psych 2061 final

leader behaviour description questionnaire

- ***Scale ranges from 1 (never) to 5 (always) - Consideration and initiation are NOT mutually exclusive o Four quadrants where leaders can fall depending on where they scored on the scale o Researchers found these two dimensions are weakly correlated

trait theories

- 1. Are there individual differences that explain why some people are more likely to be identified by others as leaders? - 2. Are there enduring dispositional characteristics that set effective leaders apart?

leadership define

- A process by which an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal o process arising from two people interacting - A complex set of interpersonal processes whereby cooperating individuals are permitted to influence and motivate others to promote the attainment of group and individual goals (Northouse, 2001)

task-focused

- Accomplishing group objectives o Initiating structure o Transactional behaviours - Establishing a clear reward structure o Boundary spanning - Leader networking externally to the organization or within organization to make sure department is getting their resources

belongingness

- Affectively pleasant interactions with a few others o Horizontal relationships with others defined by closeness and acceptance § Status is about vertical relationship, inclusion is about horizontal relationship o Have a nonzero-sum quality to them § Do we feel included? Accepted? Liked by others? § Do we have affectively pleasant interactions with other people?

opportunistic followership

- Being leader is more costly than being follower (following someone's lead = best case scenario) - Costly theory - when you sacrifice for group, this can buy you good will in future o Ie manager is sick, someone has to step up for a few days with no additional pay but with more stressors

Fiedler's contingency theory

- Categorizes leaders as EITHER task-oriented or person-oriented o People have a preference for ONE o Different approaches were more beneficial in certain situations o When situational control is high, a more task oriented approach is effective - States that each style is better suited for different situations

why are there so many ineffective leaders?

- Climate surveys routinely show that 60%-70% of employees in most organizations report that the most stressful aspect of their jobs is their immediate boss (Hogan, 2006) o Bad as one of the main functions of leadership is to help support people - The failure rate of managers in corporate America is 50% (Hogan & Kaiser, 2005) o Internal promotions tend to be more successful

person-focused

- Developing individualized and meaningful connections with followers o Consideration o Empowerment o Motivating behaviours

what prevents runaway hierarchies (people at top taking all) (4)

- External forces and cascading events o Organizational change (which is very common) can disrupt hierarchy - Fairness and legitimacy o When a hierarchy is perceived as illegitimate, it can become volatile and unstable o People revolt when things aren't fair and just - unequal distribution of resources - Competition o People strive to improve their rank - Reciprocity expectations o The conferral of respect is costly; people expect reciprocated attention

hierarchy as social order

- Helps to create a division of labour to potentially enhance coordination o coincide with role differentiation (i.e., who is responsible for who but also who is responsible for what) o Organizational size and complexity creates greater demands for coordination (i.e., military) § Span across larger geographic areas § Militaries have high degree, lot of vertical rank definition built in the military § Stability and order

downsides of social hierarchy in the workplace

- Hierarchies can create "winners" and "losers" o Those who reap the benefits of higher status and power versus those who are deprived of such rewards - Hierarchy can create and reinforce inequality among group members o Biggest issue is hierarchy reinforces inequality between group members

why social hierarchy exists

- Higher social rank enables personal agency o Reduces perspective taking but enhances attention to goal-relevant information - Leads to expectancy confirmation and behavioural confirmation o Social hierarchies help with developing order, strong aversion to uncertainty, hierarchies provide order and stability despite the negative aspects of them

house's path-goal theory

- Leader's role is to: o Align the goals of the organization and the followers § Diff leadership styles are more or less effective depending on characteristics of people being lead o Help followers achieve those goals § If leader can align their behaviours with followers goals, this will lead to maximal outcomes

leadership process model

- Leadership comes from the synergy (combining) of leading and following - Highlights its about interpersonal interaction between two people that creates what we think of as leadership - Effective leadership cant exist in the absence of effective followership - Outcomes happen from leadership o Outcomes: how happy people are, organizational or individual performance etc

coordinating followership

- More rewards associated with being the leader - 3:1 or 1:3 - leader gets more rewards; people who have higher social standings are more likely leaders o But follower still gets rewards for following them - Idea is that some people may be better suited for leadership roles in certain situations, those traits promote leadership in these conditions

mutualistic followership

- No one benefits from being the leader or the follower as long as one of those people occupies those roles - Player 1 says I want to lead, player 2 says ill follow

communion

- Other-profitable traits related to "getting along" o Example traits: Compassionate, warm, expressive o Linked to interpersonal closeness and social harmony § These traits tend to benefit other people, advancing others interests

when is social hierarchy beneficial?

- Perceived legitimacy of social rank distinctions o e.g., An illegitimate social hierarchy would be a country ruled by a tyrannical dictator o If people don't feel the hierarchy is fair, it wont be accepted at a group level - Alignment between two bases of hierarchy o Power hierarchy should be consistent with the status hierarchy § Most dysfunctional hierarchy when the people with power/authority aren't respected within group · Problematic if group has formal hierarchy that is distanced from informal hierarchy · Congruence between power and status - Agreement over hierarchical structure § Do we agree on who has fallen where? (who should be doing what)

criteria for fundamental social motives (6)

- Present across a wide variety of contexts o Cannot be culturally specific - must be universal - Influence on thoughts and emotions - Leads to health or adjustment problems if it is not satisfied o Problems if were not getting belongingness or status - Stimulates behaviour designed to satisfy it o Any fundamental motive should have goal directed behaviour associated § People should engage in certain things to increase their belongingness and status - Is present in all people o Some degree in everyone; still lots of variation between people - Is not a product of some other motive o Status is NOT derivative of belongingness

status

- Respect, admiration, and voluntary deference individuals are afforded by others o Inherently relational o People exert a great deal of effort to improve their social status o Symbols of status vary across contexts and cultures - make us feel good - associated with pos emotions

status

- Respect, admiration, and voluntary deference that individuals are afforded by others o Vertical relationships with others defined by social rank differences between two or more people o Have more of a zero-sum quality to them § More of a finite or fixed score, can only be so many people who have that high level of respect within a group § Something people compete for - About voluntary deference - inherently relational

prestige strategies

- Sharing of expertise or know-how o Earned respect (context-specific competence) o Personality profile: Conscientious and high in self-esteem o Highly agentic and highly in communal

extraversion

- Sociability, assertiveness, energy level § Higher levels more self-assured, energetic, social boldness - grab attention in a positive way · All of which help with status attainment

grandoise narcissism

- Strong sense of entitlement and feelings of superiority o Emergent versus enduring zone o Frequency of interpersonal interactions o Good predictor of status attainment

dominance strategies

- The use of force and intimidation to induce fear o Others are coerced into deferring to an individual § Force and coercion to gain influence (invoking fear, intimidation tactics) o Highly agentic but low in communion

summary of trait theories

- There are certainly traits that are possessed by many leaders (~30% of the variance in leadership roles accounted for by genetic factors), but that's only part of the story - Rarely do studies consider how characteristics jointly combine within people to influence leadership behavior - Leader attributes may exhibit curvilinear relationships with outcomes - Individual differences may differ the degree to which they are adaptive in particular situations.

benefits of holacracy

- autonomy - people self organize how they want

effective leadership provides

- compelling direction - enabling structure - expert coaching - supportive context from a resource perspective

3 aspects of social hierarchy

- implicit or explicit (formally communicated or tacitly understood) - rank ordering of group members (high, low positions) - differences reflect what is valued within a specific context (actual vs perceived value)

hierarchy as source of motivation

- incentivizes people to demonstrate their value within the group o High ranking members initiate and receive more communications § High status social actors in workplace tend to be the hub of communication o Greater access to organizational and group resources § More opportunities to demonstrate their value to group o Given more opportunities to contribute to the group § Motivates people to demonstrate their value to the group

status conflict in groups (5)

- neg association with info sharing - contested (competitive) - zero sum outcomes (competitive) - more structural in nature - relational conflict co-varies with it

narcisstic people and hierarchy

- only prefer hierarchy when they believe they can advance their social rank o They like status structures and status differences between people but only when they can elevate their social rank (hate it if they are in a position where they don't think they can rise to the top)

status as a social motive

- people pay attention to dynamics (subtle social behaviours) - strive to demonstrate social value (generosity, refrain from low status behaviours, project overconfidence) - prefer groups, relationships, and organizations that afford them higher of this

strategies for evaluating ones rank

- prestige strategies - dominance strategies

what aspects of hierarchy are beneficial?

- source of motivation - social order - reduce conflict and enhance cooperation

leadership as social coordination

- task leadership - relationship building

3 types of status disagreements

- upward disagreement - downward disagreement - third party disagreement

social hierarchy

An implicit or explicit rank order of individuals or groups with respect to a valued social dimension

power

Asymmetric control over valued resources in social relations - Energizes thought, speech, and action - Not consistently associated with positive affect

leader follower emergence

Leading and following roles arise out of a mutual process of claiming and granting these roles

emotional intelligence and leadership

More skilled communicators are rated as more effective leaders and have more satisfied followers

dominant leaders traits

Narcissistic, manipulative, disagreeable, and aggressive

psychological mechanism

Upward disagreements demotivate group members

conditional predictors of success

alignment between personality and situational demands - conscientiousness - agreeableness

2 fundamental social motives

belongingness status

big 'two' functional classes of interpersonal behaviour

communion agency

lack of consensus on status ranking yields

conflicting expectations, feelings of injustice, and discomfort

status disagreement

extent to which individual members of a group hold disparate perceptions of who ranks where

most consistent personality predictor of status attainment

extraversion level

managers are

high agentic low communion

when are dominant leaders preferred?

in times of economic uncertainty

3 levels leader and following roles arise

individual internalization relational recognition collective endorsement

upward disagreement

instances where two group members believe they rank above one another in the group's hierarchy

intelligence and leadership effectiveness

moderate positive (0.27)

3 scenarios where leader followership emerges

mutualistic followership coordinating followership opportunistic followership

status conflict and information sharing

negative association - If you are competing for status with someone, group members are more strategic about who theyre willing to share info with

upward disagreements and group performance

negative association - more upward disagreement (ppl think they outrank each other) - groups perform worse

third party agreements and group performance

no association

self-efficacy and leadership

o About a specific dimension o Leadership efficacy is related to multi-source leadership ratings o Proposed to influence team performance through effects on follower's self-efficacy beliefs § If you believe, I'll believe, too!

expert coaching

o All person-focused behaviours (P) o Initiating structure and transactional behaviours (T) § Do people feel like their leaders are helping them develop?

supportive context from a resource perspective

o Boundary spanning (T)

social hierarchy conflicts

o Can become the main source of conflict within a group o As our vertical differences become larger, our incentives become misaligned § People at top want to protect their position, people at bottom want to get higher

Fiedler's contingency: situational factors

o Clarity of performance goals o Power position of leader § Everyone respects this leader o Leader-member relations § Do people like the leader; if people like leader the situational control is higher § Situational control and favorability of a situation can be used interchangeably

agreeableness

o Compassion, respectfulness, trust § Linked to status in affiliative contexts

task leadership

o Coordinate and motivate members in the pursuit of team goals § Provide vision, try and motivate people, get people to fill that vision o Delegate tasks to others o Feedback

initiating structure

o Defining and organizing work relationships and roles o Establishing clear patterns of communication and ways of getting things done o Outlining performance standards and deadlines

relationship building

o Develop interpersonal relations and trust o Provide social support § Maintaining social harmony, ensuring people feel supported

agency

o Example traits: Dominance, power, assertiveness o Linked to status striving and competition with others

consideration

o Friendly, warm working relationships o Encouraging mutual trust and interpersonal respect within the work unit o Expressing appreciation and support

enabling structure

o Initiating structure (T) and transactional behaviours (T) § Do people feel like they can perform their roles well?

contingency theories

o Involve the belief that leadership style must be appropriate for a particular situation § Contingency theory § Path-goal theory

hierarchy as reducing conflict and enhance cooperation

o Lower ranking members are more inclined to cooperate and abide by instructions from higher ranking members o It is costly to disagree with higher ranking members - motivates compliance o Hierarchies should promote compliance to authority figures

leadership emergence and effectiveness traits

o Most common way to measure leadership effectiveness: asking people if someone is an effective leader à very subjective § Height (could lead to confidence), tone of voice (lower pitch) also predicts leaders

compelling direction

o Motivating behaviours (P) and initiating structure (T) § Vision for where people are going to go

conscientiousness

o Orderliness, productiveness, responsibility § Linked to status in task-focused contexts

the great person theory

o People are born to be 'great leaders' (only males) § Sexist and outdated approach to study leadership If we look at those who have attained positions of success, we can understand leadership better

why does narcissism predict status attainment

o Strong desire for status and dominant-expressive behaviour (i.e., social boldness) o positively predicts status attainment in the short term § positively grab our attention during initial interactions o unrelated to status attainment or negatively related in the long term - good leaders in short term interactions (emergent phase)

leadership styles (4)

o Supportive: Demonstrating concern for others' needs o Participative: Involving followers in decision making § Trying to reduce power differences o Directive: Providing task structure, goals, and feedback § Authoritative style o Achievement-oriented: Setting higher standards § Motivational style

contingency hypothesis

o Task-oriented leaders are more effective when situational control is high or low o Relationship-oriented leaders are more effective when situational control is moderate

relation between belongingness and status

o These are not mutually exclusive o However, there can be a trade-off: In some cases, pursuing ___ can come at the expense of ____ - they are distinct things - tension between getting ahead and be positively regarded by others

collective endorsement

o consensus around who is occupying which role § Interpersonal level, things operate the best when there is consensus about who is the leader

relational recognition

o legitimizing another person's claim § Recognize person taking lead or attempting to follow you for the role to merge

higher power leads to (4)

o more assertive in decision making, § Less likely to engage in perspective taking (lowers perspective taking) § Increases decisiveness § Increases attention to instrumental goals

individual internalization

personal identity with role (leader or follower)

intelligence and leadership emergence/effectiveness

positive association

narcissism and leadership

positive association - in brief interactions, rated as good leaders even though groups led by them perform worse - positive perceptions in short term, they fade over time

status and psychological well being

positive relation

third party disagreement

reflect cases where two group members disagree about the position of another group member

downside of holacracy (3)

self forming teams formed based on interest, people left out, may take longer for decisions to get made

extraversion positively linked to

social status leadership emergence percieved leader effectiveness

relation between consideration and job satisfaction, motivation, percieved leadership

strong strong strong

intelligence and managerial success

strong positive (0.53)

holacracy

takes powers reserved for executives and managers and spreads them across all employees

politicians are

very high agentic very low communion

relation between initiating structure and job satisfaction, motivation, percieved leadership

weak strong weak

when do groups perform worse?

when they had more pairs of individuals who both believed they outranked one another (i.e., upward disagreements)

downward disagreement

when two group members believe they rank below one another in the group's hierarchy

teams with steeper more pronounced hierarchal differences

§ Experienced lower levels of coordination § Experienced higher levels of conflict § Were less effective as a team · Less likely to want a stay a team member the steeper the hierarchy within groups

the effectiveness of a leadership style depends on (5)

§ Locus of control · Does employee feel they have control over their environment/outcomes? § Need for achievement · Do employees have high need to achieve what they want? § Ability · Abilities followers have and their maturity levels § Tasks · Tasks groups are facing § Authority system · Power distance that exists in company