PSYC355_Chapter 5

Cross-group friendships

Associated with more positive attitudes and behaviors toward outgroup members Strong association between cross-group friendships and less intergroup anxiety and prejudice Causal role that such friendships can play in reducing intergroup prejudice

Changing cognition, cultures, and motivations

1. Being exposed to and thinking about examples of group members that are inconsistent with the stereotype 2. Learning about the variability that exists among the people in a group 3. Being induced to take the perspective of a person from a stereotyped group 4. Being encouraged to pay attention to or confront instances of discrimination 5. Believing that prejudice can be learned and unlearned and is therefore malleable rather than a fixed, unchanging reality 6. Learning that race is more ambiguous and socially determined than simply a genetic, fixed category 7. Taking multicultural views that recognize but also value group differences, that reveal new ways of thinking, and that acknowledge how different groups have influenced each other throughout history, as opposed to pretending to not notice distinctions between groups 8. Thinking of multiculturalism as an approach that is inclusive of everyone, including the majority group

Process of gender socialization

1. Biological and social factors, a division of labor between the sexes has emerged over time - Both at home and in the work setting - Men are more likely to work in construction or business - Women are more likely to care for children and to take lower-paying jobs 2. Since people behave in ways that fit the roles they play, men are more likely than women to wield physical, social, and economic power. 3. Behavioral differences provide a continuing basis for social perception, leading us to perceive men as dominant and women as domestic "by nature," when in fact the differences may reflect the roles they play Differences between men and women are based on real behavioral differences that are mistakenly assumed to arise from gender rather than from social roles

How contact reduces prejudice

1. Enhancing knowledge about the outgroup 2. Reducing anxiety about intergroup contact 3. Increasing empathy and perspective taking Reducing ignorance and anxiety about outgroup members and providing individuals with positive examples of outgroup members

Predictions from social identity theory

1. Threats to one's self-esteem heighten the need for ingroup favoritism 2. Expressions of ingroup favoritism enhance one's self-esteem.

Causes of stereotype threat

1. Trigger physiological arousal and stress 2. Drain cognitive resources 3. Cause a loss of focus to the task at hand because of attempts to suppress thoughts about the relevant stereotype 4. Impair working memory 5. Activate negative thoughts, worry, feelings of dejection, and concerns about trying to avoid failure rather than trying to achieve success 6. Elicit neural activity biased toward negative, stereotype-confirming feedback

Jigsaw classroom

A cooperative learning method used to reduce racial prejudice through interaction in group efforts. Jigsaw classrooms grew to like each other more, liked school more, were less prejudiced, and had higher self-esteem Academic test scores improved for minority students and remained the same for white students. Individuals became more likely to classify outgroup members as part of their own ingroup 1. Material to be learned within each group was divided into subtopics 2. Each student was responsible for learning one piece of the puzzle, after which all members took turns teaching their material to one another 3. The system needs everyone else if the group as a whole is to succeed

Social dominance orientation

A desire to see one's ingroup as dominant over other groups and a willingness to adopt cultural values that facilitate oppression over other groups. A measure of an individual's support for group-based hierarchies. It reflects a person's attitudes toward hierarchies in general, as well as beliefs about whether one's own group should dominate other groups High SDO believe that society should be structured in terms of inequality, with some groups at the top and others at the bottom Low SDO believe that society should be structured in terms of equality, with no single group dominating others.

Subliminal presentations

A method of presenting stimuli so faintly or rapidly that people do not have any conscious awareness of having been exposed to them. These effects occurred even among participants who did not consciously believe in the stereotypes in question Stereotypes can be activated implicitly and automatically, influencing subsequent thoughts, feelings, and behaviors even among perceivers who are relatively low in prejudice.

Stereotype content model

A model proposing that the relative status and competition between groups influence group stereotypes along the dimensions of competence and warmth. Groups may be considered high on both dimensions, low on both, or high on one dimension but low on the other Proposes that stereotypes about the competence of a group are influenced by the relative status of that group in society—higher relative status is associated with higher competence Stereotypes about the warmth of a group are influenced by perceived competition with the group - For groups that are seen as high on one dimension but low on the other, there may be a perceived trade-off between competence and warmth

Shooter bias

A quick glimpse of a black male face primed the participants to see a threatening object more than seeing a white male face did. Members of some groups are more likely to be mistakenly perceived as holding a gun than members of other groups Training designed specifically to curtail these biases can be effective, at least to some degree Officers must make these decisions under conditions of fatigue, high stress, and distraction—the conditions officers often face when having to make real shoot-or-not decisions—their ability to overcome stereotype-based biases are compromised Racial bias in the decision to shoot was not related to participants' levels of racial prejudice Racial prejudice is not necessarily reflected in this bias Awareness of the stereotype was a necessary factor, but believing it to be true was not

Superordinate goals

A shared goal that can be achieved only through cooperation among individuals or groups.

System justification theory

A theory that proposes that people are motivated (at least in part) to defend and justify the existing social, political, and economic conditions. Members of disadvantaged groups with a system justification orientation think that the system is fair and just, and they may admire and even show outgroup favoritism to outgroups that thrive in this system.

Illusory correlation

An overestimate of the association between variables that are only slightly or not at all correlated. Occurs when people overestimate the association between variables that are relatively rare Tendency can create or perpetuate negative stereotypes. Illusory correlations may also be produced through people's tendency to overestimate the association between variables they already expect to go together

Things that impact self-control

Being low in blood sugar, such as from being hungry, can weaken people's ability to control stereotyping and prejudice, and that a sugar-heavy drink can correct this problem Intoxication impairs people's ability to control stereotype activation and application Being physically tired or being affected by strong emotion or arousal

Response to criticism

Compared to white students, black students tended to respond less constructively and were more likely to dismiss the criticism as biased against them Negative reactions were eliminated if the reviewer who gave the criticism added two elements: 1. Made it clear that he had high standards 2. Assured the students that he was confident that they had the capacity to achieve those standards. - This combination of factors made the students trust the criticism and gave them the sense that they had a fair shot at succeeding at the task

Race and categorization

Distinctions between some of these social categories may be seen as more rigid, even more biologically rooted, than they actually are - There is more genetic variation within races than between them and emphasize that race is more of a social conception than a genetic reality Societies make distinctions between races can change dramatically as a function of historical contexts People who tend to think of race as a stable, biologically determined entity are less likely to interact with racial outgroup members and are more likely to accept racial inequalities than are people who see race as more socially determined - Biracial individuals are more vulnerable to some effects of stereotypes if they think of race as stable and biological

How to promote thinking that changes beliefs

Exposure to images and individuals that reflect the diversity within social groups It's more likely to have been learned by watching and interacting with one's peers than from having been lectured to about diversity and sensitivity by a campus speaker. Learning these norms can motivate us to adopt them. Legislating against hate speech, unequal treatment, and hostile environments can also be an important weapon Peer and cultural influences Media in promoting positive norms

Relative deprivation

Feelings of discontent aroused by the belief that one fares poorly compared with others.

Prevalence of stereotype threat

Found both in the laboratory and in real-world settings, including schools and businesses

Motives between groups

Fundamental motive to protect one's ingroup and be suspicious of outgroups is therefore likely to have evolved Basic motivations of self-protection are activated People are more prone to exhibit prejudice toward outgroups or to be especially hesitant to see possible outgroup members as part of one's ingroup The feeling of connection and solidarity we have with our own groups enhances our sense of control and meaning, and it is associated with numerous psychological as well as physical health benefits When we are feeling threatened or uncertain, we become especially motivated to reaffirm our identification and closeness with an ingroup, which can make us feel more safe and secure

Out group

Groups with which an individual does not feel a sense of membership, belonging, or identity.

In group

Groups with which an individual feels a sense of membership, belonging, and identity.

Aversive racism

Negative evaluations of racial/ethnic minorities are realized by a persistent avoidance of interaction with other racial and ethnic groups

The common ingroup identity model

If members of different groups re-categorize themselves as members of a more inclusive superordinate group, intergroup attitudes and relations can improve

Media effect and socialization

Images have the potential to perpetuate stereotypes and discrimination Media depictions can influence viewers

Re-catagorizing

Individuals from minority groups or groups that have less power in a society tend to not feel as positively as majority group members do about recategorizing their groups into one common ingroup A group with smaller numbers or less power may feel overwhelmed and a sense of lost identity if they merge completely with a larger or more powerful group. Dual-identity categorizations, in which their distinctiveness as a member of their specific group is preserved but in which they recognize their connection and potential for cooperation with the majority or more powerful group

Motivation for intergroup dominance and status

Ingroup identification and outgroup derogation and dehumanization can be especially strong among people with a social dominance orientation Social dominance orientations promote self-interest. But some ideologies support a social structure that may actually oppose one's self-interest, depending on the status of one's groups

Self-regulation of prejudiced responses model

Internally motivated individuals in particular may learn to control their prejudices more effectively over time 1. People who are motivated to be fair and unprejudiced do not live up to their goal 2. This realization leads to unpleasant emotions: guilt 3. When they experience many unpleasant emotions, they develop expertise at recognizing the situations and stimuli that tend to trigger these failures and can exert more control over them 4. They begin to interrupt what had been automatic stereotype activation.

Extended contact effect/Indirect contact effect

Knowing that an ingroup friend has a good and close relationship with a member of an outgroup can produce positive intergroup benefits in ways similar to direct contact

Social identity threats

Not necessarily tied to specific stereotypes but instead reflect a more general devaluing of a person's social group

Externally driven

Not wanting to appear to others to be prejudiced

Internally driven

Not wanting to be prejudiced, regardless of whether or not others would find out Internally motivated individuals are likely to be more successful at controlling stereotyping and prejudice, even on implicit measures They are vulnerable to the strong power of automatic stereotyping and implicit biases. Internally driven people are more successful at self-regulation than people who are motivated for external reasons

Gender and socialization

Many gender barriers of the past have broken down People are more likely to defy and confront gender-based stereotyping and discrimination Use their stereotypes in judging others and favoring their own gender in intergroup situations Gender socialization have neurobiological and evolutionary roots Children have ample opportunity to learn gender stereotypes and roles from their parents and other role models Influence the behavior of adults literally the moment a baby is born Boys and girls receive many divergent messages in many different settings

Factors that can impact subliminal presetnations

Several factors can make such activation more or less likely to happen Some stereotypes are much more prevalent than others in a particular culture With more exposure to a stereotype comes a greater likelihood of automatic activation How prejudiced the perceiver is People who are motivated for intrinsic reasons tend to be somewhat more successful at this kind of self-regulation

Terror Management Theory

People cope with the fear of their own death by constructing worldviews that help preserve their self-esteem and important values Favoring ingroups over outgroups is one important way that people preserve their cultural worldviews and, by doing so, try to attain a kind of immortality When individuals are made to think about mortality they become more likely to exhibit various ingroup biases

Antiprejudice messages

People don't like to be told how they must think and not think, and so antiprejudice messages that are perceived in that way can be counterproductive. Antiprejudice messages that are designed to appeal more to people's internal motivations may be more effective than messages that seem more externally focused

Attribution and subtyping

People maintain their stereotypes through how they explain the behaviors of others People often don't take into account the context that someone was in when they try to explain his or her behavior. This can help perpetuate negative stereotypes by, for example, people failing to recognize how a poor performance by a member of a stereotyped group may be due to the effects of these stereotypes rather than a lack of actual ability

Combating stereotype threat effects

People need to feel a sense of trust and safety. They must feel like they are not the target of others' low expectations and they do not have to concerned with unfairness or other obstacles that would otherwise distract, worry, or discourage them 1. Describing the task as not indicative of individuals' intellectual capabilities 2 Informing individuals that their group typically does not perform worse than other groups on the task 3. Giving individuals reason to attribute their anxiety while taking a test to irrelevant factors 4. Getting individuals to think of intelligence as not a fixed trait but instead of something that is malleable and can be improved

Why do we have outgroup homogeneous

People tend to have less personal contact and familiarity with individual members of outgroups - More familiar people are with an outgroup, the less likely they are to perceive it as homogeneous People often do not encounter a representative sample of outgroup members As soon as we categorize an unfamiliar person as a member of our ingroup or an outgroup, we immediately process information about them differently at even the most basic levels Greater activation in particular areas of perceivers' brains, such as the fusiform face area and the orbitofrontal cortex, upon exposure to unfamiliar faces labeled as ingroup members than outgroup members

Dehumanizing outgroups

Process them more like objects and lower-order animals than like fellow humans People often implicitly dehumanize members of particular outgroups Strong evidence for automatic dehumanization of various outgroups When people perceive or think about members of particular stigmatized outgroups, their patterns of brain activity suggest that they are responding to these outgroup members more as they would to objects than to fully human individuals who are capable of their own agency and mental states

Experiments with stereotype threat

Race: When asked to report their rate before the exam, it impaired the performance of black students but had no effect on white students Gender: Women performed worse than men when they were told that the test typically produced gender differences, but they performed as well as men when they were told that the test typically did not produce gender differences

Race categorization and economic status

Racial categorization is also affected by people's social and economic status Perceivers are more likely to categorize others as racially black if they are of lower socioeconomic status, if they are incarcerated, or if they are unemployed. These same factors may have similar effects on how people categorize themselves racially

Stereotype and self-fulfilling

Situations in which stereotyped group members are led to actually behave in stereotype-confirming ways

Belonging

Stereotype threat undermines students is that it reduces their sense of belonging

Automatic stereotype activation

Stereotypes can be activated without our awareness We don't have to believe a stereotype for it to trigger illusory correlations and self-fulfilling prophecies or to influence how we think, feel, and behave toward group members When we think of a stereotyped group we are also primed to think of concepts relevant to the stereotype

Confirmation bias

Stereotypes of groups influence people's perceptions and interpretations of the behaviors of group members. This is especially likely when a target of a stereotype behaves in an ambiguous way; perceivers reduce the ambiguity by interpreting the behavior as consistent with the stereotype Effect of stereotypes on individuals' perceptions is a type of confirmation bias

Stereotypes and groups

Stereotypes typically are held not just by individuals but by many people within a culture, and they are often perpetuated through repeated communications

Social categorization

The classification of persons into groups on the basis of common attributes. It is natural and adaptive. It allows us to form impressions quickly and use experience to guide new interactions. People leads us to overestimate the differences between groups and to underestimate the differences within groups Basic perception is affected by categorization - Prejudice can heighten this kind of bias Some categorization are more likely to quickly dominate our perceptions than others

Stereotype threat

The experience of concern about being evaluated based on negative stereotypes about one's group. Particularly threatening for individuals whose identity and self-esteem are invested in domains where the stereotype is relevant Stereotype threat plays a crucial role in influencing the intellectual performance and identity of stereotyped group members Can hamper achievement in academic domains in two ways - Reactions to the "threat in the air" can directly interfere with performance - Cause individuals to disidentify from that domain—to dismiss the domain as no longer relevant to their self-esteem and identity The performance of people who have had success at something and who care the most may be most affected by stereotype threat effects A person can be affected by stereotype threat even if he or she does not believe in the negative stereotype. Just knowing about the stereotype seems to be enough Even if the black student doesn't believe the stereotype at all, the threat of being reduced to a stereotype in the eyes of those around her can trigger anxiety and distraction, impairing her performance - To buffer themselves against the threat, they may disidentify with school. If they do this, their academic performance will become less relevant to their identity and self-esteem, and they will therefore work less hard and perform worse

Shadenfreude

The experience of pleasure at other people's misfortunes, particularly for celebrities or others we don't feel empathy for

Socialization

The processes by which people learn the norms, rules, and information of a culture or group We learn a tremendous amount of information by absorbing what we see around us in our culture, groups, and families Stereotypes and prejudices of a parent can shape the stereotypes and prejudices of a child, often in implicit ways Stereotypes and prejudices exhibited by peers, the popular media, and one's culture are part of the air each of us breathes as we develop, and these influences can be profound Effects are typically gradual and develop over the lifetime - They can also be immediate

Identity fusion

The sense of "oneness" that people may feel with a group Helpful behavior toward the group, even at the risk of personal sacrifice

Outgroup homogeneity effect

The tendency to assume that there is greater similarity among members of outgroups than among members of ingroups. To people outside the group, outgroup members even look alike: People are less accurate in distinguishing and recognizing the faces of members of racial outgroups than of ingroups Effects of ingroup/outgroup labeling can even override the effects of racial biases on these measures.

Ingroup favortism

The tendency to discriminate in favor of ingroups over outgroups.

Contact hypothesis

The theory that direct contact between hostile groups will reduce intergroup prejudice under certain conditions. - Equal status: the contact should occur in circumstances that place the two corpus in equal status - Personal interaction: the contact should involve one-on-one interactions among individuals members of the two groups - Cooperative activities: members of the two groups should join together in an effort to achieve superordinate goals - Social norms: the social norms, defined in part by relevant authorities, should amor intergroup contact Whites and blacks would like to have more contact with each other but believe that the other group does not want to have contact with them Intergroup contact that emphasizes shared goals and fates can effectively reduce prejudice and discrimination

Realistic conflict theory

The theory that hostility between groups is caused by direct competition for limited resources. As a simple matter of economics, one group may fare better in the struggle for land, jobs, or power than another group. The losing group becomes frustrated and resentful, the winning group feels threatened and protective "Realistic" competition for resources may in fact be imagined

Social identity theory

The theory that people favor ingroups over outgroups in order to enhance their self-esteem. Each of us strives to enhance our self-esteem, which has two components: 1. A personal identity and 2. Various collective or social identities that are based on the groups to which we belong. People can boost their self-esteem through their own personal achievements or through affiliation with successful groups Leads us to derive pride from our connections with others even if we don't receive any direct benefits from these others We often feel the need to belittle "them" in order to feel secure about "us." - When people shared negative attitudes about a third party, they felt closer to each other Proposed that threats to one's self-esteem can lead individuals to use available negative stereotypes to derogate members of stereotyped groups, and that by derogating others they can feel better about themselves A blow to one's self-image evokes prejudice and the expression of prejudice helps restore self-image. Intergroup discrimination is achieved not only through negative reactions and behaviors toward outgroups but also through being especially favorable and helpful toward one's ingroups

Social role theory

The theory that small gender differences are magnified in perception by the contrasting social roles occupied by men and women. Perception of sex differences may be based on some real differences, it is magnified by the unequal social roles men and women occupy

Metastereotypes

Thoughts about the outgroup's stereotypes about them

Exerting self-control

Trying to suppress stereotyping or to control prejudiced actions can take mental effort, and people often don't have the time, energy, or awareness to dedicate to this effort Relied on their stereotypes more when they didn't have time to try to overcome their biases. Older people have a harder time suppressing stereotypes than younger people

Collectivists and social identity

Value their connectedness and interdependence with the people and groups around them, and their personal identities are tied closely with their social identities. Collectivists do show some biases favoring their ingroups May draw sharper distinctions between ingroup and outgroup members than individualists Collectivists tend to have a narrower circle of people they trust than do individualists Collectivist cultures are less likely to enhance their ingroups in order to boost their own self-esteem Collectivist cultures of East Asia tend to have higher tolerance for what Westerners would consider contradictions East Asianers are more likely to see their ingroups as having both positive and negative qualities

Culture and stereotypes

We are somehow taught these stereotypes from our culture

Subtyping

We consider the action or the person a mere exception to the rule When people see others acting in ways that seem to contradict a stereotype, they may be more likely to think about situational factors in order to explain the surprising behavior. Perceivers imagine the situational factors that might explain away this apparent exception to the rule. Perceivers can more easily maintain their stereotypes of these groups

In group and out group

We see people in fundamentally different ways if we consider them to be part of our ingroup or as part of an outgroup. We exaggerate the differences between our ingroup and other outgroups, and this exaggeration of differences helps to form and reinforce stereotypes