitive to cultural differences?
-Ethnocentricity -If other cultures are viewed as an extension of one's own, the result may be research findings that cannot be generalized beyond one's own culture.
within subjects one way ANOVA
-Focus on the IV df in your source table -Focus on with within cells df -A one way within subject ANOVA revealed that there were significant differences in perceptions of smokers across the three age groups F(2,18) = 6.76, p <.01. A Tukey's test (p<.05) revealed that participants' perceptions became more positive with age. Specifically, children had significantly higher perceptions of smokers at age 12 (M= 11.80, SD=5.94) than when they were 8 (M =9.70, SD = 5.89). However, children's perceptions did not differ from age 8 to 10 (M =10.40 , SD =5.58 ) years of age or age 10 to 12.
Be able to interpret and understand a design- example- what does a 2 X 3 X 2 mean?
-Has three IVS; one has 2 levels, another has 3 and another has two levels- if it's a between subject design it will have 12 groups. You have potential for 3 main effects- one for each IV, 3 two way interactions and 1 3 way interaction
be able to differentiate between the independent and dependent variables
-IV: a stimulus or aspect of the environment that the experimenter directly manipulates to determine its influence on behavior -DV: a response or behavior that the experimenter measures. Changes in the DV should be caused by manipulation of the IV.
What is an order effect? What about a carryover effect? How are they similar? What makes them different?
-Order effect: When order that participants receive the IV changes their behavior/reaction to IV (so the order or sequence changes how people respond to the IV levels) -Carryover effect: a form of sequence effect in which systematic changes in performance occur as a result of completing one sequence of conditions rather than a different sequence -They are the same because they will both have negative impacts on your results. It happens when you have repeated measures (within groups design)
-why is counterbalancing used?
-a procedure for controlling order effects by presenting different treatment sequences -within-subject counterbalancing: presentation of different treatment sequences to the same participant -within-group counterbalancing: presentation of different treatment sequences to different participants
Why are participant characteristics not considered "True IVs"?
-aspects of the participant, such as age, sex, or personality traits, which are treated as if they were IVs -you cannot manipulate these characteristics
be able to understand correlation- what does r mean? What is the difference between a positive or negative relationship?
-correlation: determination of the relation between two variables -positive correlation: as scores on one variable increase, scores on the second variable also increase -negative correlation: as scores on one variable increase, scores on the second variable decrease -r: the pearson product-moment correlation coefficient. The most common measure of correlation. Used to calculate when both the X variable and the Y variable are interval or ratio scale measurements and the data appear to be linear.
be able to produce a directional or nondirectional hypothesis (or differentiate between them)
-directional: prediction of the specific outcome of an experiment -nondirectional: a specific prediction concerning the outcome of an experiment is not made
Why do we have to be conscious of cultural ethnocentricity when conducting research?
-emic: culturally specific -etic: universal
be able to describe the differences between nonexperimental and experimental designs
-experimental design: the general plan for selecting participants, assigning participants to experimental conditions, controlling extraneous variables, and gathering data -non-experimental design: Non-experimental research is the label given to a study when a researcher cannot control, manipulate or alter the predictor variable or subjects, but instead, relies on interpretation, observation or interactions to come to a conclusion.
How can we increase external validity? What role does replication and replication with extension play?
-external validity is a type of evaluation of an experiment; do the results apply to populations and situations that are different from those of the experiment? -apply generalization: applying the results to a different situation or population -replication: an additional scientific study that is conducted in exactly the same manner as the original research project -replication with extension: an experiment that seeks to confirm a previous finding but does so in a different setting or with different participants or under different conditions
what is the difference between an extraneous variable vs. a nuisance variable?
-extraneous variable: undesired variables that may operate to influence the DV and thus invalidate an experiment -nuisance variable: unwanted variables that can cause the variability of scores within groups to increase
Why do we choose to use a factorial design over others?
-factorial designs provide considerable flexibility in devising an experiment to answer your questions -you should consider issues of control in your design choice because experimental design is primarily concerned with the notion of control -due to the wide degree of experimental choices possible with factorial designs, considerations of a practical nature are also important
What is meant by generalization? know differences between different kinds-population, environmental, temporal
-generalization: applying the results from an experiment to a different situation or population -population generalization: applying the results from an experiment to a group of participants that is different and more encompassing than those used in the original experiment -environmental generalization: applying the results from an experiment to a situation or environment that differs from that of the original experiment -temporal generalization: applying the results from an experiment to a time that is different from the time when the original experiment was conducted
What is the good participant effect? Response biases?
-good participant effect: the tendency of participants to behave as they perceive the experimenter wants them to have -yea-sayers: participants who tend to answer yes to all questions -nay-sayers: participants who tend to answer no to all questions -response set: the result when an experimental context or testing situation influences the participants responses
Threats to external validity: interaction of testing and treatment, interaction of selection and treatment, reactive arrangements, multiple treatment interference
-interaction of testing and treatment: occurs when a pretest sensitizes participants to the treatment yet to come -reactive arrangements: caused by an experimental situation that alters participants behavior, regardless of the IV involved -interaction of selection and treatment: can occur when a treatment effect is found only for a specific sample of participants -multiple Treatment interference: occurs when a set of findings result only when participants experience multiple treatments in the same experiment
What is the difference between internal and external validity (know their definitions)? Which one is more important and why?
-internal validity: a type of evaluation of your experiment; it asks whether your IV is the only possible explanation of the results shown for your DV -external validity: a type of evaluation of an experiment; do the results apply to populations and situations that are different from those of the experiment? internal validity is more important because without it your experiment is meaningless
-what is matching and when would it be used?
-matched pairs: research participants in a two-group design who are measured and equated on some variable before the experiment -matching variable: a potential extraneous variable on which we measure our research participants and from which we form sets of participants who are equal on the variable
what is an "operational definition"? Why is it so important to establish them from the outset of your research?
-operational definition: defining the IV, DV, and extraneous variables in terms of the operations needed to produce them
What is an independent variable? Know the different types!!!- physiological, experience, stimulus etc....
-physiological IV: a physiological state of the participant manipulated by the experimenter -experience IV: manipulation of the amount or type of training or learning -stimulus or environmental IV: an aspect of the environment manipulated by the experimenter
what types of IVs are there?
-physiological IV: a physiological state of the participant manipulated by the experimenter -experience IV: manipulation of the amount or type of training or learning -stimulus or environmental IV: an aspect of the environment manipulated by the experimenter
what is a random sample (be sure you know different types of samples- strengths and weaknesses of each)?
-random sample: a sample in which every member of the population has an equal likelihood of being included -random sampling with replacement: once chosen, a score, event, or participant can be returned to the population to be selected again -random sampling without replacement: once chosen, a score, event, or participant cannot be returned to the population to be selected again -stratified random sampling: random samples are drawn from specific subpopulations or strata of the general population
what control methods do experimenters have at their disposal to control extraneous and nuisance variables (for example: randomization, constancy, elimination, balancing)
-randomization: a control technique that ensures that each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any group in an experiment -elimination: a control technique whereby extraneous variables are completely removed from an experiment -constancy: a control technique by which an extraneous variables is reached to a single value that is experienced by all participants -balancing: a control procedure that achieves group equality by distributing extraneous variables equally to all groups
What is meant by a main effect?
-refers to the sole effect of one IV in a factorial design
How do we interpret main effects when we have a significant interaction?
-refers to the sole effect of one IV in a factorial design -we find significant interactions when the effects of one IV change as the levels of the other IV changes
what is "reliability" and "validity"?
-reliability: extent to which a test to inventory is consistent in its evaluation of the same individuals -validity: the extent to which a test or inventory measures what it is supposed to measure
One way independent groups design ANOVA
-report the within and between groups df (ignore total) -Type of ANOVA (one way between subjects or one way within subjects ANOVA); F with degrees of freedom, p value. Also report post hoc analysis results and p values with means and SD. -A one way between subject ANOVA showed that level of processing had a significant effect on word recall F(1,13) = 4.67, p<.05. A Tukey's post hoc comparison test (p<.05) showed that the three processing groups were all significantly different from each other. Specifically, the deepest processing was significantly higher (M = 45, SD = 5.67) than the intermediate (M = 34, SD = 3.67) and low processing groups (M = 24, SD = 8.67). Furthermore, the intermediate group had higher recall than the low processing group.
know the strengths and weaknesses of different nonexperimental designs
-research conducted in a natural setting that seeks to understand a complex human behavior by developing a complete narrative description of that behavior
how should one go about selecting an IV and DV? What makes them good or bad?
-selecting the DV depends on the experimental hypothesis. The "if, then" form means the then is usually going to be the DV.
Why and when are the following used: single blind vs. double blind experiment? What do each of them control for? how do participants' expectations play into doing research? What is meant by demand characteristics? How can they be controlled?
-single-blind experiment: an experiment in which the experimenter is unaware of the treatment the participants are receiving -double blind experiment: an experiment in which both the experimenter and the participants are unaware of which treatment the participants are receiving -demand characteristics: features of the experiment that inadvertently lead participants to respond in a particular manner
When are post-hoc analyses applied?
-statistical comparisons made between group means after finding a significant f ratio -if you find overall significance on a one way ANOVA
what does "reactance" or reactive measures mean (recall Hawthorne effect)? How can it be controlled?
-the finding that participants respond differently when they know they are being observed
What makes factorial designs different than other designs we have talked about?
-the number of questions you can ask during an experiment increases greatly -more IVs: means greater control but more complex issues
What is meant by apparatus? How do researchers decide on how they will present their IV? Record their DV? Best practices?
-their apparatus or equipment is based on the nature of their IV and the things they are testing for -the experimenter should not rely too heavily on expensive or fancy equipment. If a simple stopwatch produces accurate results then you should use that over an elaborate computer set up. -if the experimenter relies too much on the equipment then the choice of the research problems may start to be dictated by the equipment
How can researchers maintain as much objectivity as possible?
-using a single blind or double blind experiment -proper training and using objective, reliable, and valid measures
-be able to distinguish a within subject vs. a between subject design
-within subject: refers to a contrast between groups of participants who were assigned to groups through matched pairs, natural pairs, or repeated measures -between subject:refers to a contrast between groups of participants who were randomly assigned to groups
a researcher has conducted a 2x3 experiment. How many interactions will be calculated?
1
Researchers assume random assignment to groups is effective if all groups in the experiment have about __________ participants per group
10
A 2 by 3 by 4 independent groups factorial design has ___________ different IV combinations
24
A factorial experiment had 9 groups. If the 1st factor had 3 levels, how many levels does 2 have?
3 levels because 3 x 3 = 9
A study involving three IVs would have how many possible interactions?
4
A 2 x 3 design would require ____ treatment conditions.
6
non experimental designs: focus group
7-10 participants with shared experiences or similar characteristics who meet for 1-1 1/2 hours to discuss a topic of common interest
If you have a between subject design with 2x2x2 design, how many groups will you have?
8 groups (multiply out 2 x 2 x 2)
A factorial design involving two IVs, each having three levels (3 by 3 factorial design) would have how many possible combinations of conditions?
9
Why are placebos so important? What is a placebo effect?
A remarkable phenomenon in which a placebo -- a fake treatment, an inactive substance like sugar, distilled water, or saline solution -- can sometimes improve a patient's condition simply because the person has the expectation that it will be helpful.
A researcher observes 10 Ss/group in a 2x2 factorial design. There were 40 Ss. What was the design?
Between Subject factorial design
Which of the following is true regarding experimenter characteristics?
Both physiological and psychological characteristics of the experimenter can have an effect on participants.
reactive measures
DV ,measurements that actually change the DV being measured
nonreactive measures
DV measurements that do not influence the DV being measured
Define the Rosenthal effect. Give an example.
Experimenter expectations effect the performance of the groups -if the experimenter treats one group as if they're better than another, the one that is better treated is going to out-perform the later group
you would like to assess the effects of trauma in peoples lives, but have ethical problems with causing traumatic events to occur to people. You have a problem with
IV presentation
Why is counterbalancing used? Which type of design should it be used with when possible?
In repeated measures- to make sure that participants are in more then one level of the IV
under what conditions should you record more than one DV?
if the additional DVs add meaningful info
A researcher has 25 Ss in each group in a 2x2 design. If 50 Ss total were included, what was the design?
Mixed factorial design
Why do we use placebos?
Placebos are most commonly used in blinded trials, where subjects do not know whether they are receiving real or placebo treatment. The purpose of the placebo group is to account for the placebo effect, that is, effects from treatment that do not depend on the treatment itself.
Which of the following is true regarding physiological and psychological experimenter effects, according to the text?
Researchers usually pay little attention to these factors because they are difficult to control.
Which of the following is a technique used by researchers to control yea-saying?
Rewrite items so that sometimes a negative response represents agreement, and sometimes a negative response represents disagreement.
Culture may affect which of the following elements of the research process?
Selection of participants Choice of the research problem Characteristics of the experimental hypotheses
what is meant by experimental control?
The control group is composed of participants who do not receive the experimental treatment. When conducting an experiment, these people are randomly selected to be in this group.
What is meant by experimenter expectation effects? How can they be controlled if at all?
The experimenter has an idea of how the results are going to turn out or how they want the results to turn out and this could influence some of his words or behaviors when giving the experiment -could be controlled by switching experimenter, single or double blind experiments
Suppose you were interested in conducting an experiment with two independent variables. Why should you use a factorial design instead of two separate experiments?
The factorial design allows you to test for interactions.
one IV with two levels t-test
You need to report the statistical test used, t value, df, p and means and standard deviations.(You can also report the effect size which is calculated with Cohen's d) A two-tailed independent groups t-test revealed a significant effect of the drug Happimee t(12) = 4.78, p<.05 with participants that received the drug showing significantly lower depression scores (M=32, SD=3.4) than those that took the placebo (M=68, SD=7.4). The effect was large with a Cohen's d of 1.01.
practice effect
a beneficial effect on a DV measurement caused by previous experience with the DV
cross cultural psychology
a branch of psychology whose goal is to determine the universality of research results
balancing
a control procedure that achieves group equality by distributing extraneous variables equally to all groups
constancy
a control technique by which an extraneous variable is reduced to a single value that is experienced by all participants
controlling "extraneous variables": constancy
a control technique by which an extraneous variable is reduced to a single value that is experienced by all participants
controlling "extraneous variables": balancing
a control technique that achieves group equality by distributing extraneous variables equally to all groups
controlling "extraneous variables": randomization
a control technique that ensures each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any group in an experiment
randomization
a control technique that ensures that each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any group in an experiment
controlling "extraneous variables": elimination
a control technique whereby extraneous variables are completely removed from an experiment
elimination
a control technique whereby extraneous variables are completely removed from an experiment
the tendency of a culture to behave in a certain way best describes
a cultural response set
What is meant by mixed designs?
a factorial design that has a mixture of independent groups for one IV and correlated groups for another IV. In larger factorial designs at least one IV has independent groups and at least one has correlated groups.
mixed assignment
a factorial design that has mixture of independent groups for one IV and correlated groups for another IV. In larger factorial designs at least one IV has independent groups and at least one has correlated groups
three way design
a factorial design with 3 IVs
etic
a finding that is the same in different cultures
physiological IV
a physiological state of the participant manipulated by the experimenter
controlling "extraneous variables": counterbalancing
a procedure for controlling order effects by presenting different treatment sequences
counterbalancing
a procedure for controlling order effects by presenting different treatment sequences
non experimental designs: grounded theory
a qualitative research approach that attempts to develop theories of understanding based on data from the real world
changing a behavior simply by measuring it refers to
a reactive measure
ex post facto research
a research approach in which the experimenter cannot directly manipulate the IV but can only classify, categorize, or measure the IV because it is predetermined in the participants
what does "ex post facto" research mean?
a research approach in which the experimenter cannot directly manipulate the IV but can only classify, categorize, or measure the IV because it is predetermined in the participants
What is a convenience sample? Can we generalize from them?
a researchers sampling of participants based on ease of locating the participants; often it does not involve true random selection
convenience sampling
a researchers sampling of participants based on ease of locating the participants; often it does not involve true random selection
programmatic research
a series of research experiments concerning a related topic or question
participant variable
age
complete counterbalancing
all possible treatment sequences are presented
controlling "extraneous variables": complete counterbalancing
all possible treatment sequences are presented
experience IV
amount of previous learning
stimulus or environmental IV
an aspect of the environment manipulated by the experimenter
multiple treatment interference
an effect occurs only if participants experience all the experiments treatment conditions
a finding linked to a specific culture best describes
an emic
precedent
an established pattern
variable
an event or behavior that can assume two or more values
what is a variable?
an event or behavior that can assume two or more values
double blind experiment
an experiment in which both the experimenter and the participants are unaware of which treatment the participants are receiving
single blind experiment
an experiment in which the experimenter or participants is unaware of the treatment they participants are receiving
factorial design
an experimental design with more than one IV
Extraneous variables influence variability ________________________ whereas nuisance variables influence variability _______________________.
between groups; within groups
A factorial design in which both IVs involve random assignment is referred to as a __________ factorial design.
between-subjects
A mixed factorial design involves
both independent and correlated groups in the design.
extraneous variable
can damage the experiment and its results
There are several ways to control for experimenter expectancies, including
careful preparation of the instructions. automation. instrumentation.
Randi is conducting a study using a psychotropic drug as her IV and physical agility in hamsters as her DV. She is using three levels of the drug. Her study lasts for 6 weeks with drug injections occurring every other day. Early in her study, she notes that when she injects hamsters with the largest dosage of the drug, her hamsters' agility is decreased more for the next several sessions than when she injects hamsters with either of the other two levels of the drug. Using the highest level of the drug is producing a ____________________ effect
carryover
Demand characteristics are features of the experimental situation that:
cause participants to respond in a particular way.
physiological IV
change in normal biological state
DV
changes as a function of changes in IV
Ways to control for internal validity threats?
check for history, maturation, regression to the mean (statistical regression), selection, testing, diffusion of treatment, instrumentation, placebo effect
Each is an example of a subject variable except... A. Age B. Ethnicity C. Gender D. Class Size
class size
If an experiment is plagued by the researcher being unable to determine that the results of her study were due to the IV or some other variable, then the experiment is said to be:
confounded
Experimenter expectancies are best categorized as
confounding variables.
suppose a friend told you about her 2x4x3 experimental design
consists of 3 IVs, one has two levels and one has four levels, and one has three levels
balancing is a logical extension of
constancy
double-blind experiment
control for demand characteristics and experimenter expectancies
single-blind experiments
control for experimenter expectancies
Which control technique is represented in the following example? Maura is running a study in which she will expose a group of rats to three different levels of a drug—Group A receives dose levels 1, 2 and 3 in that order. Group B receives dose levels 3, 1, and 2 in that order, and Group C receives dose levels 2, 3, and 1 in that order.
counterbalancing
Which of the following control techniques is most applicable to studies in which the participants are in all the conditions of the experiment?
counterbalancing
what is cross cultural psychology? why is it of particular relevance to this section of the chapter?
cross cultural psychology involves testing psychological principles in different cultures to determine the generality of those principles. It irrelevant to this chapter because it deals with external validity.
demand characteristics refer to
cues that tell the participants how to act
in what ways can culture affect the conduct of psychological research
culture can influence the choice of the research problem, the nature of the experimental hypothesis, selection of the IVs, selection of the DVs, selection of participants, sampling procedures, and the type of questionnaire that is used
generally speaking, as internal validity increases, external validity
decreases
operational definition
defining the independent, dependent, and extraneous variables in terms of the operations needed to produce them
your research involves determining the effects of persuasion on the strength of attitudes. You are using a ___ measurement of the DV
degree
reactive arrangements
demand characteristics provide cues to the participants about how they should respond
Try to describe demand characteristics. Provide an example.
demand characteristics refers to an experimental artifact where participants form an interpretation of the experiment's purpose and unconsciously change their behavior to fit that interpretation
Within groups design
dependent assignment; repeated measures; correlated; can also be matched sets, natural sets too
the goal of cross cultural psychology is best described as
determine whether psychological findings are universal
A "blabbermouth" would be an accurate description of a participant who engages in which of the following types of threats to internal validity?
diffusion of treatment
An experiment in which both the experimenter and the participants are unaware of which treatment the participants are receiving is known as a ___________ experiment.
double-blind
what is external validity? why is it important to psychology?
external validity is the ability to take your experimental findings and apply them beyond the experimental participants to the larger population. It is important to psychology so that we can develop general findings that apply to larger groups of organisms.
Any variable that has an unintended influence on a study by impacting the increasing or decreasing differences between the experimental and control groups is called a(n) ____________ variable.
extraneous
balancing
extraneous variable is distributed equally to all groups
constancy
extraneous variable is reduced to a single value
Another common name for an IV in studies involving more than one IV is
factor
An experimental design with more than one IV is referred to as a(n) ________ design.
factorial
True or False: Random assignment can only be used with within subject designs.
false
demand characteristics
features of the experiment that inadvertently lead participants to respond in a particular manner
totally within groups design
fraternity members matched for family income measured twice
mixed factorial design
fraternity members versus nonmembers measured twice
totally between groups design
fraternity members versus nonmembers; men versus women
correlated groups
groups of participants formed by matching, natural pairs, or repeated measures
independent groups
groups of participants formed by random assignment
you want to compare the formal education of college students and senior citizens. You select a group of each type of participant and give each a written test of math, social studies, and grammatical information. What threat to internal validity appears likely this situation. Why?
in this experiment the internal validity threat of selection is likely. Because the selected participants are senior citizens, it is possible that they will have less formal education then college students today. Obtaining a college education was not as common for todays senior citizens when they were young as it is for todays youth.
The power of a statistical test can be increased by
increasing the number of participants in the study.
A completely randomized factorial design is also known as a(n) ____________ design.
independent or between-subjects
If you can be absolutely certain that changes in a DV were due to the IV, then your experiment is very likely to be
internally valid
non experimental designs: artifact analysis
involves the examination and analysis of extant artifacts, such as text-based materials
an experiment in which the researcher doesn't know which treatment the participants are receiving
is a blind experiment
why is it important to evaluate your experiment for internal validity
it is important to evaluate your experiment for internal validity because you cannot place any confidence in your results if your experiment does not have internal validity. Cause and effect statement cannot be made without this
culture
lasting values, attitudes, and behaviors that are shared by a group and transmitted to subsequent generations
In a 3 x 4 design, the "4" refers to the number of
levels in the second independent variable.
DVs may be measureable in terms of their:
magnitude, latency, duration
In a factorial design, the solitary effect of one of the IVs is called a(n) ____________ effect.
main
A source of variation associated with mean differences across the levels of a single factor is...
main effect
stimulus IV
manipulation of environment
experience IV
manipulation of the amount or type of training to learning
mortality
many participants find one treatment condition very boring and quit
suppose you wish to test children from two different racial groups. You would be dealing with a ___IV
measured
valid
measuring what is supposed to be measured
randomization
most widely used control procedure
What is an interaction?
the joint, simultaneous effect on the DV of more than one IV
If you conduct an experiment with one IV that has four levels, you have used a(n) ___________ design, and if you conduct an experiment with two IVs that each have two levels, you have used a(n) _____________ design.
multiple-groups; factorial
what can n! be used for? calculate the value of 4!
n! refers to factoring or breaking a number into its component parts and then multiplying these component parts. n! can be used to determine the number of sequences required for complete counterbalancing. 4!= 4 x 3 x 2 x 1= 24
which of the following is an example of response bias
nay saying
variables that result in greater within-group variability in the data are called
nuisance variables
explain the reaction between precedent and the type of participant used in a research project
once a precedent or established pattern for using a particular type of research participant is begun, it is likely that that type of participant will be used in experiments in the research area in question
What is a mixed design
one IV is between/independent groups or between subjects design and another is within/correlated/repeated measures subjects
A researcher conducts a 3x7 experiment. How many interactions will be possible?
one interaction
interaction
the joint, simultaneous effect on the DV of more than one IV
incomplete counterbalancing
only a portion of all possible sequences are presented
controlling "extraneous variables": incomplete counterbalancing
only a portion of all treatment sequences are presented
testing-treatment interaction
only participants who are pretested demonstrate an experimental effect
Soleus is conducting an experiment in which he is studying the relationship of time of day to road rage. He's simply looking at each hour of the day and then counting the corresponding number of reported cases of road rage that took place in that time frame. Rather than counting any accident as an incident of road rage, he is counting only acts of aggressive driving and acts of verbal or physical aggression of one driver toward another driver. Soleus' conception of "road rage" is an attempt to _______________ the term.
operationally define
What does ethnocentric mean?
other cultures are viewed an extension of ones own culture
ethnocentric
other cultures are viewed as an extension of ones own culture
Which of the following types of variables is often treated as an IV, but really is not an IV?
participant
nay sayers
participants who tend to answer no to all questions
yea sayers
participants who tend to answer yes to all questions
one of the best guidelines for the number of participants to be used in a successful research project is
past research
age, sex, race
physiological experimenter effects
distinguish among population, environmental, and temporal generalization
population generalization involves applying results from participants to the larger group. Environmental generalization involves applying results to different settings from those in the original experiment. Temporal generalization involves applying experimental results to different times from those in the original experiment
within group counterbalancing
presentation fo different treatment sequences to different participants
within subject counterbalancing
presentation fo different treatment sequences to the same participants
controlling "extraneous variables": within group counterbalancing
presentation of different treatment sequences to different participants
controlling "extraneous variables": within subject counterbalancing
presentation of different treatment sequences to the same participant
reliable
producing consistent measurements
hostility or anxiety
psychological experimenter effects
Derek conducts a study in which half of the participants read a job application from a male candidate, and the other half read the same job application from a female candidate. He wants to make sure that each participant has an equal chance of reading the male job application as the female job application, so he uses the control technique known as
randomization
The control technique that essentially insures that any participant selected for a study has an equal chance of being assigned to either the experimental group or the control group is called:
randomization
the most widely used control technique is
randomization
between groups design
randomly assigned groups; independent groups
Sometimes the artificiality of the experimental situation poses a threat to external validity. This threat is called ________________________.
reactive arrangements
_________________________ is a threat to internal validity that may occur simply as a result of measuring the DV.
reactive measures
What does it mean if something is marginally significant?
refers to statistical results with a probability of chance between 5% and 10%; in other words, almost significant, but not quite.
main effect
refers to the sole effect of one IV in a factorial design
non experimental designs: ethnographic inquiry
research in which the goal is to learn about a culture or some aspect of a culture from the perspective of the members of that culture
non experimental designs: participant observation
research in which the researcher becomes part of the group being studied
non experimental designs: narrative study
researchers actively gather and interpret stories that individuals in their target group use to describe their lives
Another name for experimenter expectations is the ______________ effect.
rosenthal
non experimental design: naturalistic observation
seeking answers to research questions by observing behavior in the real world
If you are using a laptop computer to measure the responses of your participants in a research study and it suddenly stops accurately measuring those responses, then you have a problem with
selection
comparing intact groups is likely to cause a problem because of
selection
Morris is conducting a study to determine the average height of Auburn University women. He decides to use a convenience sample—members of the women's basketball team. He discovers that their average height is 6' 0". He thus concludes that the average height of AU women is 6 feet. He commits two error here—what are they? (choose two)
selection, poor generalization
A research participant is repeatedly exposed to the presentation of four different stimuli. Each presentation scrambles the order of the four stimuli, so that sometimes, for example, the order is ABCD, sometimes DCAB, and sometimes DCBA However, the participant only makes a response when presented with the 3rd stimulus, regardless of whether it is C, A, or B. In this study, there appears to be a ____________ effect.
sequence
Why are treating our groups the same so important?
so we don't alter their behavior and therefore potentially alter their response to the experiment
How does social desirability come into play?
social desirability bias is a type of response bias that is the tendency of survey respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others.
post hoc comparisons
statistical comparisons made between group means after finding a significant f ratio
IVs
stimuli or aspects of the environment that are directly manipulated by the experimenter to determine their influences on behavior
diffusion of treatments
students in your control groups talk to students in the experimental group and imitate their treatment
non experimental designs: case studies
studies involving the intensive observation of a single participant over an extended period of time
non experimental designs: symbolic interaction
study of common symbols that give meaning to human interaction within a social group context
An advantage of using factorial designs over two-group and One-Way ANOVA designs is that factorial designs allow the researcher to
study the interaction of the IVs.
________ effects occur when the effects of combining two or more conditions are greater than what is individually possible.
synergistic
factors
synonymous with IVs
A practice effect falls under the category of which of the following types of threats to internal validity?
testing
group homogeneity is best associated with
testing smaller numbers of participants
principle of parsimony
the belief that explanations of phenomena and events should remain simple until the simple explanations are no longer valid
non experimental designs: historiography
the collection and analysis of information and data in order to reconstruct past events
you have conducted a 2x2 experiment; what info will you obtain from the analysis?
the effects of IV A, the effects of IV B, the effects of AxB
carryover effect
the effects of one treatment persist or carry over and influence responses to the next treatment
why are carry over effects so harmful? How are they controlled?
the effects of one treatment persist or carry over and influence responses to the next treatment
describe the concern the experimenter must be aware of when using automated equipment to present the IV or the DV
the experimenter must be careful not to become a slave to elaborate pieces of equipment. If this situation occurs, then it is likely that the equipment may begin dictating the type of research that is conducted and/or type of DV that is recorded
explain how the experimenter can be extraneous variable
the experiments physiological characteristics, psychological characteristics, and personal expectancies for the outcome of the experiment can operate as extraneous variables and influence the responses of the participants
know the strengths and weaknesses of experimental designs
the general plan for selecting participants, assigning participants to experimental conditions, controlling extraneous variables, and gathering data
what is incomplete counterbalancing?
the incomplete counterbalancing procedure refers to the use of some, but not all, of the possible sequences of treatment administration
sequence of order effects
the position of a treatment in a series determines, in part, the participants response
what is an order effect?
the position of a treatment in a series determines, in part, the participants' response
The power of a statistical test is
the probability of finding a statistically significant effect.
power
the probability that a statistical test will be significant
response set
the result when an experimental contact or testing situation influences the participants responses
What is the Rosenthal effect? How can it be controlled?
the result when an experimenters preconceived idea of appropriate responding influences the treatment of participants and their behavior
rosenthal effect
the result when an experimenters preconceived idea of appropriate responding influences the treatment of participants and their behavior
comparative psychology
the study of behavior in different species, including humans
cultural response set
the tendency of a particular culture to respond in a certain manner
good participant effect
the tendency of participants to behave as they perceive the experimenter wants them to behave
how is the two group design related to the factorial design
the two group design is related to the factorial design because it forms the underlying basis of a factorial design. For example, a 2x2 factorial design is simply two two-group designs combined
In what ways can the experimenter's characteristics have an impact on their data collection?
their expectations for how the results are going to turn out can alter how they act towards the participants which can then effect the participants behavior
What role does experimenter expectancies play in data collection?
their expectations for how the results are going to turn out can alter how they act towards the participants which can then effect the participants behavior
In what ways can the experimenter introduce bias into their experiment?
their expectations for how the results are going to turn out can alter how they act towards the participants which can then effect the participants behavior -they can favor one group of participants over another
why is there a practical limit to the number of IVs you could use in an experiment
there is a practical limit to the number of IVs you can use in an experiment so that you will be able to interpret the results easily. Interactions involving many variables can be quite difficult to understand
interactions with selection
threats to internal validity that can occur if there are systematic differences between or among selected treatment groups based on maturation, history, or instrumentation
What is the purpose of cross cultural research?
to determine the universality of research results
describe a totally between groups, totally within groups, and mixed groups designs. How are they similar? how are they different?
totally between groups designs use independent groups of participants for each IV. Totally within groups designs use correlated groups of participants for all IVs. Mixed groups designs have at least on IV that uses independent groups of participants and one that used correlated groups. These designs are similar in that they are all factorial designs. They differ in the way that the experimenter assigns participants to groups
True or False: Interaction = effects of an IV changes as the levels of the other IV changes.
true
the simplest factorial design would have ___ IVs and ___ total treatment groups
two; four
In selecting participants for a research study, the key factors in determining the type of participants are:
type of project, precedent, and availability.
nuisance variable
unwanted variables that can cause the variability of scores within groups to increase
counterbalancing
used to control for order effects
why should we be concerned about trying to use different types of participants in psychology studies
using different types of participants help increase the external validity of our findings
a good DV has two primary qualities; it is both ___ and___
valid, reliable
Which of the following is NOT one of the techniques to control extraneous variables?
validation
treatment variability
variability in the DV is due to the effects of the IV
error variability
variability in the DV scores due to the factors other than the IV, such as individual differences, measurement error, and extraneous variation
an event or behavior that can assume at least two values is a
variable
distinguish between within subject and within group counterbalancing
when within subject counterbalancing is used, each participant experiences more than one sequence of IV presentations. When within group counterbalancing is used, each participant experiences a different sequence of IV presentations
why are white rats and college student the favorite participants in psychological research
white rats and college students are the favorite participants in psychological research because of precedent and availability. An established pattern of research with these two populations has been established, and they are easy to obtain
selection-treatment interaction
women, but not men, demonstrate an experimental effect
Is it possible to have more than one IV and one DV in any one experiment?
yes
history
you are conducting an experiment on racial prejudice and a race riot occurs between tests
selection
you choose boys from lower class homes and girls from upper class environments
statistical regression
you select the worst students in the class and try a new tutoring strategy
testing
you use a before and after DV measurement and the participants remember some of their answers
instrumentation
your DV scorer gets sick and you recruit a new person to help you
why should your experimental questions be your first consideration in choosing a factorial design?
your experimental questions should be your first consideration in choosing a factorial design because the number of questions you ask will determine how many IVs your experiment will have
maturation
your participants grow bored and disinterested during your experimental sessions