Psych 304-Exam 6

In women's collegiate basketball of the 64 teams making the NCAA division 1 playoffs in 1994, fiver were coached by a black male and five by black females (Becker and Herwig) 38 others were coaches by white females. 44 of the 64 teams were coached by females. The percentage of female coaches was 69% As of 1998 there were only ten minority head coaches and managers in the NBA,NFL, and MLB combined the lowest figure since 1993. The percentage of black athletes in these sports NBA =80%, NFL=65%, MLB=15% Kevin Blackstone (2006) of the Dallas morning news cites data based on a report by Dr. Richard Lapchick of the National Consortium for academics and sport of the university of central Florida in which the sports section of 303 major newspapers across the U.S. were scrutinized for minority hires. Ninety-five percent of all sports editors and 86% of their assistants were white. Additionally 87% of all sports reporters were white and 79% of those were white males. Dr. Richard Lapchick has written several books and hundreds of articles... trips to Africa... Father Joe was a plater in NBA with Celtics and coach of the Knicks.. carved the word "N*****" On his chest - annual racial report card which universities are graded on their handling of academic athletic and graduation rates of their minority athletes. NCAs program involving 215 colleges that have adopted his initiatives to get athletes to complete their education once their eligibility for sports is ended.

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The fascination of fitness has led to a veritable explosion of workout facilities, fitness equipment and paraphernalia, television demonstrations extolling the virtues of looking good and being fit, billions of dollars in controversial nutritional aids, and other related enterprises. In the 1980s = fitness boom in North America, everyone was "getting in shape" Sales of exercise equipment and paraphernalia USA Today in 1994 and 1995 are revealing that $10 billion was being spent annually at that time on active wear, footwear, and exercise equipment. One example is Nike - Nike was founded under the name Blue Ribbon Sports in 1964 by Bill Bowerman, the University of Oregon track coach and one of his runners, Phil Knight. The swords so synonymous with Nike was created by Carolyn Davidson in 1971 paid the grand sum of $35 (Strategic Analysis 2000) The first shoe bearing the swoosh emblem came out in 1971 and was called the "Nike" (Swoosh, 2007) In Nikes first year of operation (1964) Nike sold 1,300 Paris of shoes and amassed gross sales of $8,000 in 1993, the company sold 200 pairs of shoes every minute, or a total of 100 million pairs. By 1998 Nike had garnered 34% of the athletic footwear market over leading competitors reebok (13%) Adidas (6%) New balance (5%) and Easy Spirit (2%) Nike Sales for the fiscal year 1999 reached $8.8 billion and reached $15 billion worldwide for fiscal year 2006 Lebron James - 87 mil deal in 2003 Reebok was founded in 1895 in England made running shoes for Harold Abrahams and Eric Liddel, celebrated in chariots of fire. In 2005 Reebok was bought up by fellow competitor Adidas for 3.8 billion, thus allowing Adidas to become more competitive with the giant in the industry, Nike - Nike itself had converse at a competitor as well. Much of their business is everyday wear rather than exercise, as a result actual exercise engagement statistics are not especially encouraging. CDC indicate that fewer than 10% of all Americans exercise enough to attain fitness benefits (Westcott, 1995) Data reported by Caspersen and Merrit (1995) based on responses of almost 35,000 adults in 26 states support Westcotts observations they report that less than one person in 10 in their stud was regularly active in intensive exercise. "The fitness boom hasn't exactly pooped out but its definitely taking a rest" The CDC based in Atlanta Georgia is a leader in promoting health and fitness in the U.S. and the organization reports that one third of all adolescents in grades 9-12 do not engage in any regular physical activity, and participation in school related physical education classes dropped from 42% in 1991 to 32% in 2001 (Fitness at any age, 2007) WebMd that 50% of American adults do not engage in enough physical activity to obtain any health benefits. Obesity in men is at 31% and 70.8% of men are overweight. For women it is 33% and 62%, Among youth 17% are considered to be overweight (Ogden, Carroll, Curtin, McDowell, Tabak & Legal) The highest obesity rates are Mississippi, Alabama, Virginia, Louisiana and Kentucky, which are also all states that have high poverty rates. The "leanest" states are Colorado, Hawaii, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Vermont, all economically well off. It is estimated that $5.6 billion could be saved annually concerning heart disease if one in ten inactive would just take up a regular program of walking (U.S. waistlines continue to grow, 2006) The president's council on Physical Fitness refers to a set of attributes that are either health or skill related. PCPFS- defines physical fitness as "The ability to perform daily tasks vigorously and alertly with energy left over for enjoying leisure-time activities and meeting emergency. PCPFS - Four basic parts of fitness are essential 1. Cardiorespiratory endurance - the ability of the cardiorespiratory and circulatory systems 2. Muscular strength 3. Muscular endurance 4. Flexibility The CDC and individuals argue that body composition, the ratio of fat to Lean body mass, should also be a part of assessing physical activity American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) 1. Frequency of training: 3 to 5 days per week 2. Intensity of training 60% to 90% of maximum heart rate, or 50% to 85% of Max VO2, a measure of maximal aerobic capacity for endurance and exercise. 3. Duration of training: 20 to 60 minutes each time, depending on the type of activity 4. Mode of activity: any activity that uses large muscle groups that can be maintained over time and is rhythmic and aerobic in nature. 5. Resistance training: strength training of moderate intensity. PCPFS, CDC, and ACSM aimed at fitness, weight control, and a generally healthier outlook on life. WebMD website, vigorous-intenstiy physical activity refers to any activity that burns more than seven calories per minute.

520-524

1. Reduction in the likelihood of premature death from what Cantrell and Fontanarosa (1996) call all cause mortality Study by Lee, Hsieh, and Paffenbarger (1995) bears on this mortality issue. Lee et el. reported results of a study conducted on over 17,000 years 1916 through 1950. Mortality statistics were gathered from the Harvard Alumni Office, which keeps weekly rosters of deceased Alumni statical analyses indicated a very strong relationship indicated a very strong relationship between vigorous physical activity and longevity in this sample. Even if one factors out longevity, non vigorous exercise is preferable to being sedentary in terms of overall health and quality of life. 2. Cardiovascular and respiratory system - increasing the concentration of high-density lipoproteins (HDL) cholesterol, the so-called "good cholesterol" while decreasing that of the low density lipoproteins (LDL) or the "bad" cholesterol in the blood. The onset of high blood pressure can be prevented and high blood pressure can be lowered in cases where It already exists. Developing greater overall capacity resulting from the deep breathing associated. 3. Resistance to disease, one of these diseases is colon cancer. The combined effects of exercise lowering body fat coupled with a reduction in estrogen production are thought to be jointly at work with regard to breast and uterine cancer in females. Physical fitness in preventing or ameliorating the effects of HIV/AIDs (Stringer 1999) reversing postmenopausal bone loss (Going, Lohman, Houtkeeper 2003) Preventing pregnancy complications, delaying the onset of Alzheimers and modulating psychoneuroimmunological responses to stress 4. Improved sex life 5. Healthy sleep habits A physical fitness benefit mentioned is lowered resting heart rate Psychological Benefits anxiety or stress reduction and/or alleviation of depression. Also benefits in 1) terms of socialization 2) Enhancement of creativity Torrance test of creativity = mood was improved by 25% - page 525 Exercise Adherence 20-25 million people in the United States exercise on a regular basis, and most extol its numerous physical, psychological, and social virtues Exercise adherence eludes these people 50% of the individuals who start a fitness campaign will drop out in 6 months or less. Sanne (1973) studied 148 post-MI patients in Sweden and found that 29% of the group never began prescribed exercise programming. At the end of 2 years, 29% of the original 148 patients were working out under a hospital administered exercise program - another 17% said they were working out at home on their own) By the 4-year mark, 14% were still working out at the hospital and 18% reported exercising on their own, 4 year of 32% Andrew 1981, found an exercise noncompliance rate of 44% longitudinal study of 728 post coronary men in Ontario Canada. Overall, Oldrige (1988) indicates that 40% to 50% of referred patients drop out of cardiac rehabilitation programs in 12 months or less from the time of initial physician referral.

524-526

-May be a linkage between riding a bicycle and erectile disfunction Dr. Irwin Goldstein cites a statistic that 100,000 men have suffered permanent erectile problems from bicycling (New findings, 1999) Hippocrates who noted that sexual problems were common among horsemen of that era. Archaic design and lack of anatomic fit to the typical bicycle seat and the compression damage done to nerves and blood supply in the genital area. A rate as low as 4% is still significant when one takes into account that probably 50million people rode bikes. -There are degrees of seriousness about cycling. If the activity places the participant at risk for erectile disorder, it is going to be proportional to at least two things, the bicycle seat used and the sheer amount of time spent on the bicycle. The competitive seat he says is the most damaging. Traumatic contact with the seat, perineal numbness, urethral structure, and pelvic fractures, which are also potential complications women bicyclists have too. Predictors of Exercise adherence 1. Physical proximity 2. Spousal support 3. Social support 4. Exercising in small as opposed to large groups 5. Socioeconmic status 6. Self Prophecy 7. Internal locus of control Proximity was important to the continuance of exercise Mcready and Long (1985) point to a positive correlation between spousal support and continuance in exercise programs. Dishman (1984) "A spouses attitude toward a participants involvement is a greater involvement is a greater influence in the participants behavior than his or her own attitude" -strong evidence for the efficacious nature of social support in exercise enjoyment and adherence. Carron and Spink Focused on the assessment of exercise environments using their adaptation of the group environment Questionnaire (GEQ) -Exercisers who were absent less often than a comparable group gave a stronger endorsement to the attraction to the group task (ATG-T) and attraction to group-social (ATG-S) dimensions of the GEQ. Estabrooks and Carron - 1990 looked at exercise intentions attitudes and behaviors or older adults in an exercise group. In general both task and social cohesion were high among these exercisers and both scales were predictive of attitude and attendance. Experimental groups had a significant rise in the ATG-T scores over the course of the experiment and also attended on a more regular basis and had fewer dropouts than the waiting list control group Exercising in small as opposed to large groups is conducive to exercise continuance. The reinforcement associated with exercise should be realized when groups are small and attention from instructors and peers is maximized According to Keating, Dunn, Pinero, and Bridges 2005, studies of college students have been sparse, hampered by a lack of multiple level approaches to examining their physical activity behaviors and hamstrung by the lack of an overriding measure of physical activity that would lend continuity to the research. 403 females and 198 males in Canada, Exercising alone was the least preferable. Motives for sport participation were more intrinsic, focusing on enjoyment and challenge, whereas exercise motivation was more extrinsic and focused on such things as appearance, weight control, and stress management. 210 college students to one of two groups using varying academic incentives as rewards for decreasing body fat in the group. The group that received the greater academic incentive also had the most body fat reduction at the end of the study, thus suggesting that academic incentives could be built into the reward structure of university fitness programs. 1. Health Belief Model - Becker Maiman 1977... Supposes that the likelihood of adopting a particular behavior appropriate to preventing or controlling a disease is a function of the perceived threat it represents for health, and a concomitant belief that the appropriate response will reduce this threat 2. Protective Motivation Theory -PMT, Fear communication, govern the motivation to protect oneself 1. Perceived severity of a threatening agent 2. Perceived probability of its occurence 3. Efficacy of the proposed preventative behavior 4. perceived self-efficacy of the individual making the response 3. Theory of Reasoned Action TRA- useful in understanding the decision making process in exercise behavior 4. Social cognitive theory (SCT) reinstatement of Banduras social learning theory 5. Theory of Interpersonal behavior - likelihood of engaging in a particular behavior is a function of three variables habit strength, intention, and conditions that encourage or discourage performance of the intended behavior. 6. Theory of planned behavior

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Why people drop out of exercise programs: -Poor accessibility to the exercise are, lack of spousal support, and exercising in large and potentially impersonal groups have considerable impact on whether a person complies with an exercise regiment Time, accessibility, smoking, poor choice of exercise, issue of injury Type A individuals appear to have relatively poor exercise adherence rates, either a lack of patience with the seemingly slow pace of the typical fitness program or a result of setting other competing goals that eventually take priority over exercise. Since extraverts assuredly derive more reinforcement from group interactions than introverts, it is not surprising that the extravert/exercise relationships been noted. High extraversion being associated with low attendance in exercise classes among previously sedentary women. Improving exercise adherence 1. Behavioral contracting, exercise specifics are spelled out with the cooperation of both the exerciser and the persons supervising the workout 2. Lotteries 3. Stimulus cueing 4. Reinforcement reward Regardless of how the various rewards may be structured and dispensed they are essential in some form or fashion if the goal of exercise adherence is to be achieved. Lotteries - exercise adherence strategy in which the exerciser draws the days regimen at random as a way of relieving boredom. Haber and Looney study - 48 older adults were involved, of whom 15 experienced a 100% success rate and 21 others were what the authors called high successful. In the Haber and Rhodes study. 25 sedentary older adults completed health contracts. Of the 25, 20 achieved at least 75% of their exercise goals, and 15 of those were at 100% Things learned early in the individuals reinforcement history are among the most powerful. Shepard makes a strong plea for the institution and support of regular physical education classes in public schools. In the 1999 shepherd study male and female adults who had five physical education classes per week through the first 6 years of elementary school were compared with a matched sample drawn at random from an existing data bank. Higher physical activity rates among the female experimental subjects. Similarities were also noted in attitudes, intentions, and perceived barriers to exercise between experimental and control group subjects. Daily physical education at the primary school level set a tone for long-term continuation of exercise at least with women despite existing similarities in attitudes, intentions, and perceived barriers. Folkins and Sime and Tomporowski and Ellis - while success had been achieved with geriatric mental patients, the picture was much less clear with normal children and adults, where conflicting results dominated. 1. Very brief high intensity anaerobic exercise 2. Shot duration high intensity anaerobic exercise 3. Short- duration moderate intensity aerobic exercise 4. Long duration aerobic exercise Physical measures involved a variety of strength tests (hand dynamometers, weights suspended on pulleys) Testing the invested-U hypothesis. Anaerobic exercise facilitated cognitive performance as measured by such things as addition problems, digit-span tests, perception of geometric figures, and paired associate learning. High and low levels of tension, in contrast did not facilitate cognitive functioning, Short duration high intensity anaerobic exercise - mostly inconclusive results Six of Eleven studies surveyed showed no effects. Short Duration moderate intensity aerobic exercise - calisthenics, step up tasks, bicycle pedaling, treadmill running, and run jog walk tasks were used, and a host of cognitive tasks were employed in this group of studies. Report improved cognitive functioning with increases in arousal. Also highly fit subjects performed better than less physically fit people Long Duration Aerobic Exercise A marathon race, a 5-mile march carrying a 40-pound pack, and a treadmill task to fatigue were used as long duration aerobic events, with signal detection, perceptual organization, and a free-recall memory test serving as the cognitive measure The assessment of the effects of long-duration aerobic exercise and cognitive functioning was in short supply Positive relationship between two variables 1. Has to do with higher rates of blood flowing to the brain 2. Elevation of certain neurotransmitters after exercise 3. Structural changes in the brain Brough about in increases in the vasculature cerebellar cortex Exercise = Higher Cognitive functioning

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Exercise and health are moderated by mindset Crum and Langer Benson & Friedman Indicated that 60-90% of drugs and other therapies prescribed by physicians rely heavily on the placebo effect for their effectiveness. Crum Langer Investigation = Showed that the informed group believed they were getting more exercise than before. When compared with the control group, the informed hotel workers had lost weight, had lower blood pressure, less body fat, and a decrease in Body mass Index. Effects on Mood Exercise and Anxiety Folkins and Sime- 13 of which reported improvement in mood. seven dealt with anxiety and all pointed to improvement related to that particular affective dimension. Long (1984) state trait anxiety inventory prior to assigning them to an aerobics condition program involving jogging, a waiting list control group, or a stress inoculation training group that was treated for 10 week in accordance with the system popularize by Meichenbaum (1977) Results indicated anxiety decreased in both jogging and stress inoculation training groups Found decreases in state but not trait anxiety Little doubt about the efficacy of exercise in reducing anxiety and exercise offers advantages not always found in other treatments in terms of cost and other physical and psychological benefits of maintaining an active lifestyle. Exercise is a tension reducer, 75 males to three conditions, one involving aerobic exercise, another mediation, and third quiet rest - both treatments resulted in reduced anxiety (Page 535 highlight 27.4) Exercise and depression - therapeutic intervention in depression Corner (2007) 5-10% of Americans suffer from depression in any given year, one of six people worldwide will experience depression in their lifetime. 80% of suicides are depression related (Monahan, 1986) 1970s Greist, Klein, Fischens, Subjects who had been diagnosed as depressed were assigned to groups... Conclusion was that running was as successful as traditional psychotherapy and at a considerable saving in terms of money and time for the clients Brown Ramirez and Taub, found decreases in depression in their study of high school and college students with wrestling mixed exercise and jogging. Softball had no effects on depression scores. Studies show a positive relationship between acute and chronic exercise and alleviation of depression. Distraction Hypothesis - Subjects distraction or diversion from stressors produces anxiety reduction associated with exercise Endorphin Hypothesis - The release of chemicals within the subjects pituitary gland and brain produces the anxiety reduction associated with exercising Thermogenic Hypothesis - The elevation of the subject's body temperature produces the anxiety reduction associated with exercising Monoamine Hypothesis- The alteration of neurotransmitter substances within the subjects brain produces the anxiety reduction associated with exercise Dunn and Martinesen -Considerations in using exercise as therapy for anxiety depression , bottom of page 537.

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Coleman Griffith

A professor at the University of Illinois who started the first sport psychology course also known as the "Father of sport psychology"

Pressure-laden enterprise, one in which the win-loss record is generally viewed as the standard by success is measured. Roles of the Coach -Coaches are expected to win, be a positive reflection on the organization, build character in young athletes, and make money for their school or the team owner, depending on the situation

Frank Kush head coach ASU, "My job is to win football games..." If I don't win im gone" (Michener, 1976) The coach becomes a slave

Good coaching

Even more than technical knowledge of the game, coaches must be able to motivate players, be teachers and students at the same time, be aware of individual differences among athletes, be good listeners, be disciplinarians when necessary, lead by example, and be a goal setter

Advantages and Disadvantages of coaching -Prevailing in one to one competition with your peers has a tremendous amount of appeal. Molding a group of individuals into a productive and cohesive team. Watching young people master skills and, at the same time, grow up to be useful, contributing citizens. For an increasing number of coaches, substantial monetary rewards and fame accompany such success. -In the NBA in 1990 there were one first year coaches, eight second year coaches, seven third year coaches, and three coaches with over 3 years tenure (New faces 1990) At the start of 1994 season there were 9 new coaches (NBA coaching changes 1994) In 2006-07 there were four new coaches (Coaching carousel) In mens D1 Basketball there were 49 coaching changes following the 1999-2000 season (Coaching changes, 2000) In 2006 this number was 49 (Rivals.com Coaching Carousel, 2007) In Division 1 women's basketball 33 coaches were replaced at the end of 1999-2000 season (NCAA coaching changes, 2000) In 2006 the number was 27, and a total of 103 across Divisions 1,2,and 3 (Coaching changes 2006,2007) In the NFL there were eight coaching changes made in the first 32 days of the year 2000 (NFL head coaching changes, 2000) There were 133 head coaches fired in the NFL between 1969 to 1989. As of 1990 only five coaches had more than 9 years tenure with the same team (NFL veterans, 1990) At the collegiate level in football, there were 14 coaching changes made following the 1999-2000 Division 1 season. At the lower pressure Division 2 level, another 19 coaches lost their jobs during the same season (Coaching changes, 2000) Approx. half of all division 1 programs were coached by men with less than 4 years tenure. Only 17 have lasted as long as 10 years. Joe Paterno at Penn State led the pack with 32 years (now 42 years) (Unsteady ground, 1997) At the end of 2006 season, 22 additional coaching changes were made in Division 1 (Coaching changes for 2007 season, 2007) Eight major league baseball managers. five NFL coaches and four NHL coaches lost their jobs in 2006 (MLB managerial changes 2006, NFL changes, NHL coaching changes 79% of the male coaches in a state survey and 87% In a national survey were married, the figures for females for female coaches were 53% and 42% Thorngen 1990 points out that females in coaching may be more susceptible to the effects of job stress because of the fact that they are more likely to be single and are deprived of the support system in a good marriage. Hasbrook - parenting, not marital pressure, may be the biggest culprit in job dissatisfaction among coaches, to date there are no studies of parenting and coaching satisfaction It is unlikely that we will ever see many people coaching into their seventies and eighties again. There are five currently football coaches over the age of 55. Fred Jacoby (1989) Then commissioner of the Mid=american conference, found that only six of 84 assistant coaches in his league were over 50 years of age; only one of the ten head coaches was over 50. Only of of the ten head coaches was over 50 Dealing with the never ending array of critics, working endless hours, having ones future depend heavily on the behavior of others, having little job security, living a sometimes disjointed family life, and being a member of a career with a short life expectancy are things that have to be dealt w/in the profession of coaching.

John Gagliardi of St Johns - pg 488 Fuoss and Troppmann (1981) 1. Everyone is an expert on sport, Most of us are willing to coach how to run his or her team. Second guessing coaches "way of live" in U.S. and many other countries 2. Endless work hours 3. Constant Evaluations 4. Lack of job security 5. The ripple effect created among assistant coaches when the head coach is fired adds to the unsettled nature of the profession of coaching. 6. A toll on family life 7. Terminal career. Very few coaches actually retire at the usual age of 665 or 70; most burn out from pressure prior to reaching the usual retirement age. The coach is only as good as his last years record. Norm Sloan (1977) "Coaching is the only profession in which you have to prove yourself as much in the thirtieth year as in the first year" Phil Jackson Pg. 490

Knute Rockne

Legendary football coach at the university of Notre Dame in the 1920s

"Good old boy" network

Men whose lifetime association, both personal and professional, results in favoritism in hiring and job advancement

U.S. Senior Games, or Senior Olympics

National competitions held every 2 years in 18 sports for athletes over 50 years of age

The coach and the sports psychologist - the role of the sport psychologist in assisting coaches is a highly ambiguous one. Establishing credibility with coaches (Lanning (1980) and Suinn (1986) 1. Sports psychologists interest in the problems of sport should be evident. 2. The ability to objectively evaluate sport situations is critical to success 3. Awareness that as the level of the performance improves, the problems of the coach and the sport psychologist concurrently increase. 4. As an outsider to athletes and coaches, must prove his or her skills to them. 5. A substantial impact on assistant coaches, athletes, and others related to a team; diplomacy in dealing with these various persons is a necessity. 6. Each player and team is unique 7. Maximization of strengths and recognition of limitations 8. Role of the sport psychologist is always as psychologist and not as a coach 9. Sports psychologist is a consultant, not as expert 10. The ability to listen The Coach's personality - personality makeup of coaches Ogilvie and Tutko (1966) studies coaches from Football, baseball, basketball, and track. Identified five types of coaches. Leunes and Nation (1982) Most coaches are ex players who chose to enter the profession on graduation - study shows that when compared to a sample of college peers who played HS football and a sample of nonathletes from the same university - Football players were significantly more authoritarian on virtually every subscale and the total score than the other two groups. Authoritarian personality - (Adorno, Frenkel-Brunswik, Levinson, & Sanford, 1950) The Machiavellian Personality - Christie and Gets (1970s) are responsible for furthering scientific interest in the Machiavellian personality. Drawing from "The prince and the discourses" Mach Scale - Personas general strategy for dealing with people, especially, the degree to which he or she feels other people are manipulable in social situations. Shaver and Wrightsman, 1991. stated that coaches as a group are rather insensitive in their dealings with others and are prone to manipulate players and others in order to win. Sage 1972A - administered the Machiavellian Scale to 496 college and high school coaches and a sample of male college students form 14 different universities. The relationship was negative, with older more experienced coaches scoring lower on their younger contemporaries There was no indication of even a mild relationship between win-loss record and arches Machi. Personality, a finding also substantiated by Walsh and Carron (1977) Sages second study 1972B - Polyphasic Values Inventory (PVI) a scale designed to assess conservatism on a variety of philosophical, political, economic, educational, social, religious and personal-moral issues. Coaches were found to be considerably more conservative than the college students and generally more liberal than the businessmen. Coaches may be authoritarian, conservative, and Machiavellian, but probably no more so than members of a number of other professions. Coaches may be authoritarian in a job situation because it serves them well but they might not be like that in other situations.

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Coaching and youth sport: Some know the games they coach, some know how to teach, and some actually have an intuitive feel for young people and how to motivate them. Lombardo )1986) indicates that there are more than 4 million youth coaches in the United States, and he thinks that many are not qualified to properly coach children regardless of how well intentioned they may be. Institute for the Study of Youth Sport at Michigan State, among others, has suggested guidelines that organizations might employ in screening coaches to work with young people (Seefeldt, 2000) The Coaching behaviors Assessment (CBAS) - Developed by Smith, Smoll, and Hunt (1977) -Developed to allow for direct observation and subsequent coding of coaching behaviors. Its 12 behavioral categories are divided into two larger categories, reactive or elicited and spontaneous or emitted behaviors. 1. A study of 51 male coaches and 542 players in the Seattle, Washington period - Two thirds of the coaches behaviors fell within the three instructional and support categories, and the rate of punitive behaviors was generally quite low. 2. Self esteem in little league players 3. Assessed the efficacy of a preseason training package aimed at teaching anxiety reduction strategies to coaches -Coaches were generally aware of their use of punitive approaches but were less aware of other behaviors in which they engages. Players evaluated their teammates and the sport of baseball more positively if they played for coaches who used high levels of reinforcement and support. Self esteem was enhanced by the positive coaches, and positive coaches were more well-liked than the more punitive ones. The win-loss record was generally unrelated to the youngsters feelings about their coaches Trained coaches were evaluated more positively by their players, and the players reported having more fun despite no differences in win-loss records when compared with controls Trained coach demonstrated significant increases in self esteem over the season. Players of trained coaches evaluated them more favorably and reported having more fun playing the game. ** There was also a significant reduction in anxiety Coach Effectiveness - three hour training program - supportive of the CET the trained coaches used more reinforcement and less punishment were liked better by the players and were seen as better teachers

Page 500-501

Psychological factors Valey, Udry, Zimmerman, Soliday (1992) Administered the STTAI, MBI and questionnaire to 381 highschool and 467 college coaches in ten different sports. Data analysis revealed that there was considerable burnout in this sample, perhaps as high as 29% of the males and 27% of the females. High burnout coaches of both genders reported significantly more state anxiety, actual time spent in coaching was not predictive of burnout, a finding that ran counter to their research hypothesis as well as Maslach's earlier work in other applied settings Kelley used the MBI to assess burnout in 131 male and 118 female NCAA division 3 and NAIA baseball and softball coaches. Kobasa made & Courington, Hardiness is characterized by three factors 1. Control - Refers to the tendency of the hardy individual to believe that he or she can influence the course of life events 2. Commitment - Means approaching life with a sense of purpose a healthy curiosity and a willingness to invest oneself in relationships 3. Challenge - The hardy personality believes that change rather than stability is the norm; as such changes are seen as interesting positive and an impetus for additional growth. Male and female coaches who were low in psychological hardiness reported high levels of burnout and less job satisfaction in general. Effects of burnout According to Pate, Rotella, and McClenaghan (1984) the effects of burnout will be seen in the two parties closest to the coach, namely athletes and family. 1. Blame the athletes. 2. Look inward (self-blame) the problems to lack of coaching ability 3. Situation itself Perfectionism has been linked to a number of negative psychologic states including anger, depression, OCD, bulimia, anorexia, and personality disorders.... research page 514 blue highlight.

Page 514-515

Preventing Burnout 1. Maintaining an awareness that no one is immune to burnout Caccese and Mayerberg - 138 male and 93 female coaches from NCAA and AIAW D1 found that female coaches reported significantly higher levels of emotional exhaustion and lower levels of personal accomplishment than did males - female coaches are susceptible to coaching burnout, perhaps more than male counterparts. 2. Adopting a healthy lifestyle 3. Maintaining support systems 4. Maintaining a sense of humor

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William Glasser - "We are descended from those who ran to stay a live and this need to run is programmed genetically into our brains" "When I miss my workouts I feel as if I let myself down... it is the watchdog that makes me do my running" Morgan 1979 - Who felt such a state had been reached if the person believed running was necessary in order to cope with everyday life and if withdrawal symptoms emerged when running was withdrawn Hausenblas and Symons Downs- exercise dependence be operationally defined as a "multidimensional pattern of exercise, leading to clinically significant impairment or distress by the following: 1. Tolerance 2. Withdrawal. 3. Intention effects 4. Loss of control 5. Time 6. Conflict 7. Continuance pg 543 Veale 1987, 1995, dependence on exercise to eating disorders, end goal sought through exercise regimen Primary exercise dependence - defining characteristics of the eating disorder are absent and having exercise becomes an end in itself Secondary exercise dependence- the compelling motivation for exercise is to control and manipulate some aspect of body composition. Hausenblas and Symons Downs - a lack of experimental research, an absence of theory-driven studies, inconsistent or nonexistent control groups a failure to properly define terms.. = no consensus instruments Negative addiction scale Obligatory exercise questionnaire Commitment to running scale An interesting aspect of exercise gone awry is related to injuries sustained while running to excess (Diekhoff 1984 Adminstered a type A/B scale, an addiction to running scale, a commitment to running scale - he found that those individuals who had suffered injuries while running tended to be type A personalities, were addicted to running, had a strong commitment to running, ran more miles, and were more likely to run in fun runs and competitive races than were the non injured runners. Addiction scores on their scale were significantly higher for runners who had run from 1 to 4 years than for those who had been running a year Runners high occurs only in distant runners and probably will not be experienced by runners who only jog 6-10 miles per week. Only occurs in individuals who run for 25-30 minutes or more James Menegazzi, an exercise researcher suggested that runners high is a function of endorphin infusion that only takes place at high intensity. 50 miles at a moderate clip to 25 miles of hard running. Occurrence of runners high 9 to 10% of all runners to 77% to 78% - a range of 9 to 78 - page 545 Runners high = flow A natural laxative that throws off the waste in the body and mind, transcendence and euphoric sensation are descriptive terms used by Sachs. Steady state stimulation = runners high exercise induced analgesia and perhaps other physical adaptations to exercise could be a function of activation of the endocannaboid system, suggesting similar effects of marijuana Transient hypofrontality hypothesis, which suggest that the hallmark of altered states of consciousness (runners high) is the subtle modification of behavioral and cognitive functions thought to be associated with the prefrontal cortex of the brain. Pheidippes - died of exhaustion after his victory announcement

Page. 542- negative addiction to exercise- condition in which life becomes structured around exercise to such an extent that home and work responsibilities suffer

-The coach who communicates the best is most often the winner in athletic contests Communication process- the source the message the Chanel and the receiver. The effectiveness of the coach will depend on such factors as credibility with his or her players, perceived competence, personal and psychological attractiveness, statues, and power. The message is the meaning conveyed and may involve shrugs, facial expressions, vocal influences, and the use of sarcasm or sincerity. The channel refers to the method used, either verbal or nonverbal. The receiver obviously is the target of the message, such as intelligence, motivation, and personality will dictate how much and what is perceived. Mehrabian (1971) he says that any message is 7% verbal, 38% vocal emphasis, and 55% facial expression. In Kinesics, visual gaze posture, facial gestures, and hand movements are involved, in proxemics, personal space issues are paramount; in paralanguage, slow speech, fast speech, high pitch, sarcasm, and variable use of phrases are manipulated for desired effect. Bloom, Crumpton, and Anderson (1999)identified an even dozen verbal mechanisms that coaches use in the day to day teaching of their sport - an analysis of coaching behaviors of Jerry (Task the Shark) Tarkanian, at one time a highly successful basketball coach at the UNLV and Fresno state university. Tactical instructions, hustles, technical instructions, praise and encouragement, general instructions, and scolding were, in order, the most commonly used verbal strategies. Only 6% of Tarkarians comments were negative (Scolding) Less than 1% of Tarkanians coaching behaviors involved nonverbal reward or punishment.

Pg. 491

Other approaches to youth coaching National Alliance for Youth Sports - HQ in west palm beach Florida Fredh Engh started the organization in 1981, was at first the National Youth Sports Coaching Association (NYSCA) the name change went into effect in 1993 to better reflect expansion of focus. Nays clinic involves watching a 3-hour video training session on positive coaching philosophy, each coach must pass an exam and sign a pledge to abide by their code of ethics. All coaches completing the training are provided with the official continuing education publication, youth sport journal which comes out quarterly. As of 2007, more than 1.7 million youth coaches have received NAYS certification. As well, 65,000 families and 1,000 administrators have been trained by NAYS. ASEP - American sport education program (asep) originally known as the American coaching effectiveness program (ACEP). Founded at the University of Illinois in 1981 by Rainer Martens, ASEPs motto Athletes first, winning second in 1994. In 1994 the original coaches training program was broadened to include parents and administrators and this larger focus resulted in the name change from ACEP to ASEP. Over 3.5 million coaches, 80 million parents and 300,000 administrators have benefited from ASEP's educational courses and other resources. The Institute for the study of youth sport (ISYS) - An outgrowth of the 1978 legislature mandated Michigan. Department of Kinesology - ISYS has been charged by the Michigan legislature to research the benefits and detriments of youth sport participation and to provide educational materials and programs for coaches, administrators, officials, and parents. ISYS is headed by Dr. Dan Gould, well known figure in sports psychology... CAC - Coaching association of Canada was established in 1970 to improve coaching at all levels throughout the country. In 1974, the CAC was established in 1970 to improve coaching at all levels throughout the country. In 1974 the CAC launched the NCCP - National Coaching Certification Program, which serves as an invaluable source of guidance for coaches of youth. The NCCP sponsors what they call streams Stream 1- Community sport and is aimed at volunteer coaches Stream 2- Involves coaches who often have been athletes themselves Stream 3- Involves the teaching of sport skills at three levels of sophistication. Each year 50,000 coaches enroll in NCCP workshops and thus far 900,000 coaches in Canada received NCCP instruction. Good Plays: Do reinforce Don't take efforts for granted Mistakes: Do encourage immediately after mistakes Don't punish when things go wrong Misbehaviors: Do maintain order by establishing clear expectations Don't constantly nag or threaten the kids in order to prevent chaos Getting positive things to happen: Do give instruction Do Give encouragement Do concentrate on the game Don't give either instruction or encouragement in a sarcastic or degrading manner

Pg. 502-503

The female coach Two events greatly shaped the face of women's sports in the 1970s 1) Implementation of the Title IX - created a reverse effect for female coaches who find themselves on the outside looking in with regard to career options in the coaching field. 2) Explosion of participation in young feels at both the interscholastic and intercollegiate levels. Since 1972, female sport participation at the high school level has risen from 1 female per 27 to 1 per 2.5, or an increase of 875%. There are currently 2.9 million young women competing in interscholastic sports. At the collegiate level, female sports participation is up 437% since the passage of the Title IX. Female participation in the Olympic Games has risen from 1% of the total umber of competitors in 1904 to 40% of the total in 2004. The Female Interscholastic/Intercollegiate Coach Hart and Matthew (1982) reported that the percentage of women coaching girls' teams in Wisconsin dropped from 92 in 1975 to 46 in 1981. Schafer reported that 89% of coaches of women's high school teams in 1973-1974 were themselves women, but this figure dropped to 41% by 1983-1984. In a study conducted in Virginia, Heishman, Bunker, and Tutwiler (1990) report a 271% increase from 1972 to 1987 in coaching opportunities for women's sport; at the same time, the number of female coaches declined from 80% to slightly under 44% during that 15-year period. A research effort by True (1983) isolated similar trends; data from eight states indicated 40-50% decrease in women's coaches, depending on the state considered. Acosta and Carpenter (1985) in reviewing the coaching situation in the states of Illinois, Kansas, Nebraska, and Wisconsin they found nearly identical declines, generally in the 40-50% range. Most recent data shows that the picture has remained fairly stable in the past 20 years. with the percentage of decreased opportunity hovering around the 40-50% range. Holmen and Parkhouse (1981) who found that the number of female coaching positions in colleges and universities increased by 37% from 1974 to 1979. However during the same time period female coaches dropped by 20%. Interestingly, the number of Mae coaches coaching female athletic teams grew by a whopping 137% Data from Breqingtion and white (1988) offer little consolation, since the early 1970s the number of female coaches has dropped from 90% to 50%. Carpenter and Acosta (2006) cite a figure of 42.4% an all time low for women's coaches. Sports administrators around the same period declined from 90% to 15%. 85% of all athletic administrators involved in womens athletics are male as are 58.6% of the coaches (Carpenter & Acosta, 2006) Reasons for the Decline in the Number of Female Coaches According to Sisley and Capel (1986), this situation arose as a natural outgrowth of the existing girls' physical education classes and athletic associations - however as these programs expanded in terms of popularity, salaries, and public visibility, the number of women filling the existing coaching slots decreased and many positions were taken over by males. Why female involvement of coaching other females have declined = Hart, Hasbrook, and Matthew (1986) 1)Role conflict 2) Incomplete occupational socialization 3) Outright sex discrimination Research by Locke and Massengale (1978) (1980) suggests that role conflict is not the exclusive domain of female coaches - Results of a survey of over 4,000 high school coaches by Hasbrook Hart Matthew and True (1990) found that males felt more affected by time constraints and resultant conflicts because of family responsibilities than did the females in their sample. "Incompatibility with family life" was the fourth most cited reason for leaving coaching for males in the sample and sixth most frequent for the females. 87% of the male coaches were married and 42% of the females. It has been suggested that failure in various work settings may be a function of incomplete occupational socialization - a concept by Burlingame (1972). The lack of expectancy of becoming a coach, the dearth of female role models for coaching, and a shortage of top competitive experience all contribute to the failure of female coaches to acquire the fundamental knowledge, skills, and values so critical to success. Studies by Anderson and Gill (1983), Eitzen and Pratt (1989) and Hasbrook et al. (1990) indicate at least for the sport of basketball, female coaches at both the interscholastic and collegiate levels had more varsity playing experience than did male coaches. Mathes reported that female coaches feel restricted to minor sports, believe their mobility to be limited in terms of becoming head coaches or athletic directors, and generally see coaching as a limited source of job opportunity. Sex discrimination ins alive and well in intercollegiate sport, Heishman Bunker and Tutweiler (1990) found that the Sports where males replaced female coaches at the highest rates were 1) track and field, 2) basketball, and 3) softball, in that order. In contrast female coaches were much less likely to be replaced in sports such as field hockey,gymnastics, volleyball, and tennis. Kane (1990) found a strong relationship between gender of the athletic director and the gender of coaches who were Hird, resulting in homologous reproduction. Knoppers, Meyer, Ewing, and Forrest (1989) provide support for this - "gatekeepers to the profession of coaching" 48.5% of coaches of NCAA programs are females in situations where the athletic director is also a female. Sagas, Cunningham, and Teed (2006) - female head coaches were much more likely to hire female assistants when compared with male head coaches and their hiring of male assistants. Self-efficacy was predictive of wanting to become a head coach for both males and females, that males expressed more desire to become a head coach, and females had greater occupational turnover intentions. The intimations of Knoppers et al. and Stangl and Kane also give rise to the suspicion that a "good old boy" network of men with lifetime professional and personal relationships may be operating in the hiring and retention of coaches. Good old boy pg 506 paragraph above black coach*

Pg. 504-506

The Black Coach Laimer and Mathes (1985) looked at all the racial composition of 47 Division 1 colleges and found a total of 80 black coaches, only one of whom was a head coach. Almost always employed as coaches of athletes playing peripheral as opposed to central positions, a finding not inconsistent with results reported in some detail. 32 black head coaches in predominantly white schools and 17 others at predominantly black schools among the 293 division one mens basketball programs ... 17% of the coaches at that time were black in a sport where the ratio of black to white players was approximately 60/40 For the year 1997-1998, 5.8% of Division 1 coaches across all sports were African American and another 2.1% were minorities, yielding an overall figure of 7.9%, This figure represents a gain from the 6.8% figure for 1995-1996 (Lapchick & Matthews, 2000) In college football during 2006, there were five black head coaches among the 119 Division 2 (Harrison 2006) One other minority, Jerome Souers of the University of Northern Arizona (D2) was of Native American heritage Harrison indicates since 1982, 414 head coaching jobs in Division 1 have become available and 21 (5%) have been filled by black coaches. Nine of those 21 have occurred since 1990. Since 1996, there have been 175 vacancies and only 11 (6%) have been filled by black coaches. MCAA president Myles Brand to issue a call to universities and their athletic departments to be more open in hiring black coaches (Brand calls for hiring 2007) Frank Deford: The people who hire football coaches probably fail at getting to know young black coaching candidates. Cochran and Mehri (2007) analyze a database of all NFL coaching records for a 15-year period, with emphasis on comparing the five-black coaches' records with those of white coaches' records with those of white coaches. Black coaches in question were Tony Dungy, Herman Edwards, Dennis Green, Ray Rhodes, and Art Shell. Black coaches averaged 1.1 wins more than the white coaches, took their teams to the playoffs 67% versus 39% of the time, and won 1.3 games more than white colleagues the year that both groups had their coaching tenures terminated. 42 year history of the NFL super bowl, not one but two black head coaches were present - not only are the two coaches black but they are studies in contrast when compared with many of their peers in the NFL who rely more on strong arm methods, strict discipline, and occasional episodes of fire and brimstone in the dressing room or along the sidelines - positive reinforcement

Pg. 506-508

1. Administrative level, the coach must get along with owners, general managers athletic directors, and other administrators 2. Players - must care at some level about the athletes, be able to motivate them, and be concerned with their overall welfare. 3. Assistant coaches, Assistants should be paid what they are worth in terms of the free market , given a free rein to coach their various specialties, and always be treated as trusted allies 4. Media, Media demands a lot of time energy and though from the coach. Media exposure is important to the welfare of teams and athletes. 5.Internet chat room, where every Monday morning quarterback and second-guesser in the world is free to tee off and the coaches and player 6. Fans, fan support is essential to the financial success of the organization, ticket sales, alumni contributions, program support 7. Booster or overzealous university supporter - illegal payments to players or prospects, unethical inducements to perform, and in some cases, blatantly illegal actions, such as plying athletes with cocaine.

Sabock (1979says the good coach will be a teacher, disciplinarian, salesperson, public relations specialist, diplomat, organizer, role model, psychologist, leader, judge and jury, mother or father figure, dictator, politician, actor, fundraiser, director, field general, equipment manager, trainer, community citizen, and citizen of the school, university, or organization. Mr. Davidson took over the coaching reins 2 or 3 weeks prior to the first game. The principal referred him to several of the older players as resources, and at their urging he read Bud Wilkisons's very popular book on the split-T formation He lost no games that year and only five in the next 7 years (Wilkinson 1952) pg. 485

National Alliance for Youth Sports (NAYS)

a clinic featuring a 3-hour video session for youth coaches that teaches positive philosophy, psychology of children and other topics; coaches must sign pledge to follow the organization's code of Ethics

Entrapment

a component of burnout that occurs when coaches lose their enthusiasm for the job but feel they must stay on for a variety of reasons

communication process

a four-element process in which the source, the person originating the communication, is the coach; the message is the meaning he or she is trying to convey; the channel is the method used, verbal or nonverbal; and the receiver is the target of the message, who perceives it according to variables of intelligence, motivation, personality, and the like

Maslach burnout Inventory-General Survey (MBI-GS)

a measure of psychological burnout designed to assess frequency and intensity of feelings in the areas of emotional exhaustion cynicism, and personal accomplishment

Smith's cognitive-affective model of burnout

a model that posits that burnout is a reaction to chronic stress and has situational, cognitive, physiological, and behavioral components

extraversion

a personality trait defined by greater interest in the environment that in oneself; "outgoing" rather than inward looking

hardiness

a psychological construct made up of three elements, control, commitment, and challenge

coaching burnout

a psychological state in which the coach experiences extreme emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced accomplishment

MAch scale

a scale designed to measure MAchiavellianism, or the tendency to be manipulative in social interactive

Athletic burnout Questionnaire

a sport-specific measure of burnout with sub scales of emotional exhaustion, reduced accomplishment, and sport devaluation

coaching behavior assessment system

a standardized measure developed by Smoll and Smith for direct observation and coding of 12 coaching behaviors grouped as reactive or spontaneous

Motivations of marathoners scale (MOMS)

a standardized measure for assessing measure for assessing motives for competing in marathons

Runner's high

a state experienced by distance runners that is characterized by a sudden heightened sense of well-being; also known as flow, natural laxative, transcendence, euphoric sensation, steady state, stimulation, peak experience, centering state, existential drift, runner's calm, general happiness, and total euphoria

exercise

a subset of physical activity characterized by planned, organized, and repetitive components aimed at improving or maintaining physical fitness

California F-scale

a traditional measure of authoritarianism or psychological rigidity

Institute for the Study of Youth sport (ISYS)

a training program administered by Michigan State university to research youth sport and provide educational materials and programs for coaches, administrators, officials, and parents

Coach Effectiveness Training (CET)

a training program for youth coaches developed by Smoll and Smith that teaches anxiety- reduction strategies, reinforcement over punishment, and other psychosocial techniques

NAtional Coaching certification program (NCCP)

a training program for youth coaches that emphasizes theory, technique, and application in Canada

American Sport Education Program (ASEP)

a training program founded by Rainer Martens that includes youth coaches, parents, and administrators

perfectionism

a trait that compels a person to seek perfection at all costs; linked with a number of pathological states and a possible contributor to burnout

exercise adherence

ability to follow an exercise regimen on a regular basis over an extended period of time

Type A personality

an aggressive, hard-driving, competitive person, at risk for coronary heart disease

athletic retirement

an event in the lives of all athletes most commonly as a result of deselection, chronological age, or incapacitating inury

Ultrarunners

another name for participants in ultra marathon races

physical activity

any bodily movement produced by the skeletal muscles that results in an expenditure of energy

Ultramarathon

any foot race that exceeds the official marathon distance of 26 miles, 385 yards

physical fitness

attributes that are related to health or skill performance including all of the exercise components

reinforcement

behavioral control strategy that stimulates responseeee; also known as reward

kinesics

body language used to convey a message in the communication process

Incomplete occupational socialization

condition in which a person has not acquired the knowledge, skills, and values to be successful at a given job; in predicament of female coaches

All-causing mortality

death for any reason; reduction in premature all-cause mortality has been associated with physical fitness

Good coaching 1. Coaches are teachers 2. Be a good student of the game 3. Motivator 4. Be aware of individual differences in athletes 5. Good listener 6. Disciplinarian 7. Leads by example 8. Goal setter *Coach should be a sensitive sounding board for problems, complaints, and wishes of the platters. The good coach will also utilize the team leaders as allies in working with other participants, will be forceful but democratic, allowing for considerable individual input into the everyday management of the sport at hand whether team or individual. Methodical in teaching skills and who are expert in the proper application of a lot of positive reinforcement and a modicum of punishment are miles ahead of their lesser-informed contemporaries. At the same time, coaches should have sessions in which the technical, knowledge based aspects of the game are stressed. Punishment is to be successful in changing behavior it must be mild, prompt, and consistent. Mildness - means that counterproductive arousal will be minimal, thus allowing the intended message to get through Promptness- means that the punishment and behavior will be tied together temporally in such a way that no mixed messages are sent, to wit this is the transgression and here is the specified penalty Consistent- conveys a firm message that there are rules that no one is above the law and that all violation will carry a uniform punishment.

even more than technical knowledge of the game, coaches must be able to motivate players, be teachers and students at the same time, be aware of individual differences among athletes, be good listeners, be disciplinarians when necessary, lead by example, and be a goal setter. Unequal application of the rules is harmful to team morale and does a real disservice to young athletes who grow up believing that they are above the rules. Coach Jon Wooden - coached at UCLA bruins, ten consecutive NCAA basketball championships in the 1960s and 1970s. Bill Walton - former all American center, announcer for networks, showed up in a full bear. Vallee and Bloom (2005) interviewed 5 expert Canadian female coaches and came up with a four part formulation for the creation of program excellence 1) Possess those interpersonal qualities that make them good leaders 2) Have a strong personal desire to foster growth on the part of their athletes 3) Be in possession of organizational skills for planning for both the season and individual games 4) Have a vision that athletes actually want to take as their own Pg. 487

behavioral contracting

exercise adherence strategy in which the exerciser draws the day's regimen at random as a way of relieving boredom

Sel-monitoring

exercise adherence strategy in which the exerciser monitors his or her weight loss, heart rate, or blood pressure, generating objective records that serve as reinforcers

stimulus cueing

exercise adherence strategy in which the exerciser performs the same activity at the same time and place every day

Authoritarian personality

in coaching, one who asserts absolute leadership, has well-formulated goals, demands certain responses from athletes, and takes credit or blame for wins and losses alike

Machiavellian personality

in coaching, one who manipulates others indirectly rather than laying down the law

positive addiction

in running or other exercise a love of the activity that is tempered bu controllability, integration into everyday activities, and ability to forgo exercise when necessary , resulting in increased feelings of control, competence, and physical and psychological well-being

negative addiction

in running or other exercise, a compulsive need to exercise that overrides considerations of health, relationships, and career. also known as exercise dependence, obligatory running, morbid exercise, and compulsive jogging

homologous reproduction

in sports the tendency of the person with hiring authority (the athletic director) to hire persons of his or her own gender (The coach) resulting in gender clustering

paralanguage

inflection or tone of voice used to convey a message in the communication process

pheidippides

legendary runner who brought news of the Greek victory over the persians from the town of Marathon to athens; origin of the term marathon for a cross- country foot race

Coaching Burnout A syndrome of emotional exhaustion and cynicism that occurs frequently among individuals, a key aspect of the burnout syndrome is increased feelings of emotional exhaustion, another aspect is the development of negative, cynical attitudes and feelings about one's clients. Smiths Cognitive Affective model of athletic burnout -In 1986 smith introduced the nuances of burnout = The interaction of this assortment of environmental and personal variables causes burnout. Shows the parallel relationships of stress. Burnout occurs when the available resources are insufficient to meet the demands being placed on the system by the various sources of life stress. There is a sequential response to stress that begins with a cognitive appraisal. Self-efficacy, expectancy of success, self-concept, and a host of other variables discussed in earlier chapters all come into play at this point in the smith model. Causes of Burnout: 1. Taking the job too seriously 2. Problem parents 3. Problem Athletes 4. Disenchantment 5. Pressure to win 6. Other pressures 7. Entrapment - Schmidt and Stein -1991 the three profiles of commitment among athletes: 1. Commitment based on enjoyment 2. Entrapped athlete, who participates more out of obligation than joy. 3. Dropout - gives up participation because of low sport participation 1. That there is no attractive alternative available 2. That they have too much invested to quit 3. That they must continue on because of the pressure arising from the expectations of others. Raedeke et al. mailed a questionnaire to 295 male and female swimming coaches - coaches who felt trapped reported higher than average exhaustion scores Maslach and Jackson 1981- 22 items designed to measure both frequency and intensity of feelings and consisted of three subscales - emotional exhaustion, Depersonalization and Personal Accomplishment Caccese and Mayerberg- female coaches in their study reported significantly higher levels of Emotional exhaustion and significantly lower levels of personal accomplishment, than did the male coaches they surveyed Capel studied athletic trainers using the MBI found little evidence for burnout (Bottom of page 512)

page 511- 512

Spirduso's reaction time studies

research by Waneen Wyrick Spirduso indicating that reaction time as measured by a visual stimulus is affected by physical condition, with older actives having better reaction times than young inactives

proxemics

social distance or territoriality, part of the message conveyed in the communication process