PSYC&100 Chapter 2

Define and give an example of an experiment. Explain why experiments have the potential to establish cause-and-effect relationships, but other research methods cannot.

- An experiment: is an investigation in which a hypothesis is scientifically tested. (Example: A scientist studies how many days people can eat soup until they get sick. The independent variable is the number of days of consuming soup. The dependent variable is the onset of illness.) - Cause-and-effect relationships: changes in one variable cause the changes in the other variable; can be determined only through an experimental research design.

Define and explain the role of independent and dependent variables, and of experimental and control groups in an experiment.

- An independent variable: is manipulated or controlled by the experimenter; in a sound experimental study, the independent variable is the only important difference between the experimental and control group. - A dependent variable: is what the researcher measures to see how much effect the independent variable had. => In an experiment, manipulations of the independent variable are expected to result in changes in the dependent variable. - Experimental group: group designed to answer the research question; experimental manipulation is the only difference between the experimental and control groups, so any differences between the two are due to experimental manipulation rather than chance. - Control group: serves as a basis for comparison and controls for chance factors that might influence the results of the study—by holding such factors constant across groups so that the experimental manipulation is the only difference between groups. => experimental group gets the experimental manipulation—that is, the treatment or variable being tested; and the control group does not.

Define Anthropomorphize. ( not in the book)

- Anthropomorphize: to endow with human qualities, to attribute human characteristics to something that is non-human.

Define confounding variables. Discuss the problems associated with the following confounding variables: random variables, placebo effect, and experimenter bias.

- Confounding variables: is actually causing the systematic movement in our variables of interest. - Placebo effect: people's expectations or beliefs influencing or determining their experience in a given situation. - Experimenter bias: refers to the possibility that a researcher's expectations might skew the results of the study.

Define correlation. Explain how correlation coefficients are interpreted. Explain why correlation does not guarantee causation.

- Correlation: relationship between two or more variables; when two variables are correlated, one variable changes as the other does (such as ice cream consumption and crime). We can measure correlation by calculating a statistic known as a correlation coefficient. - Correlation coefficients are interpreted: is a number from -1 to +1 that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between variables. The correlation coefficient is usually represented by the letter r. The closer the number is to 1 (be it negative or positive), the more strongly related the variables are, and the more predictable changes in one variable will be as the other variable changes. The closer the number is to zero, the weaker the relationship, and the less predictable the relationships between the variables becomes. - Correlation does not guarantee causation: correlation is limited because establishing the existence of a relationship tells us little about cause and effect. While variables are sometimes correlated because one does cause the other, it could also be that some other factor, a confounding variable, is actually causing the systematic movement in our variables of interest. (For example, in the ice cream/crime rate example mentioned earlier, temperature is a confounding variable that could account for the relationship between the two variables.)

Define and give an example of a hypothesis, operational definition, and variable.

- Hypothesis: is a testable prediction about how the world will behave if our idea is correct, and it is often worded as an if-then statement. (For example, if I study all night, I will get a passing grade on the test). - Operational definition: is a description of how we will measure our variables, and it is important in allowing others understand exactly how and what a researcher measures in a particular experiment. (For example, tell the participants in the experiment what the scientists gonna do in the research). - Variable: is defined as anything that has a quantity or quality that varies.Variables can be classified as either dependent or independent. (For example, a person spend the number of hours to work-independent variable-in order to earn money-dependent variable).

Define Hypothetical Construct and Reification. (not in the book)

- Hypothetical Construct: is an explanatory variable which is not directly observable. -Reification: is the tendency for individuals to ascribe a definitive value or form to an abstract concept.

Describe the following research methods, and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each: naturalistic observation, case studies (clinical), and surveys.

- Naturalistic observation: observation of behavior in its natural setting. + Advantages: this research approach provides a glimpse into how people behave in their natural settings, the greatest benefit of naturalistic observation is the validity, or accuracy, of information collected unobtrusively in a natural setting. + Disadvantages: people's privacy is invaded, affect people's feeling which make them act abnormal. - Case studies: collect a great deal of information from one individual in order to better understand physical and psychological changes over the lifespan. + Advantages: This particular approach is an excellent way to better understand individuals, who are exceptional in some way, but it is especially prone to researcher bias in interpretation, and it is difficult to generalize conclusions to the larger population, have a very deep understanding of the individuals and the particular phenomenon being studied. + Disadvantages: scientists waste a lot of time spending their entire careers studying some individuals, case studies provide enormous amounts of information, but since the cases are so specific, the potential to apply what's learned to the average person may be very limited. - Surveys: are lists of questions to be answered by research participants, and can be delivered as paper-and-pencil questionnaires, administered electronically, or conducted verbally. + Advantages: collect information from a larger sample of people, the data we collect from the survey can be generalized to the larger population with more certainty than the information collected through a case study. + Disadvantages: given the greater number of people involved, we are not able to collect the same depth of information on each person that would be collected in a case study, people don't always give accurate responses. They may lie, misremember, or answer questions in a way that they think makes them look good.

Define one ontological position (mechanical, organic, contextual) (not in the book)

- Ontology: is the study of existence.

Define random assignment, placebo, and double-blind design. Explain the purpose of each in an experiment.

- Random assignment: method of experimental group assignment in which all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to either group. - Placebo: people's expectations or beliefs influencing or determining their experience in a given situation. - Double-blind design: experiment in which both the researchers and the participants are blind to group assignments.

Discuss the importance of reliability and validity (tầm quan trọng của độ tin cậy và tính hợp lệ) in evaluating the quality of evidence.

- Reliability: refers to the ability to consistently produce a given result. ( For example, consider a kitchen scale that would be used to measure the weight of cereal that you eat in the morning. If the scale is not properly calibrated, it may consistently under- or overestimate the amount of cereal that's being measured. While the scale is highly reliable in producing consistent results (e.g., the same amount of cereal poured onto the scale produces the same reading each time), those results are incorrect. This is where validity comes into play.) - Validity: refers to the extent to which a given instrument or tool accurately measures what it's supposed to measure.

Define sampling, random sample, and biased sample. Discuss the importance of sampling in data collection.

- Sampling: the taking of a sample or samples. - Random sample: subset of a larger population in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. - Biased sample:

Define empiricism.

An empirical method for acquiring knowledge is one based on observation, including experimentation, rather than a method based only on forms of logical argument or previous authorities.

Define critical thinking.

Critical thinking is the active application of a set of skills to information for the understanding and evaluation of that information.

Define epistemology.

Epistemology studies the nature of knowledge, justification, and the rationality of belief.

Define the concept "theory".

Theory: is a well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena.