PSYCH 111 Exam #2, Chapter 9: Learning
Reasoning
-A mental activity that consists of organizing information or beliefs into a series of steps in order to reach conclusions -Logic is a tool for evaluating reasoning
Avoidance Motivation
-A motivation not to experience negative emotions -Tend to be more powerful (the flipping of the coin bet..can win $100...but don't want to risk loosing $80) -Loss aversion: The tendency to care more about avoiding losses than about achieving equal-size gains -Prevention focus
Approach Motivation
-A motivation to experience positive outcomes -Promotion focus
Extrinsic Motivation
-A motivation to take actions that are not themselves rewarding but that lead to reward -None of these things is a source of pleasure in and of itself, but all can increase pleasure in the long run
Intrinsic Motivation
-A motivation to take actions that are themselves rewarding -Tend to be more satisfying -Threats and rewards can make intrinsic motivation extrinsic -People work harder when they are intrinsically motivated, they enjoy what they do more, and they do it more creatively
Semantic memory
-A network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world -Part of explicit memory
Thought
-An extension of perception and memory -Mental representations are formed, recalled, and manipulated
Category-specific deficit
-An inability to recognize objects that belong to a particular category, although the ability to recognize objects outside the category is undisturbed -Example: A person may have severe difficulty recognizing faces and other biological objects, like a mouse -Category-specific brain organization may be innately determined (pre-wired)
Drives
-An internal state of tension that signals a physiological need and propels one to a certain activity/behavior to lessen the feeling -Example: I am hungry, I am going to eat -Drive-reduction theory: The primary motivation of all organisms is to reduce their drives -Example: animals are motivated to reduce their drive for food, and it is the reduction of this drive that they find rewarding, not the food itself
Emotional Expression
-Any observable sign of an emotional state -Our body expresses emotions through emotional expression such as the tone of our speech, the direction of our gaze, even the rhythm of our gate, but the HUMAN FACE expresses emotion best
Prototype theory (Rosch)
-Based on the "best" or "most typical" member of a category -People make category judgments by comparing new instances with the category's prototype -Example: In North America, a wren is a better example of a bird than a penguin or an ostrich -The left hemisphere is primarily involved in forming prototypes
Sufficient condition
-Something that, if it is true of the object, proves that it belongs to the category -If it is a german shepherd, sufficient info to know that it is a dog
Need for Achievement
-The motivation to solve worthwhile problems. -This basic motivation is unconscious
Need for Affiliation
-The need to be connected/related to others -Hill proposed 4 functions we strive to affiliate 1. To obtain positive stimulation in our lives 2. To receive emotional support 3. To gain attention 4. To permit social comparison -The need varies by individual -Found that the need to affiliate is increased in fear situations
Rational choice theory
-We make decisions by determining how likely something is to happen, judging the value of the outcome, and then multiplying the two -Most of the time, though, we are irrational
Confirmation Bias
-We seek to confirm what we already believe -Example: proofreading your own paper is never effective
Universal grammar
-A collection of processes that facilitate language learning -Chomsky claims that the human brain is equipped with it at birth
Action tendencies
-A readiness to engage in a specific set of emotion-relevant behaviors -Example: When you are frightened by a sudden loud noise, you instantly stop moving...the emotional state called fear produces an action tendency called "freezing"
Phonological rules
-A set of rules that indicate how phonemes can be combined to produce speech sounds -The initial sound ts is acceptable in German but not in English
Syntactical rules
-A set of rules that indicate how words can be combined to form phrases and sentences -Example: every sentence must contain one or more nouns
Genetic dysphasia
-A syndrome characterized by an inability to learn the grammatical structure of language despite having otherwise normal intelligence -Opposite of what is known to be true: language capacity can be somewhat distinct from other mental capacities
Language
-A system for communicating with others using signals that are combined according to rules of grammar and convey meaning -Human language differs from animals because we have a very complex way to express ideas and concepts, we use words to describe intangible things (unicorn, democracy), and we use words to think
Emotion
-A temporary state that includes unique subjective experiences and physiological activity, and that prepares people for action -A positive or negative experience that is associated with a particular pattern of physiological activity.
Terror management theory
-A theory about how people respond to knowledge of their own mortality -Cultural worldview: shared set of beliefs about what is good and right and true that allow people to see themselves as more than mortal animals because they inhabit a world of meaning in which they can achieve symbolic immortality (ex. by leaving a great legacy or having children)
Compensatory Decision Models
-Allows attractive attributes to compensate for unattractive attributes -Example: For my new apartment, I am only spending $25...ok I will spend a little more because this apartment has a pool!
How do the amygdala and the cortex interact to produce emotion?
-Amygdala plays an important part in emotion, helping to determine whether stimuli are emotionally relevant An appraisal is made of a stimulus and the thalamus routes that stimulus along two routes 1) fast pathway to amygdala where the amygdala makes a very fast and simple decision if it is a threat 2) slow pathway to cortex then amygdala - the cortex takes longer to process but when it's finished it sends a signal to the amygdala telling it either to maintain the state of fear or decrease it -Amygdala's job is to hit the emotional gas pedal, and the cortex's job is to hit the brakes
Distraction by irrelevant information
-People often get sidetracked and it detracts from effective problem solving -Usually from extra, unnecessary information -Example: how many socks do you need to take out?
What do studies show about delayed gratification?
-Children who are taught delayed gratification by their parents are judged to be more intelligent and socially competent 10 years later and have higher SAT scores -In fact, the ability to delay gratification is a BETTER predictor of a child's grade in school that is the child's IQ!
Well-defined problem
-Clearly specified goals and clearly defined solution paths -Example: following a clear set of directions to get to school
Second-order conditioning
-Conditioning where a CS is paired with a stimulus that became associated with the US in an earlier procedure -Example: black squares paired with a bell, now dogs salivate to just a black square -Example: Although money is not directly associated with the thrill of driving a new sports car, through second-order conditioning, money can become linked with this type of desirable reward
Appraisal
-Conscious or unconscious evaluations and interpretations of the emotion-relevant aspects of a stimulus or event -Emotions are responses to appraisals -We naturally appraise events on a number of dimensions, such as the event's self-relevance ("Does this affect me?") and importance ("Does this matter?"), our ability to cope with the event ("Can I handle this?") and to control it ("Can I change this?"), and others
Noncompensatory Decision Model
-Does not allow attributes to compensate for the other; bottom line decision making -Example: Buying the cheapest plane ticket no matter what
Deductive/Syllogistic reasoning
-Draw conclusions from a set of assumptions; the conclusion is true if the premise is true -Syllogism: assesses whether a conclusion follows from two statements that are assumed to be true -Example: Premise 1: No cigarettes are inexpensive. Premise 2: Some addictive things are inexpensive. Conclusion: Some addictive things are not cigarettes.
Interactionist Theory of Language Development
-Emphasizes the interaction between biology and the environment in developing language -The human brain develops so that it can be receptive to new language input and development -Children are motivated to practice the language in order to communicate/socialize
Hunger/Food
-Energy is necessary for maintenance and growth -When hungry, we search for a balanced diet to bring body back to physiological equilibrium -Different kinds of hunger: protein hunger, carbohydrates hunger, etc
Social factors that impact eating behaviors
-Environmental influences on eating behaviors -Complex and multiply determined -Eat more in groups -Expectation and Memory of Meals: we eat at "meal time" -Palatability -Social interactions: eating can be social
James-Lange Theory
-Feelings are simply the perception of one's own physiological responses to a stimulus -The theory that stimulus triggers activity in the body, which in turn produces an emotional experience in the brain. -Our feelings are the consequence, and not the cause, of our body's reactions to events in the world -Example: first you see the bear (the "exciting fact"), which instantly causes your heart to start pounding (the "bodily changes"), and then you have the feeling called fear
Biological factors that impact eating behaviors
-Genetics influence metabolism -Bodily sensations: growl, distension -Chemical signals to the body: ghrelin and leptin -Leptin-resistance: some individuals do not respond to the chemical message to "turn off" -Genetic mapping of "obesity genes"
Elimination by Aspects Model
-Gradually eliminate options whose attributes fail to satisfy a minimum criteria -Example: buying the cheapest computer..."ok not this one, not that one..."
Abraham Maslow
-He stated that people are motivated to fulfill a hierarchy of needs, and people do not experience a need until the needs below it are met - Example: We are motivated to eat to convert food to energy (hypothalamus)
Wernicke's Area
-Located in the left temporal cortex, is involved in language comprehension (whether spoken or signed).
Resemblance theory
-Identifying members of a category based on characteristic features, but this attribute may not be shared by all -Example: Harry Potter fan may think a girl with red hair is part of the Weasley family
How, and how well, does reappraisal work?
-It works by changing the way one thinks about an emotional stimulus - by turning down the activity of one's amygdala by thinking differently about the stimulus -It is considered a great strategy for emotional regulation however some people who are mentally and physically healthy do better than others -People who are good at changing how they see things in order to feel better about the things they see can be less compassionate toward those who are suffering
Availability Heuristic
-Items that are more readily available in memory are judged as having occurred more frequently -Things which are easily recalled seem to be typical/common -Example: list of women and men, equal number of each gender, women are famous, reading the list, we assumed there are more women on the list
Representativeness heuristic
-Judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes -May lead us to ignore other relevant information, such as the existing probability of an event -Example: engineer or lawyer based on a description, knowing that there are 70 engineers and 30 layers
Behaviorist Theory of Language Development
-Language is based on modeling, imitation, exposure and reinforcement -Example: Infant gurgles "prah," parents are indifferent, but a sound that even remotely resembles "da-da" is reinforced with smiles and "Goooood baaaaaby!" -Flaws: 1. Children acquire language with ease, not broad variations 2. Adult speech is often sloppy, but children acquire the basic rules anyways 3. Children's speech is not a mechanical playback of adult speech
Gleason Study
-Language rules are generative (wug test) -Children apply the rules of grammar even to none-sense words that Gleason made up and taught them
Lying and Polygraphs
-Liars speak more slowly, take longer to respond to questions, and respond with less detail -A polygraph is a machine that can distinguish true and false utterances with better-than-chance accuracy but has a troublingly high error rate (far too high to be useful)
Mental Stimulation
-Mental rehearsal of the steps needed to solve a problem -Example: what time do I need to leave for the airport? Map out steps in head and how long they will take instead of actually performing them
Concept
-Mental representation that groups or categorizes shared features of related objects, events, or other stimuli -We form categories by noticing similarities among objects and events that we experience in everyday life -Example: category for bird may be something like "small winged, beaked creature that flies"
Nativist Theory of Language Development
-Noam Chomsky says that language development is best explained as an innate, biological capacity -This biological predisposition to acquire language explains why newborn infants can distinguish contrasts among phonemes that occur in all human languages -Supported by the fact that once puberty is reached, acquiring language becomes extremely difficult
Obesity
-Obesity is defined as having a body mass index (BMI) of 30 or greater -Health Related Concerns: 1. Coronary heart disease 2. Type 2 diabetes 3. Cancers (endometrial, breast, and colon) 4. Hypertension (High blood pressure) 5. Stroke 6. Sleep apnea and respiratory problems -Cause of Obesity: 1. Can be hereditary 2. Quantity availability: increased high fat and easily accessible junk food with an increased portion size 3. Increased sedentary lifestyle 4. External cues: size of the plate, the color of the plate, etc
Framing effects
-Occur when people give different answers to the same problem depending on how the problem is phrased (or framed) -Example: People are told that a particular drug has a 70% effectiveness rate, and they are usually pretty impressed. Tell them that a drug has a 30% failure rate, and they perceive it as risky
Sunk-cost fallacy
-Occurs when people make decisions about a current situation on the basis of what they have previously invested in the situation -Example: If you paid $100 for a concert ticket, but it is now cold and rainy, you will still go because you invested money, even though the money is a "sunk cost" (it's gone no matter if you stay home or not)
Ill-defined problem
-One that does not have a clear goal or well-defined path to a solution -Most everyday problems (being a better person, finding that special someone, achieving success) are ill defined
Underextensions
-One word is incorrectly believed to apply to only one member of a group or classification -Example: "sissy" is the only sister that exists
Difficulty Losing Weight
-Overeating leads to increase in the number and size of fat cells. When we lose weight, we experience a decrease in the size of fat cells, but not the number of fat cells, so it is always there. -Dieting affects our metabolism; the rate at which term-63energy is used. Our body adapts to less calories by trying to maximize the ways to turn food we do consume into fat
Hedonic principle
-People are primarily motivated to experience pleasure and avoid pain -Feeling good is our reason for being, even if it is a delayed gratification; going to the dentist, studying for an exam
Optimism bias
-People believe that, compared with other individuals, they are more likely to experience positive events and less likely to experience negative events in the future -Example: people believe they are more likely than others to live a long life and less likely to have a heart attack
Why do rewards sometimes backfire?
-People can take rewards as an indication that an activity isn't inherently pleasurable and lose their intrinsic motivation to do the activity without the reward -"If they had to pay me to do that puzzle, it couldn't have been a very fun one"
Prospect Theory/Loss Aversion
-People choose to take on risks when evaluating potential losses and to avoid risks when evaluating potential gains -The risk we are willing to take depends on whether it is to avoid a loss or achieve a gain
Belief Bias
-People's judgments about whether to accept conclusions depend more on how believable the conclusions are than on whether the arguments are logically valid -Example: Statement 1: No addictive things are inexpensive. Statement 2: Some cigarettes are inexpensive. Conclusion: Some cigarettes are not addictive.
Hypothalamus
-Primary structure of the brain which signals hunger and satisfaction (fullness) -Lateral (near side) turns hunger "on": stimulation yields increased eating and damage can cause starvation -Ventromedial (lower, middle) turns hunger "off": stimulation stops eating and damage can cause voracious eating
Additive Model
-Rating the attributes of each alternative and selecting the one which has the highest sum -Example: choosing colleges
Decision making in the brain
-Significant involvement in the prefrontal cortex related to our judgment -Damage to this part of the brain leads to riskier decisions.
Analogical problem solving
-Solving a problem by finding a similar problem with a known solution and applying that solution to the current problem -Problem solving is strongly affected by superficial similarities between problems -Example: relationship between the tumor and fortress problems
Bilingualism
-Some question whether learning a second language interferes with acquisition, but we often see similar cumulative vocabulary -Most research does not show cognitive limitations when learning two languages in the developmental period -Bilingual children score higher on executive control capacities such as the ability to prioritize information and flexibly focus attention -Lasting changes on the brain, such as increased grey matter where language is controlled -A second language is learned best when younger at a "sensitive period" for language development
Necessary condition
-Something that must be true of the object in order for it to belong to the category -A dog must be a mammal
Telegraphic speech
-Speech that is devoid of function morphemes and consists mostly of content words -"More milk", "throw ball"
Two-Factor Theory
-Stimuli trigger a general state of physiological arousal, which is then interpreted as a specific emotion -We have just one bodily response to all emotionally relevant stimuli, but we interpret that response differently on different occasions -You see a bear, your heart pounds - your brain notices the pounding, and the bear makes you interpret your arousal as fear
Mental Set
-Tendency to stick to solutions which have worked in the past -Example: solving set of numbers algebraically, so can't solve the alphabetizing set because you aren't thinking that way
Receptive language
-The ability to comprehend, process, and integrate the meaning of language -At 12-13 months, children have about 50 words of receptive speech -Children have a greater capacity for receptive speech -Example: "Do you want a cookie", a young child can nod and smile, but maybe not say yes or ask for a cookie yet
Why should people delay gratification?
-The ability to engage in behavior that may seem unrewarding in the present (like taking psych 101) because we believe they will bring greater rewards in the future is one of our species' most significant talents -Studying for an exam now instead of going to a baseball game will reap greater rewards in the future than the game does now
Expressive (productive) language
-The ability to produce language -At 18 months, children have 50 words of expressive speech
Overregularization
-The application of rules of grammar even when exceptions occur, making the language seem more "regular" than it actually is -past tense is indicated by -ed, so run becomes runned instead of ran
Gambler's Fallacy
-The belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn't occurred recently -Example: "haven't rolled a 7 in a while...I bet 7!"
Instincts
-The biologically determined and innate patterns of behavior that exist in both people and animals -"The faculty of acting in such a way as to produce certain ends, without foresight of the ends, and without previous education in the performance" -Fallen out of fashion once behaviorism came because they believed that complex behaviors were learned, not hard-wired
Metalinguistic awareness
-The capacity to asses the different uses of language -Example: homonyms (read vs. red)
Motivation
-The internal causes of purposeful behavior -Vigor and persistence of goal directed behavior, helps us move towards our goals
Reliable Muscles
-The expressive muscles that people cannot easily control, and thus, provide clues to the sincerity of an expression -Example: most people can easily control the zygomaticus major muscles that raise the corners of the mouth but not the orbicularis oculi muscles that crinkle the corners of the eyes
Incentives
-The external goals that promote a behavior -Why we eat when we're not hungry
Universality Hypothesis and the Basic Emotions
-The hypothesis that all emotional expressions mean the same thing to all people in all places at all times -Six basic emotions best at identifying: happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, and disgust -Current research is exploring contempt
Facial Feedback Hypothesis
-The hypothesis that emotional expressions can cause the emotional experiences they signify. -Example: People feel happier when they are asked to hold a pencil in their teeth (which causes contraction of the zygomaticus major) than when they are asked to hold a pencil in their lips -We tend to mimic the interaction partner's facial expression and posture, which can cause us to feel what our partners are feeling
Linguistic relativity hypothesis
-The idea that language shapes the nature of thought -Benjamin Whorf (1956) believed that because the native American language has many different terms for frozen white flakes of precipitation, for which we use the word snow, they perceive and think about snow differently than English speakers -Although most disagree, recent evidence shows that language can influence thought both by highlighting specific properties of concepts and by allowing us to formulate verbal rules that help solve problems
Morphemes
-The smallest meaningful units of language -Adding s to dog (dogs) changes the meaning of the word, so here s functions as a morpheme -Content morphemes: things and events (e.g., "cat," "dog," "take") -Function morphemes: serve grammatical functions, such as tying sentences together ("and", "but") or indicating time ("when")
Phoneme
-The smallest unit of sound that is recognizable as speech rather than as random noise -Initial phonemes: "c"at or "b"at -Middle phonemes: b"i"t or b"a"t
Emotion Regulation
-The strategies people use to influence their own emotional experience -Some of these strategies are behavioral (avoiding situations that trigger unwanted emotions) and some are cognitive (recruiting memories that trigger the desired emotion)
Insight Problem Solving
-The sudden discovery of the correct solution following incorrect attempt based primarily on trial and error -The "AHA" moment -Solving a problem based on insight feels radically different from solving it through step-by-step analysis or trial and error because of the "lightbulb"
Homeostasis
-The tendency for a system to take action to keep itself in equilibrium (at balance)/maintain a state of constancy -Example: when a thermostat senses that the room has reached optimal temperature, it sends a signal to the furnace to turn itself off and stop blowing heat, so the thermostat is in equilibrium
Functional fixedness
-The tendency to perceive the functions of objects as unchanging; we rely on a function for an object and ignore other possible uses -Overcoming involves creative/novel ways to use objects
Cannon-Bard Theory
-The theory that a stimulus simultaneously triggers or causes activity in the body and emotional experience in the brain -Cognitive interpretations of a situation and response occur at approximately the same time
Overextension
-The use of a given word in a broader context than is appropriate -Example: all animals are a "doggie"
Assessment of Achievement Motivation
-Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) developed by Murray but used by McClelland -It is a projective test that presents people with a series of drawings and asks them to tell stories about them. The amount of "achievement-related imagery" in the person's story ostensibly reveals the person's unconscious need for achievement. -People high in achievement tend to work harder and more persistently, more future oriented, able to delay gratification for long term goals
Psychological factors that impact eating behaviors
-Thinking about food and what it "means": your comfort food -Learned food habits/preferences -Memories associated with food -Belief and feelings regarding body image -Cultural variations: robust = higher class in olden days -Food as a "substitute" for love, sex
Evolutionary mismatch
-Traits that were adaptive in an ancestral environment may be maladaptive in a modern environment -Example: We developed a strong attraction to foods that provide large amounts of energy per bite, which is why most of us prefer cheeseburgers and milkshakes to spinach and tea -Example: We developed an ability to store excess food energy in the form of fat, which enabled us to eat more than we needed when food was plentiful and then live off our reserves when food was scarce
Broca's Aphasia
-Understand language relatively well, but they have increasing comprehension difficulty as grammatical structures get more complex -Really struggle with speech production -Speak in short, staccato phrases that consist mostly of content morphemes (e.g., cat, dog)
Examplar Theory
-We make category judgments by comparing a new instance with stored memories for other instances of the category and make a judgment about inclusion -Example: is it a dog? Compare to other breeds of dog..it was a good example (or an exemplar) of the category dog -Right hemisphere is mainly active in recognizing exemplars
What makes people aware of their motivations?
-When actions are easy (e.g., screwing in a light bulb), we are aware of our most general motivations (e.g., to be helpful), but when actions are difficult (e.g., wrestling with a light bulb that is stuck in its socket), we are aware of our more specific motivations (e.g., to get the threads aligned) -People usually are aware of the general motivations for their behavior and become aware of their more specific motivations only when they encounter problems.
Certainty Effect
-When making decisions, people give greater weight to outcomes that are a sure thing -Example: playing a lottery with an 80% chance of winning $4,000 or receiving $3,000 outright, most people choose the $3,000
Conjunction fallacy
-When people think that two events are more likely to occur together than either individual event -Example: Linda being a banker AND a feminist
Illusory truth effect
-When repeated exposure to a statement increases the likelihood that people will judge the statement to be true -Example: fake news
Animal Research
-speech production is limited -challenges designing tests to assess comprehension -capacity for empathy/understanding others/altruism -learning and imitation -the ability to form concepts and categories is investigated -language research began with ASL as a tool to see if animals could communicate with humans
Why do people have sex?
1) prerequisite for reproduction 2) physical attraction 3) as a means to an end (be popular) 4) to increase emotional connection 5 )to alleviate insecurity
What evidence suggests that facial expressions are universal?
1) some people who have never seen a human face (blind man) makes the same facial expression as those who have 2) infants make disgust face at 2 days old when given bitter taste
Leptin
A chemical secreted by fat cells that appears to be one of the signals that tells the brain to switch hunger off
Ghrelin
A hormone that is produced in the stomach and appears to be one of the signals that tells the brain to switch hunger on
Conscious Motivation
A motivation of which one is aware.
Unconscious Motivation
A motivation of which one is not aware.
Display Rules
A norm for the appropriate expression of emotion - Intensification: exaggerating expression (unwanted gift) - Deintensification: muting expression (losing athlete) - Masking: expressing one emotion while feeling another (judge) - Neutralizing: showing no expression of the emotion one is feeling ("poker face")
Means-ends analysis
A process of searching for the means or steps to reduce the differences between the current situation and the desired goal Process: 1. Analyze the goal state (i.e., the desired outcome you want to attain). 2. Analyze the current state (i.e., your starting point, or the current situation). 3. List the differences between the current state and the goal state. 4. Reduce the list of differences by a. Direct means (a procedure that solves the problem without intermediate steps) b. Generating a subgoal (an intermediate step on the way to solving the problem) c. Finding a similar problem that has a known solution.
Morphological rules
A set of rules that indicate how morphemes can be combined to form words
Grammar
A set of rules that specify how the units of language can be combined to produce meaningful messages
Algorithm
A well-defined sequence of procedures or rules that guarantees a solution to a problem
Anorexia Nervosa
An eating disorder characterized by an intense fear of being overweight and severe restriction of food intake
Bulimia Nervosa
An eating disorder characterized by binge eating followed by purging
Binge Eating Disorder
An eating disorder characterized by recurrent and uncontrolled episodes of consuming a large number of calories in a short time
Theory of Bounded Rationality
Asserts that people tend to use simple strategies in decision making that focus on only a few facets of available options and often result in "irrational" decisions that are less than optimal
Wernicke's Aphasia
Can produce grammatical speech, but it tends to be meaningless, and they have considerable difficulty comprehending language
Reappraisal
Changing one's emotional experience by changing the way one thinks about the emotion-eliciting stimulus.
Stages of Language Development
Crying: "pain" cry, "hungry" cry Cooing: "ah-ah" Babbling: with a consonant "ba-ba" One-Word Speech: first words Holophrases: simple words conveying meaning, point and say "shoe" means take shoe off Telegraphic Speech: content word sentences, "shoe off" Whole sentences: grammatic speech By age 6, learn an average of 15 words per day and have a vocabulary of 8,000-14,000 words
How does emotional expression differ across cultures?
Different cultures have different display rules - in many Asian countries, it is rude to display negative emotion in the presence of a respected person so they neutralize their expressions.
Sexual hormones
Dihydroepiandosterone (DHEA): involved in the initial onset of sexual desire Testosterone and estrogen: regulates sexual desire in the respected gender *Testosterone may be the hormonal basis of sexual motivation in both men and women
What are the two dimensions in which emotions vary?
Emotions vary on the dimensions of AROUSAL and VALENCE
Fast and Frugal Heuristics
Fast and efficient strategies that may facilitate decision making but do not guarantee that a solution will be reached
Arousal
How active or passive (energetic) the experience is
Valence
How positive or negative the experience is
Broca's Area
Located in the left frontal cortex and is involved in the production of the sequential patterns in vocal and sign languages
Hypothesis Testing
Make and test an educated guess about a problem/solution
Retrieval
The process of bringing to mind information that has been previously encoded and stored
Storage
The process of maintaining information in memory over time
Encoding
The process of transforming what we perceive, think, or feel into an enduring memory
Fast mapping
The process whereby children map a word onto an underlying concept after only a single exposure
Metabolism
The rate at which energy is used by the body; decreases with dieting
Bias
The distorting influences of present knowledge, beliefs, and feelings on recollection of previous experiences
Retrograde amnesia
The inability to retrieve information that was acquired before a particular date, usually the date of an injury or surgery
Mortality-Salience Hypothesis
The prediction that people who are reminded of their own mortality will work to reinforce their cultural worldviews: they're more likely to praise and reward those who share their cultural worldviews, derogate and punish those who don't, value their spouses and defend their countries, and so on
Human Sexual Response Cycle
The stages of physiological arousal during sexual activity (excitement phase, plateau phase, orgasm phase, resolution phase).
Semantics
Understanding the meaning of words and combinations; also knowing when one word has multiple meanings
Nonverbal Communication
Vocal intonation: stress, pitch, and volume indicates concepts like sarcasm Body language: crossed arms, sitting up Gestures: the middle finger Physical distance: "he got in my face" Facial expressions Touch: holding hands
Unnecessary Constraints
We put restrictions on our problem solving which don't exist
Evolutionary Theory
motivation plays a significant role in adaptation; social need to affiliate, share resources, provide protection, procreation
Observational learning
-A condition in which learning takes place by watching the actions of others -Example: Jane watches Joe get punished for touching the hot stove so jane learns not to touch the hot stove -Example: Bobo doll -It is very effective learning. Especially effective when people can observe both experts and novices perform a task because they can learn to avoid making the same errors the novices made
Blocking
-A failure to retrieve information that is available in memory even though you are trying to produce it -"On the tip of my tongue.." -It is a retrieval failure (usually with names and places)
Iconic memory
-A fast-decaying store of visual information -Usually decay in about 1 second or less -For example, people were able to remember a row of visual icons, but not all 12. Like the afterimage of a flashlight, the 12 letters flashed on a screen are visual icons, a lingering trace stored in memory for a very short period -Momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli
False recognition
-A feeling of familiarity about something that hasn't been encountered before -Déjà vécu: They feel strongly—but mistakenly—that they have already lived through an experience and remember the details of what happened -Example: Seeing each word in the study list activates related words. Because needle and sweet are related to all of the associated words, they become more activated than other words—so highly activated that only minutes later, people swear that they actually studied the words
Habituation
-A general process in which repeated or prolonged exposure to a stimulus results in a gradual reduction in responding -Example: slug reacts strongly when first touched but after a while the touch doesnt really affect it anymore
Spontaneous recovery
The tendency of learned behavior to recover from extinction after a rest period
Consistency bias
The tendency to reconstruct the past to fit the present
Biological preparedness
-A propensity for learning particular kinds of associations over others -Organisms innately form associations between some stimuli and responses -Some behaviors are relatively easy to condition in some species but not others -Example: The taste and smell stimuli that produce food aversions in rats do not work with most species of birds because they depend primarily on visual cues for finding food and are relatively insensitive to taste and smell
Unconditioned response
-A reflexive reaction that is reliably produced by an unconditioned stimulus -Example: A dog naturally salivates when it smells food
Encoding specificity principle
-A retrieval cue can serve as an effective reminder when it helps re-create the specific way in which information was initially encoded -For example, recovering alcoholics often experience a renewed urge to drink when visiting places in which they once drank because those places are retrieval cues.
Sensitization
-A simple form of learning that occurs when the presentation of a stimulus leads to an increased response to a later stimulus Example: peoples whose houses who have been broken into may be more aware of late night sounds that didn't bother them before
Operant conditioning
-A type of learning in which the consequences of an organism's behavior determine whether it will be repeated in the future -DIFFERENT THAN CLASSICAL because with classical, you always produce affect (Pavlov delivered food to the dog whether it salivated or not) but with operant, you only get awarded if the action is performed
Intermittent reinforcement
-An operant conditioning principle in which only some of the responses made are followed by reinforcement -Produce behavior that is much more resistant to extinction than does a continuous reinforcement schedule
Instrumental behaviors
-Behavior that requires an organism to do something, such as solve a problem or otherwise manipulate elements of its environment -Thorndike -A hungry cat placed in a puzzle box would try various behaviors to get out, but only one behavior opened the door and led to food: tripping the lever in just the right way. After the cat earned its reward, Thorndike placed it back in the puzzle box for another round.
Law of effect
-Behaviors that are followed by a "satisfying state of affairs" tend to be repeated and those that produce an "unpleasant state of affairs" are less likely to be repeated - Thorndike cats repeatedly pressed the correct lever once they learned that it helped them escape -Over time, the ineffective behaviors become less and less frequent, and the one instrumental behavior (going right for the latch) becomes more frequent
Flashbulb memories
-Detailed recollections of when and where we heard about shocking events -For example, most Americans can recall exactly where they were and how they heard about the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks—almost as if a mental flashbulb had gone off automatically and recorded the event in long-lasting and vivid detail -Enhanced retention partly attributable to the emotional arousal elicited by events such as the 9/11 terrorist attacks, and partly attributable to the fact that we tend to talk and think a lot about these experiences
Transcience
-Forgetting what occurs with the passage of time -The quality of our memories also change with time: with time, we increasingly rely on our general memories for what usually happens and attempt to reconstruct the details by inference and even sheer guesswork
The Garcia Effect
-Found weak or no conditioning when the CS for a rat was a visual, auditory, or tactile stimulus, but a strong food aversion developed with stimuli that had a distinct taste and smell -Led to the development of a technique for dealing with an unanticipated side effect of radiation and chemotherapy -Cancer patients who experience nausea from their treatments often develop aversions to foods they ate before the therapy -Gave their patients unusual food (coconut- or root-beer-flavored candy) at the end of the last meal before undergoing treatment. The conditioned food aversions that the patients developed were overwhelmingly for one of the unusual flavors and not for any of the other foods in the meal.
Short-term memory
-Holds nonsensory information for more than a few seconds but less than a minute -For example, if someone tells you a telephone number and you pay attention to what they say, you can usually repeat it back with ease—but you will quickly lose the information as soon as your attention focuses on anything else -Short-term memory can hold about seven meaningful items at once
Three-term contingency
-In the presence of a discriminative stimulus (classmates drinking coffee together in Starbucks), a response (joking comments about a psychology professor's increasing waistline and receding hairline) produces a reinforcer (laughter among classmates) -The same response in a different context—say, the professor's office—would most likely produce a very different outcome
Delayed reinforcement and punishment
-Reinforcement: the more time elapses, the less effective the reinforcer -Example: Rats pressed a lever in order to obtain a food reward. Researchers varied the amount of time between the lever press and the delivery of food reinforcement. The number of lever presses declined substantially with longer delays. -Delaying the reinforcer makes it difficult for the rats to figure out exactly what behavior they need to perform in order to obtain it -Punishment: the longer the delay between a behavior and the administration of punishment, the less effective the punishment will be in suppressing the targeted behavior
Generalization
-The CR is observed even though the CS is slightly different from the CS used during the acquisition -The organism demonstrates that it recognizes the similarity between the original CS and the new stimulus -The more the new stimulus changes, the less conditioned responding is observed—which means that if you replaced a manual can opener with an electric can opener, your dog would probably show a much weaker conditioned response
Memory
-The ability to store and retrieve information over time -We make memories by combining information we already have in our brains with new information that comes in through our senses. In this way, memory is like cooking; starting from a recipe but improvising along the way, we add old information to new information, mix, shake, and bake, and out pops a memory -Memories are CONSTRUCTED, not recorded
Learning
-The acquisition, from experience, of new knowledge, skills, or responses that results in a relatively permanent change in the state of the learner Key Ideas: 1. Learning is based on experience. 2. Learning produces changes in the organism. 3. These changes are relatively permanent.
Discrimination
-The capacity to distinguish between similar but distinct stimuli -By displaying a diminished response to a new stimulus, it tells us that it notices a difference between the two stimuli
Anterograde amnesia
-The inability to transfer new information from the short-term store into the long-term store -An inability to form new memories
Persistence
-The intrusive recollection of events that we wish we could forget -Emotional experiences tend to be better remembered than nonemotional ones
Explicit memory
-When people consciously or intentionally retrieve past experiences -"I remember..."
Priming
An enhanced ability to think of a stimulus, such as a word or object, as a result of a recent exposure to the stimulus during an earlier study task
Reinforcer
-Any stimulus or event that functions to increase the likelihood of the behavior that led to it -Reinforcement is generally more effective than punishment in promoting learning
Memory misattribution
-Assigning a recollection or an idea to the wrong source -Memory misattribution errors are a primary cause of eyewitness misidentifications
Echoic memory
-A fast-decaying store of auditory information -Usually decay in about 5 seconds -For example, when you have difficulty understanding what someone has just said, you probably find yourself replaying the last few words—listening to them echo in your "mind's ear," so to speak
Absentmindedness
-A lapse in attention that results in memory failure -A cause is the lack of attention -Without proper attention, material is much less likely to be stored properly and recalled later
Cognitive map
-A mental representation of the physical features of the environment -Tolman rats developed an image of the maze from the first 10 days of exploring it -Even when Tolman switched the layout of the maze, the rats were able to navigate their new they were successfully following that map after the conditions had changed
Working memory
-A newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory -Active maintenance of information in short-term storage -Consists of a central executive that controls the flow of information through the system, a visuospatial sketchpad and phonological loop that temporarily hold visual/spatial images and verbal/auditory information, respectively, and an episodic buffer that integrates the various kinds of information that are maintained by the visuospatial sketchpad and phonological loop
Retrieval-induced forgetting
-A process by which retrieving an item from long-term memory impairs subsequent recall of related items -Example: When a speaker selectively talks about some aspects of memories shared with a listener and doesn't mention related information, the listener later has a harder time remembering the omitted events, as does the speaker -When witnesses to a staged crime are questioned about some details of the crime scene, their ability to later recall related details that they were not asked about is impaired, compared with that of witnesses who initially were not questioned at all
Diffusion chain
-A process in which individuals initially learn behavior by observing another individual perform that behavior, and then serve as a model from which other individuals learn the behavior -Spreads culture throughout generations -Recent work indicates faithful transmission of tool use across a diffusion chain comprising 20 children
Reconsolidation
-A process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again -Memories can become vulnerable to disruption when they are recalled, thus requiring them to be consolidated again
Classical conditioning
-A type of learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus produces a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally produces a response -Example: dogs salivate when they hear the bell
Long-term memory
-A type of storage that holds information for hours, days, weeks, or years -Has no known capacity limits
Punisher
-Any stimulus or event that functions to decrease the likelihood of the behavior that led to it -Less effective for learning because punishment signals that an unacceptable behavior has occurred, but it doesn't specify what should be done instead -Example: Scolding a young child for starting to run into a busy street certainly stops the behavior, but it doesn't promote any kind of learning about the desired behavior
Seven "sins" of memory
1. Transience 2. Absentmindedness 3. Blocking 4. Memory misattribution 5. Suggestibility 6. Bias 7. Persistence
Variable-interval schedule
-Behavior is reinforced based on an average time that has expired since the last reinforcement -Example: on a 2-minute variable-interval schedule, responses will be reinforced every 2 minutes, on average, but not after each 2-minute period
Operant behavior
-Behavior that an organism produces that has some impact on the environment -Skinner argued that most organisms are not do not behave like a dog in a harness, passively waiting to receive food no matter what the circumstances. Rather, most organisms are like cats in a box, actively engaging the environment in which they find themselves to reap rewards
Primary reinforcer
-Essentials that satisfy biological needs -Example: food, warmth, comfort, shelter
Retrieval cue
-External information that is associated with stored information and helps bring it to mind -Information is sometimes available in memory even when it is momentarily inaccessible and that retrieval cues help us bring inaccessible information to mind (it's a prompt) -Who was your third grade teacher?
Evolutionary aspects of classical conditioning
-How do we learn what food is bad or good? -Any species that forages or consumes a variety of foods needs to develop a mechanism by which it can learn to avoid any food that once made it ill -Rapid learning should occur in one or two trials so that the animal doesn't die from eating a toxic substance -Association must take place over long intervals because the effects of bad food take a while -The organism should develop an aversion to the smell or taste of the food rather than its ingestion -Learned aversions should occur more often with novel foods than with familiar ones
Implicit learning
-Learning that takes place largely independent of awareness of both the process and the products of information acquisition -Can remember without explicitly having to recall -Example: learning to drive a car for the first time required explicit learning (change gear NOW) but over time it becomes implicit because you don't have to think about each step individually -Example: learning grammar (you don't know which rules you violated, you just speak correctly) -Little difference in age or among different people when it comes to implicit learning skills as opposed to explicit learning skills -It is resistant to some disorders that affect explicit learning (amnesia doesn't affect implicit learning) -Implicit and explicit learning use distinct neural pathways
Behaviorism
-Observes behaviors, not the mind! -Behaviorist psychology John B. Watson was proposing: An organism experiences events or stimuli that are observable and measurable, and scientists can directly observe and measure changes in that organism. Dogs learned to salivate to the sound of a buzzer or metronome, and there was no need to resort to explanations about why it had happened, what the dog wanted, or how the animal thought about the situation. In other words, there was no need to consider the mind in this classical conditioning paradigm, which appealed to Watson and the behaviorists
Implicit memory
-Past experiences influence later behavior and performance, even without an effort to remember them or an awareness of the recollection -Their presence is "implied" by our actions -Example: Greg's persistent sadness after his father's death, even though he had no conscious knowledge of the event
Source Memory
-Recall of when, where, and how information was acquired -Knowing where our memories came from
Fixed-ratio schedule
-Reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses have been made -Example: Only punishment after every 4 responses -Example: Book clubs often give you a freebie after a set number of regular purchases
Fixed-interval schedule
-Reinforcers are presented at fixed-time periods, provided that the appropriate response is made -Example: on a 2-minute fixed-interval schedule, a response will be reinforced, but only after 2 minutes have expired since the last reinforcement -The downfall is that people show little responding right after the presentation of the reinforcement, but as the next time interval draws to a close, they show a burst of responding
Prospective memory
-Remembering to do things in the future -"You have to remember to remember" -Example: you have to remember which page of the book you were on when you fell asleep
Case judgement
-Required the participants to think about the appearance of the words (Is HAT written in uppercase or lowercase?)
Semantic judgement
-Required the participants to think about the meaning of the words (Is hat a type of clothing?) -Allows for deeper processing and best memory
Rhyme judgement
-Required the participants to think about the sound of the words (Does hat rhyme with cat?)
Proactive interference
-Situations in which earlier learning impairs memory for information acquired later -For instance, if you use the same parking lot each day at work or at school, you've probably gone out to find your car and then stood there confused by the memories of having parked it on previous days
Retroactive interference
-Situations in which later learning impairs memory for information acquired earlier -For example, if you carry out the same activities at work each day, by the time Friday rolls around, it may be difficult to remember what you did on Monday because later activities blend in with earlier ones
Shaping
-Skinner's idea that learning that results from the reinforcement of successive steps to a final desired behavior -Example: Parents use shaping to teach young children skills such as walking or riding a bike by reinforcing successive behaviors that are needed to attain the complex goal behavior
Superstition
-Something is learned by accident because of incorrect causation -Example: pigeon happened to peck in corner when the food came and thought that pecking resulted in food incorrectly, just a coincidence
Latent learning
-Something is learned, but it is not manifested as a behavioral change until sometime in the future -Can be established without any reinforcement -Opposes behaviorists -Tolman found that rats can learn where the end goal of the maze is without rewards
Unconditioned stimulus
-Something that reliably produces a naturally occurring reaction in an organism -Example: food = US because it naturally makes dog salivate without outside conditioning
Suggestibility
-Tendency to incorporate misleading information from external sources into personal recollections -We do not store all the details of our experiences in memory, making us vulnerable to accepting suggestions about what might have happened or should have happened (hot air balloon video)
Amygdala
-The amygdala influences hormonal systems that kick into high gear when we experience an arousing event; these stress-related hormones, such as adrenaline and cortisol, mobilize the body in the face of threat—and they also enhance memory for the experience -Damage to the amygdala means that the person cannot remember emotional events any better than nonemotional events
Episodic memory
-The collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place -Part of explicit memory -Contributes to imagination and creativity: we rely heavily on episodic memory to envision our personal futures because it allows us to recombine elements of past experience in new ways, so that we can mentally try out different versions of what might happen -Example: imagine having a difficult conversation with a friend that will take place in a couple of days, you can draw on past experiences to envision different ways in which the conversation might unfold
Variable-ratio schedule
-The delivery of reinforcement is based on a particular average number of responses -Example: response for an average of after 4 responses but not after every specific 4 -Example: Slot machines in a modern casino pay off on variable-ratio schedules that are determined by the random number generator controlling the play of the machines -Produce slightly higher rates of responding than fixed-ratio schedules because the organism never knows when the next reinforcement is going to appear
Intermittent reinforcement effect
-The fact that operant behaviors that are maintained under intermittent reinforcement schedules resist extinction better than those maintained under continuous reinforcement -Higher the ratio, the higher the response rate tends to be: A 20-response variable-ratio schedule will produce considerably more responding than a 2-response variable-ratio schedule will
Serial position effect
-The first few and last few items in a series are more likely to be recalled than the items in the middle -Primary effect: enhanced recall of the first few items in, say, a list of words because it receives more rehearsals -Recency effect: enhanced recall of the last few items (can result from rehearsing items that are still in short-term storage)
Procedural memory
-The gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice, or "knowing how" to do things -Example: riding a bike -People who have amnesia can acquire new procedural memories
Extinction
-The gradual elimination of a learned response that occurs when the CS is repeatedly presented without the US -Not permanent
Hippocampus
-The hippocampal region of the brain is critical for putting new information into the long-term store, but this is very much argued. -A man had his hippocampus and surrounding areas removed, and after his operation, he was unable to store information for more than a couple of seconds. He performed well on intelligence tests and could remember phone numbers, but could not remember if he had just had a meal
Transfer-appropriate processing
-The idea that memory is likely to transfer from one situation to another when the encoding and retrieval contexts of the situations match -For example, Suppose you were shown a cue card of the word brain and were then asked to think of a word that rhymes, while your friend was shown the same card and asked to think about what brain means. The next day, if we simply asked you both, "Hey, what was that word you saw yesterday?" we would expect your friend to remember it better. However, if instead, we asked both of you, "What was that word that rhymed with train?" the retrieval cue would match your encoding context better than your friend's, and we would expect you to remember it better than your friend did
Long-term potentiation
-The idea that the connections between neurons are strengthened by their communication, making communication easier the next time, provides the neurological basis for long-term memory -An increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation -Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.
Acquisition
-The phase of classical conditioning when the Conditioned Stimulus and the Unconditioned Stimulus are presented together -Example: bell with food
Consolidation
-The process by which memories become stable in the brain -Shortly after encoding, memories exist in a fragile state that can be disrupted easily; once the consolidation has occurred, they are more resistant to disruption -The act of recalling a memory, thinking about it, and talking about it with others probably contributes to the consolidation
Organizational encoding
-The process of categorizing information according to the relationships among a series of items -Activates the upper surface of the left frontal lobe -For example, servers commonly organize the orders into hot drinks, cold foods, etc. to remember the orders
Rehearsal
-The process of keeping information in short-term memory by mentally repeating it -Remembering a cell number: each time you repeat the number, you are reentering it into short-term memory, giving it another 15 to 20 seconds of shelf life
Semantic encoding
-The process of relating new information in a meaningful way to knowledge that is already stored in memory -This is why it is so much easier to remember 20 experiences rather than 20 digits (we think about the meaning behind our experiences) -Studies reveal that semantic encoding is uniquely associated with increased activity in the lower left part of the frontal lobe and the inner part of the left temporal lobe
Visual imagery encoding
-The process of storing new information by converting it into mental pictures -You relate incoming information to knowledge already in memory: for example, a visual image of a parked car might help you create a link to your memory of your first kiss -You end up with two different mental placeholders for the items (a visual and verbal one) -Activates visual processing regions in the occipital lobe
State-dependent retrieval
-The process whereby information tends to be better recalled when the person is in the same state during encoding and retrieval -If the person's state at the time of retrieval matches the person's state at the time of encoding, the state itself is a retrieval cue (happy versus sad)
Change bias
-The tendency to exaggerate differences between what we feel or believe now and what we felt or believed in the past -For instance, most of us would like to believe that our romantic attachments grow stronger over time -Egocentric bias: The tendency to exaggerate the change between present and past in order to make ourselves look good in retrospect -Example: Students say they remember feeling more anxious before taking an exam than they actually reported at the time
Secondary reinforcer
-Things associated with a primary reinforcer -Example: money buys food, flashing lights associated with arrest, speeding ticket, or fine -We learn to perform a lot of behaviors on the basis of reinforcements that have little or nothing to do with biological satisfaction
Importance of context
-Thorndike: Learning takes place in contexts, not in the free range of any plausible situation -Skinner: rephrased it later, most behavior is under stimulus control, which develops when a particular response occurs only when an appropriate discriminative stimulus (one that indicates that a response will be reinforced) is present
Reinforcement Schedules
-Unlike in classical conditioning, where the sheer number of learning trials was important, the pattern with which reinforcements appeared is crucial in operant conditioning -Different schedules of reinforcement produce different rates of response. -The black slash marks indicate when reinforcement was administered -Notice that ratio schedules tend to produce higher rates of responding than do interval schedules, as shown by the steeper lines for fixed-ratio and variable-ratio reinforcement.
Learning strategies
-With cramming, students repeatedly study the information to be learned with little or no time between repetitions, a procedure known as massed practice -Distributed practice: involves spreading out study activities so that more time intervenes between repetitions of the information to be learned, it is much more effective -Interleaved practice: a practice schedule that mixes different kinds of problems or materials within a single study session -Practice testing: proven useful across a wide range of materials, including learning of stories, facts, vocabulary, and lectures. Actively retrieving an item from memory during a test improves subsequent retention of that item more efficiently than simply studying it again -Judgments of learning (JOLs): People typically devote more time to studying items that they judge they have not learned well, but are sometimes inaccurate -Students are sometimes overconfident in judging how well they have learned definitions of new terms and thus fail to study them effectively
Sensory storage
A type of storage that holds sensory information for a few seconds or less
Conditioned stimulus
A previously neutral stimulus that produces a reliable response in an organism after being paired with the US
Conditioned response
A reaction that resembles an unconditioned response but is produced by a conditioned stimulus
Bandura's Four Key Components to Observational Learning
Attention: be aware of another's behavior and consequences Retention: have the capacity to store/retrieve what you have observed Reproduction: behaviorally imitate what has been stored in memory Motivation: determined by a belief that the behavior will bring about the desired response
Chunking
Combining small pieces of information into larger clusters or chunks that are more easily held in short-term memory
Positive vs. negative
Positive reinforcement: stimulus presented to increase the likelihood of behavior Negative reinforcement: stimulus removed that increases the likelihood of behavior Positive punishment: a stimulus is administered that decreases the likelihood of behavior Negative punishment: the stimulus is removed that decreases the likelihood of behavior Positive- add Negative - take away
Conditioned emotional response
Watson and Little Albert: -The baby wasn't afraid of the white rat until the rat was presented with a scary loud bang. After, just the presence of the rat caused Albert to recoil -In this situation, a US (the loud sound) was paired with a CS (the presence of the rat) such that the CS all by itself was sufficient to produce the CR (a fearful reaction) -Little Albert also showed stimulus generalization. The sight of a white rabbit, a seal-fur coat, and a Santa Claus mask produced the same kinds of fear reactions in the infant -Watson proved that fears can be learned and don't need an emotional basis like Freud argued, and pavlovian techniques can apply to humans as well as animals More Examples: -The warm and fuzzy feelings that envelop you when hearing a song that you used to listen to with a former boyfriend or girlfriend are a type of conditioned emotional response -Advertisers understand that conditioned emotional responses can include positive emotions that they would like potential customers to associate with their products, which may be why attractive women are commonly involved in ads for products geared toward young males
