PSYC 4035: Exam 3
Why does less alcohol metabolism occur in women than men?
Women tend to have higher BACs given equivalent consumption amounts due to reduced catabolism in the stomach due to lower enzyme levels, greater amount of body fat that keeps alcohol more concentrated in the blood, and a lower amount of body water
While the body metabolizes 95% of alcohol, how does the body eliminate the last 5% of alcohol?
Although 95% of alcohol is metabolized, the body eliminates the remaining 5% of alcohol unchanged from the lungs. The ratio of alcohol concentration in expelled air to blood is 1:2,300. Breathalyzer tests use this ratio to determine BAC.
What are some health benefits of low alcohol concentrations?
At low alcohol concentrations, some health benefits of alcohol include a reduced risk of ischemia, stroke, and vascular-related dementias.
How does light to moderate alcohol consumption affect the respiratory system?
At lower concentrations, such as a BAC around 0.03, alcohol increases respiration. Beyond these concentrations, alcohol inhibits respiration and this inhibition increases as the alcohol concentration increases.
Why should alcohol not be combined with opiates?
Both opiates and alcohol have depressive respiratory effects. When the two respiratory suppressants are combined, their combination can cause life-threatening suppression.
How does food content in the stomach affect alcohol metabolism?
Both the stomach and the liver contain alcohol dehydrogenase enzymes. Little alcohol metabolism takes place on an empty stomach because alcohol is quickly digested to the intestines. On a full stomach, alcohol remains in the stomach longer, giving alcohol greater exposures to alcohol dehydrogenase enzymes.
Why is home distillation illegal?
Home distillation is illegal in most states. Home distillation methods are notorious for dangerous impurities, such as methanol.
A serotonin antagonist is administered in the presence of alcohol. What happens?
In rats, a serotonin 5HT-3 receptor antagonist prevented alcohol from increasing NAC dopamine levels. In rats only treated with alcohol, NAC dopamine levels increased significantly. These findings suggest that 5-HT3 may be important for alcohol's ability to increase dopamine concentration in the NAC.
How can the effect of alcohol on reaction time be tested?
Researchers have tested the effects of alcohol on reaction time by using a car simulator. The time it takes to hit the brake is a good indicator of reaction time. Reaction times significantly increased at BACs of 0.08.
How do researchers measure impulsivity?
Researchers use delay-discounting designs to measure impulsivity, which present participants with a choice between an immediate small reward or a delayed larger reward.
Increased NMDA receptor expression due to chronic alcohol administration increases the risk of ___________________ during alcohol withdrawal.
seizures
Divided Attention
sustained attention on a stimulus despite the presence of distracters
Episodic Memory
the conscious memory of a personally experienced event
The rate of alcohol elimination follows zero-order kinetics until ___________________________.
the enzymes are saturated
Semantic Memory
the memory of verbal or written information
In the intestine, alcohol impairs _________________ transporter function, also known as Vitamin B1, reducing ___________________ availability.
thiamine
Moderate Drinking
two drinks per day for men; one drink per day for women
Extreme Drinking
two or three times the number of drinks considered as binge drinking
True or False: Cardiac inhibition is a key factor in alcohol poisoning.
False
True or False: Current alcohol use is higher in women than in men.
False
0.10 g ethanol per deciliter of blood = ____ BAC
0.1%
What are some factors that affect the rate of alcohol metabolism?
1. Different polymorphisms can affect the rate of alcohol metabolism. 2. Little alcohol metabolism takes place on an empty stomach because alcohol is quickly digested to the intestines. 3. A higher rate of drinking leads to a higher rate of absorption. 4. The higher the concentration of alcohol, the higher the rate of absorption. 5. Carbonation increases the rate of absorption.
What are the two methods of brewing alcohol?
1. Fermentation 2. Distillation
The health benefits of alcohol use result from four effects. What are those effects?
1. First, chronic light daily alcohol use increases HDL levels. HDLs reduce other cholesterols in the circulatory system. 2. Second, chronic light daily use of alcohol reduces pro-inflammatory cellular signaling that contributes to the thickening of artery walls. 3. Third, acute alcohol administration disrupts blood platelets from bonding together to form clots, the immediate cause of heart attacks and strokes. 4. Fourth, acute alcohol administration causes blood clots to separate by causing the activation of plasmin.
What are the two ways the amount of alcohol is labeled?
1. Percentage 2. Proof
Most individuals eliminate ______________ of 100% alcohol per hour.
10 to 14 mL
Blood Alcohol Concentration (BAC)
BAC refers to the number of grams of alcohol in 100 mL volume of blood.
What are the three primary sources of beverage alcohol?
Beer, wine, and spirits serve as the primary sources of beverage alcohol.
True or False: Alcohol decreases vigilance.
False
True or False: Alcohol improves divided attention.
False
The maximum BAC from an alcoholic drink occurs after approximately ____________________.
45 minutes
How do 5-HT2A receptors contribute to alcohol's effects on the NAC?
5-HT2A receptors in the VTA also contribute to alcohol effects on the NAC dopamine levels. The direct infusion of a 5-HT2A receptors antagonist into the VTA reduced self-administration of alcohol in rats. The researchers attributed reduced self-administration to diminished dopamine release in the NAC.
What is a standard drink?
A standard drink contains 14 grams of 100 percent alcohol, which is equivalent to about 2/3 of a fluid ounce (0.6 ounces). A standard drink for the following alcohols are as follows: 12 fluid ounces of beer 8-9 fluid ounces of malt liquor 5 fluid ounces of wine 1.5 fluid ounces shot of distilled spirits
What is the BAC for the following? A. 0.2 g alcohol per 100 mL B. 1 g of alcohol per 1000 mL C. 0.25 g of alcohol per 50 mL
A. 0.2% B. 0.1% C. 0.5%
How many grams of alcohol if the BAC is: A. 1%: B. 0.5%
A. 1 g B. 0.5 g
What happens to alcohol after ingestion?
After ingestion, alcohol absorbs into the bloodstream through the gastrointestinal tract.
How does alcohol cause poor judgment?
Alcohol also causes poor judgment as a result of disinhibition, a weakening of behavioral control that manifests as poor risk assessment, engagement in dangerous behavior, and impulsivity. Disinhibition with alcohol use can cause socially unconventional behavior such as loud outbursts or aggressive behavior.
What happens when alcohol binds to NMDA receptors?
Alcohol binds non-competitively to NMDA receptors. After binding to a receptor, alcohol inhibits ion passage through the NMDA receptor channel.
What happens when alcohol binds to GABA-A receptors?
Alcohol binds to and functions as a positive modulator for GABA-A receptors. Positive modulation of GABA-A receptors increases the length of receptor activation and increases the flow of Cl- ions into the neuron, increasing the inhibitory effect of GABA-A receptors.
What is the effect of low to moderate alcohol consumption on the circulatory system?
Alcohol causes blood vessels to dilate, improving blood flow throughout the body. By increasing blood flow in the skin and extremities, alcohol provides feelings of warmth and contributes to the belief that alcohol warms the body.
What is alcohol's effect on 5-HT3 receptors?
Alcohol causes the activation of 5HT-3 receptors through either enhancing serotonin levels or by increasing the flow of positively-charged ions through the 5HT-3 channel.
What is the effect of alcohol on serotonin concentrations in the NAC?
Alcohol increases serotonin concentrations in the NAC. Increased serotonin concentration in the NAC contribute to the reinforcing effects of cocaine and amphetamine, suggesting that increased serotonin levels may contribute to alcohol's reinforcing effects as well.
How can alcohol indirectly inhibit GABA-A neurons?
Alcohol indirectly inhibits GABA neurons by increasing levels of endogenous opioid β-endorphin.
Why does alcohol easily absorb into tissues?
Alcohol is highly soluble in water and fat, allowing for easy absorption in tissue.
How does alcohol reduce reaction time?
Alcohol markedly reduces reaction time. Slower reaction times can occur at relatively low BACs and are especially dangerous when driving. Reaction deficits can occur for BACs as low as 0.05, and they were especially pronounced at 0.08.
What is alcohol's primary effect on memory?
Alcohol produces deficits in memory, particularly at BACs 0.08 and higher. Those with BACs of 0.08 exhibited significant effects in episodic memory, the conscious memory of a personally experienced event, and semantic memory, the memory of verbal or written information. BACs of 0.08 do not affect working memory.
Describe the history of alcohol use.
Alcohol use (wine and beer) dates back thousands of years due to the accidental discovery of fermentation. The earliest reference to distilled spirits was in China around 1,000 B.C. Records of distilled spirits reveal alcohol use in Western Europe about 800 A.D. Alcohol has been viewed both positively and negatively in Western Europe. In colonial America, saloons were blamed for social ills such as thievery, gambling, prostitution, and political corruption. The temperance movement, supported by John D. Rockefeller, Andrew Carnegie, and Henry Ford, who felt abstinence would make better workers, led to prohibition (18th Amendment) between 1920 and 1933. In 1933, the 21st Amendment was passed to repeal prohibition. In 1785, Dr. Benjamin Rush proposed the idea of alcoholism as a disease in his book, "An Inquiry into the Effects of Ardent Spirits upon the Human Body and Mind."
What are some factors that affect BAC?
BAC determined by variety of factors including total body mass, proportion body fat, and the amount of alcohol dehydrogenase. 1. The bigger you are, the lower the BAC equivalent to someone smaller. 2. The more body fat, the less able you are to metabolize alcohol. Body fat is unable to absorb water. It keeps alcohol in the blood, resulting in a higher BAC. This is why women have higher BACs than men. 3. The more alcohol dehydrogenase, the faster alcohol is broken down.
What changes are caused in alcohol's effects on GABA neurons due to chronic alcohol administration?
Chronic alcohol administration causes several changes in alcohol's effects on GABA neurons. First, chronic administration reduces the number of GABA-A receptors. Second, GABA-A receptors become less affected by alcohol. Third, alcohol produces a lower increase in β-endorphin levels, resulting in less inhibition of GABA neurons. Reduced levels of GABA-A receptors contribute to withdrawal symptoms.
What is the effect of chronic alcohol administration of NMDA receptors? What is the possible consequence?
Chronic alcohol administration increases the number of NMDA receptors. During withdrawal, the enhanced levels of NMDA receptors allow glutamate to exhibit greater excitatory effects on neurons. These effects, combined with lower GABA-A receptor levels, increase the risk of seizures.
True or False: Alcohol priming only occurs in addicted users.
False
True or False: Beginning at a low BAC, alcohol improves balance and equilibrium.
False
How can different polymorphisms affect the rate of alcohol metabolism?
Different polymorphisms can affect the rate of alcohol metabolism. Those with the alcohol dehydrogenase 1Z*1 allele polymorphism more quickly convert alcohol to acetaldehyde, leading to greater accumulation of acetaldehyde. The acetaldehyde H2*2 allele polymorphism also causes a greater accumulation of acetaldehyde, but does so via slower catabolism of acetaldehyde by aldehyde dehydrogenase.
What are some distilled alcoholic beverages?
Distilled alcoholic beverages tend to contain at least 20% alcohol and come in many different varieties such as brandy, gin, rum, tequila, vodka, and whiskey.
How does distillation work?
During distillation, distillers heat a fermented mixture until it exceeds alcohol's boiling point. At this boiling point, alcohol evaporates; the alcohol vapors are routed through tubes into a cooler compartment where the alcohol returns to a liquid dorm, making a highly concentrated alcoholic solution.
How is alcohol legally regulated?
Each district in each state legally regulates alcohol sales.
How is alcohol metabolized?
Enzymes in the stomach, liver, and other parts of the body metabolize alcohol. The enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase converts alcohol into acetaldehyde, a chemical that produces noxious effects. Acetaldehyde converts to acetic acid and acetate by different forms of the enzyme aldehyde dehydrogenase. Another process converts acetic acid and acetate to carbon dioxide and water.
How do GABA-A receptors mediate alcohol's reinforcing effects?
GABA-A receptors also mediate alcohol's reinforcing effects. First, alcohol facilitates GABA-A receptor activation in the NAC. Second, alcohol activates GABA-A receptors located on GABA neurons in the VTA. The activation of these receptors causes reduced GABA release, in turn decreasing the inhibition of dopamine neurons. Reduce inhibition of dopamine neurons results in enhanced dopamine release in the NAC.
____________________ receptors mediate alcohol's reinforcing effects.
GABA-A receptors mediate alcohol's reinforcing effects.
What is kombucha?
Kombucha blends consist of brewed teas that contain alcohol.
What is the function of NMDA receptors?
NMDA receptors produce excitatory effects and facilitate learning and memory processes.
Does alcohol consumption actually make you feel warm?
No, alcohol consumption does not actually make you feel warm. By increasing blood flow in the skin and extremities, alcohol provides feelings of warmth and contributes to the belief that alcohol warms the body. In truth, the diversion of blood flow to the skin and extremities diminishes blood flow to the core, actually making the body colder.
What is the LD-50 for alcohol in adults?
The LD-50 for adults would be reached by ~20 drinks in 1 hour. The LD-50 BAC is 0.45-0.50%, or 0.45-0.50 g/dL.
How does the endocannabinoid system contribute to alcohol's reinforcing effects?
The endocannabinoid system may contribute to alcohol's reinforcing effects. These interactions may depend partly on the role of the cannabinoid CB1 receptor, which influences the activity of dopamine neurons within the reward circuit. The administration of the CB1 receptor antagonist rimonabant prevented alcohol from increasing dopamine levels in the NAC of rates. In another study, alcohol failed to increase NAC dopamine levels in CB1 receptor knock-out mice.
Where does the highest alcohol consumption levels occur?
The highest alcohol consumption levels occur in Europe, the Russian Federation, North America, South America, and Australia.
True or False: Impaired equilibrium due to alcohol occurs at BACs of 0.05, which falls below the legal limit.
True
True or False: More adults engage in patterns of binge drinking than patterned heavy drinking.
True
What is the route of administration for alcohol?
Users consume alcohol orally.
What is alcohol's effect on Ca+? What are some possible consequences of these effects?
Voltage-gated Ca+ channels facilitate neurotransmitter release and many other functions. Alcohol inhibits the L-type of Ca+ channels. Acute administration of alcohol reduces neurotransmitter release from axon terminals containing these channels. However, alcohol inhibition of L-type Ca+ channels specifically inhibits vasopressin release. By inhibiting vasopressin, alcohol causes increased urination. Depressed vasopressin levels also impair cognition, disrupts circadian rhythm, lowers blood pressure, and enhances aggression.
What are some other types of alcohol that are not safe to drink?
We interact with other types of alcohol, such as isopropyl alcohol and methanol, that are not safe to drink. Methanol is an industrial solvent used in many products, including antifreeze. Methanol acts as a toxin for optic nerves and can be produced during distillation for moonshine; if consumed, it could cause blindness.
How do we measure the amount of alcohol in the body?
We measure the amount of alcohol in the body by blood alcohol concentration (BAC).
______________________________ is characterized by thiamine deficiency.
Wernicke-Korsakoff's Syndrome
What happens when GABA activates GABA-A receptors?
When GABA activates GABA-A, the associated channels open and cause negatively-changed Cl- ions to enter the neuron. Cl- hyperpolarizes the neuron, inhibiting the neuron's activity.
Why do most beers and wines contain less than 15% alcohol?
When alcohol content exceeds 15%, the yeast die due to the alcohol content.
Can reaction times be decreased in infants?
Yes! Reductions in reaction time extend to prenatally exposed infants. Researchers tested the reaction time of infants from mothers who reported consuming small amounts of alcohol throughout their pregnancies. None of the infants were diagnosed with FAS. Despite this, these infants exhibited reduced reaction times.
Distillation
a method that separates alcohol from a fermented mixture
Alcohol Proof
a numerical value that is double the actual percentage of alcohol
Alcohol Priming
a phenomenon that describes the urge to consume more alcohol after consuming one or two drinks
Fermentation
a process of alcohol production using yeast cells and some type of starch such as grain or fruit
Vigilance
a state of readiness for detecting and responding to unpredictable events
Disinhibition
a weakening of behavioral control that manifests as poor risk assessment
Percentage Alcohol
also known as alcohol by volume; refers to the number of grams of alcohol found in 100 mL of solution
Wine
an alcoholic beverage, usually with 12-15% alcohol content, made through fermentation of fruit
Beer
an alcoholic beverage, usually with 5 percent or less alcohol content, made through fermentation of certain types of starch, such as barley, wheat, or rice
Methanol
an industrial solvent used in many products, including antifreeze
Beverage Alcohol
any drink containing ethyl alcohol, or ethanol, a central nervous system depressant
Heavy Drinking
at least four drinks per day for men; at least three drinks a day for women
What are some beverages made via fermentation?
beer, wine, and sake
Hormesis
beneficial effects produced by lower doses of a toxic substance
Distilled Alcoholic Beverages
beverages that are produced through distillation and have a higher alcohol content that beers and wines
Impulsivity
decision making without reflecting adequately on the consequences of those decision
Higher concentrations of alcohol yield _____________________ effects on physiological and psychological functions, whereas lower concentrations yield _________________ effects for certain physiological and psychological functions.
depressant; excitatory
Alcohol's effect on ____________________ contributes to increased automobile accidents.
divided attention
Binge Drinking
drinking that occurs in short time period consisting of at least five drinks per day for men and at least four drinks per day for women
Alcohol produces effects by inhibiting __________________________________ receptors.
excitatory glutamate NMDA
Alcohol's effects on GABA-A receptors are important for alcohol's effects on _________________________.
information processing, memory, and other cognitive activities (psychological effects)
Alcohol acts directly on ___________________________, which produce inhibitory effects on neurons.
ionotropic GABA-A
Light Drinking
less than two drinks per day for men; less than one drink per day for women
Alcohol functions as a _______________________________ to NMDA receptors.
non-competitive inhibitor
Alcohol functions as a _____________________________ to ionotropic GABA-A receptors.
positive modulator
