Psych 312 exam 1

What information, besides your questions and scales, should be on the tests?

- Clear and concise instructions should be provided at the beginning of the test. State the purpose of the survey. Explain who is sponsoring or conducting the survey. Explain why it is important for respondents to complete the survey to the best of their ability. Explain how to complete the form. Assure respondents that their answers are confidential and will be reported in group format only. Thank respondents for their cooperation - The survey should include headings and subheadings to help guide respondents through the survey. - Survey developers should provide response instructions that tell respondents how to answer appropriately or that lead them to another part of the questionnaire. - any definition of words that may make people think differently

Why is it important to know your target audience in advance?

- For instance, in many cases we cannot just develop a test for children; instead, we must indicate the characteristics of the children, such as age and reading level. A test for sixth graders will differ considerably from a test for first graders, preschoolers, or infants. - Developers must also consider what reading level is appropriate for the target audience. Obviously, young children would not be expected to read a psychological test - Another consideration is whether the individuals in the target audience have any disabilities or characteristics that would require a special test administration or interpretation. Individuals with sensory, motor, or cognitive impairments may require modifications to the testing process. - Sometimes test takers may want to provide false answers to achieve high or low scores on a test. For instance, a dishonest person may wish to "pass" an honesty test, or a mentally ill person may wish to achieve a healthy diagnosis.

What is a linear transformation?

Linear transformations change the unit of measurement, but do not change the characteristics of the raw data in any way. - percentage: To calculate a percentage you first divide a raw score by the total possible score and then multiply the answer by 100. - standard deviation units: Standard deviation units refer to how many standard deviations an individual score falls away from the mean. - zscores: A z score is similar to a standard deviation unit except that it is represented as a whole number with a decimal point.

Formula for calculating r

One useful formula for hand calculating the Pearson product−moment correlation coefficient between two sets of scores is: r= (sumxy)/sqrt (sumx^2 sumy^2) r = correlation coefficient Σ = sum of the values x = deviation of each score from the mean for the first set of scores y = deviation of each score from the mean for the second set of scores x 2 = deviation of each score from the mean squared for the first set of scores y 2 = deviation of each score from the mean squared for the second set of scores

What are some examples of question types?

Open ended, close ended, row format, column format, implied no choice, single item choice fill in the blank, free choice, multiple choice, ranking, rating, likert type format, semantic differential

When looking at a regression scatter plot and other output, what will you refer to in order to determine how well the best-fit line fits your data? What will you reference to assess the strength and direction of A predicting B?

R^2 - a statistical measure in a regression model that determines the proportion of variance in the dependent variable that can be explained by the independent variable. In other words, r-squared shows how well the data fit the regression model. Beta1 - Standardized Coefficient (β 1)•Same as correlation coefficient (r) in regression with only one predictor(X)** •Direction and magnitude or strength of association•Effect size for X (IV) predicting or being associated with Y (DV)•Comparable with other X i predictors that are not on the same scale of measurement (e.g., X 1 measured on 1-5 scale and X 2 measured on 0-10 scale)•Sample specific (i.e., cannot compare between different samples)

Formula for calculating regression

Simple (Bivariate) LinearRegression Model•X is the raw score on the independentvariable•Ŷ is the predicted raw score on thedependent variable•b 0 is the intercept of the line•Ŷ when X = 0•b 1 is the slope.•Ŷ to increase for a one unit increase in X b0•Intercept (value of Y when X = 0)•Point at which the regression line crosses the y-axis (ordinate)b1•Regression coefficient for the predictor•Gradient (slope) of the regression line (rise/run)•Direction/Strength of Relationship•b0 and b1 are constants

What are three examples of different response scales?

Simple qualitative: How would you rate the person in this area? (e.g., from poor to excellent) Extent: To what extent does the statement describe the person? (e.g., from very little extent to very great extent) Frequency: How often does the person demonstrate effective use of the behavior or skill? (e.g., from almost never to almost always)

What is measurement?

Is the process of assessing the size, the amount, or the degree of an attribute using specific rules for transforming the attribute into numbers

What are ethics and how do ethics relate to ethical standards?

- "ethics [emphasis added] express the professional values foundational to a profession" (APA, 2018a, para. 1). These values influence members' decision-making processes in terms of "doing the right thing." In other words, ethics reflect the morals—what is considered "right" or "wrong." To ensure they are doing what is commonly agreed to as right, members of a profession are expected follow their profession's standards to demonstrate commonly agreed upon ethical behaviors to ensure they do no harm to the individuals with whom they work. - Ethical standards are not laws established by governmental bodies. Violation of ethical standards, however, has various penalties—including possible expulsion of a member from the organization or negative consequences to individuals or organizations. No one can be tried or sued in a court of law for violating ethical standards; rather, these standards are statements by professionals regarding what they believe are appropriate and inappropriate behaviors when practicing their profession. Members of professional societies and associations vote on and adopt these standards after a good deal of discussion and debate. In many cases, the professional practice standards are developed to ensure individuals behave in a way that does not break laws and minimize the likelihood of lawsuits. - The 10 ethical standards are as follows: Resolving ethical issues Competence Human relations Privacy and confidentiality Advertising and other public statements Record keeping and fees Education and training Research and publication Assessment Therapy

Describe how assessment, measurement, and test relate in terms of broad to narrow

- A psychological assessment and a psychological test are both evaluative methods of collecting important information about people. Both are used to help understand and predict behavior. Many experts view psychological assessment as a broader concept than a psychological testFirst, although both psychological assessments and psychological tests are used to gather information, a psychological test is only one of many tools in the psychological assessment process. Second, a psychological test can be considered to be a measurement when the sampled behavior can be expressed in a derived score. - A measurement instrument is a tool or technique for assessing the size, amount, or degree of an attribute. So a psychological test can be considered a measurement or measurement instrument when the results of the test are expressed in terms of a derived score.

What is the difference between an achievement test, aptitude test, and an intelligence test?

- Achievement tests measure a person's previous learning in a specific academic area (e.g., computer programming, German, trigonometry, psychology). Achievement tests are also referred to as tests of knowledge. usually used in educational settings. - Aptitude tests assess a test taker's potential for learning or ability to perform in a new job or situation. Aptitude tests measure the product of cumulative life experiences—or what one has acquired over time. Schools, businesses, and government agencies often use aptitude tests to predict how well someone will perform or to estimate the extent to which an individual will profit from a specified course of training. - Intelligence tests, like aptitude tests, assess a test taker's ability to cope with the environment, but at a broader level. Intelligence tests are often used to screen individuals for specific programs (e.g., gifted programs, honors programs) or programs for the mentally challenged. Intelligence tests are typically used in educational and clinical settings.

What are types of norms and how do norms relate to how percentile ranks are communicated to test takers?

- Age norms and grade norms are common types of norms because they allow us to determine at what age level or grade level an individual is performing. That is, they allow us to determine whether an individual's test score is similar to, below, or above the scores of others at the same age or grade level. - the percentile rank is a very common type of norm because it provides us with a way to rank individuals on a scale from 1% to 100%, making it relatively easy to interpret. With percentile rank norms, scores can range from the 1st percentile to the 99th percentile, with the average individual's score set at the 50th percentile. - Because percentile ranks make it easy for individuals to interpret test scores, many developers of standardized tests, particularly tests of academic achievement, provide conversion tables showing the percentile ranks in the norm group of all possible raw scores. What is the purpose of a norm? - Norms provide a basis for comparing the individual with a group. - Numerical values called centiles (or percentiles) serveas the basis for one widely applicable system ofnorms. - From a distribution of a group's raw scores thepercentage of subjects falling below any given rawscore can be found.

What are considerations related to readability and understanding that need to be made related to survey questions? (identify 5)

- Be careful not to ask a double-barreled question—a question that is actually asking two or more questions in one. - Survey developers try to write questions that are easy to read (low readability level) so that respondents will be more likely to understand and interpret questions appropriately - cultural considerations: Be aware of cultural nuances and potential differences in interpretation. Ensure that survey questions are culturally sensitive and do not inadvertently offend or confuse respondents from diverse cultural backgrounds. - consistent terminology: Maintain consistency in the use of terminology throughout the survey. If a specific term is introduced, ensure that it is used consistently in subsequent questions. Inconsistency in terminology can create confusion and affect the reliability of responses. - clear response options: Using labels like "Strongly Agree," "Agree," "Neutral," "Disagree," and "Strongly Disagree" with consistent meanings improves response accuracy and makes it easier for respondents to express their opinions. Another issue that has to be considered when deciding whether a midpoint category should be included is whether the midpoint might be treated as a "don't know" response. If the option of "don't know" is not explicitly included as one of the response options, the midpoint could be appropriately used to express that opinion. Sometimes that may be appropriate, sometimes not, depending on the context.

What are confidence intervals? What is the Standard error of measurement? How do these two relate?

- CI: Reflects the range within which a population parameter is likely to fall. - SEm: - Index of how much inconsistency there is in someone's score- True score is score minus error- Basically, it estimates how repeated measures of a person on the same instrument tend to be distributed around his or her"true" score.- SEm is directly related to the reliability of a test;- Since all measurement contains some error, it is highly unlikelythat any test will yield the same scores for a given person each time they are retested. - a smaller standard error of measurement implies a more precise measurement, and this precision can contribute to narrower confidence intervals when estimating population parameters.

When preparing to administer the survey, what do you need to consider about your sample?

- If the sample is not representative, it is difficult to generalize the survey results to the entire population—that is, to say that the results would be the same if we had given the survey to the entire population. The goal is to use a sampling technique that allows you to give everyone—or nearly everyone—in your population an equal chance of being selected and to end up with a sample that is truly representative of the population. There are various methods for selecting a sample. Most can be classified into two categories: probability sampling and nonprobability sampling. - One thing to consider is the homogeneity of the population—how similar the people in your population are to one another. The more similar the members of the population, the smaller the sample that is necessary. The more dissimilar the members of the population, the larger the sample that is necessary to have this variation represented in the sample. - Remember that the fewer the people chosen to participate in a survey (the smaller the sample), the more sampling error

What is the difference between an objective and projective test?

- Objective tests are tests where test takers choose a response or provide a response and there are predetermined correct answers, requiring little subjective judgment of the person scoring the test. Objective tests require test takers to respond to structured true/false questions, multiple-choice questions, or rating scales. - projective tests are those on which test takers view and are asked to respond to unstructured or ambiguous stimuli such as images or incomplete sentences. The role of the test taker is less clear than with an objective test, and more subjectivity is involved in interpreting the test taker's answer. People who use projective tests believe that test takers project themselves into the tasks they are asked to perform and that their responses are based on what they believe the stimuli mean and on the feelings they experience while responding. They are often used to detect unconscious thoughts or personality characteristics.

What are some primary controversies around testing?

- One of the largest and most deeply rooted controversies pertains to discrimination. For years, some test professionals, educational organizations, and civil rights groups have expressed repeated concern that psychological tests unfairly discriminate against certain racial and economic groups, resulting in qualified members of these groups being passed over for admission to educational programs or not being hired at the same rate as members of other groups. - one of the most significant controversies has been the use of high-stakes testing in education. (To address students' lack of academic progress (primarily in math) and the differing academic standards of states, the Common Core made math and English and language arts learning goals consistent across states by introducing a standard set of knowledge and skills students should be able to demonstrate) - Much of the past controversy has focused on intelligence, aptitude, and integrity tests, with one of the most current controversies being the use of high-stakes testing in education. These controversies have influenced social movements, laws, and guidelines on how test users should and should not use psychological tests.

What are some pretesting methods and which one have your practiced with?

- One-on-one interviews: Concurrent "think-aloud" interviews: Respondents describe their thoughts as they think about and answer the survey questions. Retrospective "think-aloud" interviews: Typically, these are one-on-one interviews during which the interviewer asks respondents how they went about generating their answers after they complete the survey. - Respondent focus groups: A focus group brings together people who are similar to the target respondents in order to discuss issues related to the survey. Usually, each person in the group completes the survey, and then the respondents discuss the survey experience with the test developer or a trained facilitator. - Behavior coding of respondent-interviewer interactions: Behavior coding involves assigning numbers or letters to the interchange between an interviewer and a survey respondent. Coding provides a systematic technique for identifying problems with questions. Behavior coding helps identify the types and frequencies of interviewer behaviors (e.g., the interviewer reads the question exactly as written, the interviewer reads the question with a major change in meaning - Interviewer and respondent debriefings: This method involves asking interviewers or respondents questions following a field test—an administration of the survey or test to a large representative group of individuals to identify problems with administration, item interpretation, and so on. - I have practiced with focus groups because when we do pilot testing in 201 and 301 they give us feedback about our survey and experiment

What do tools allow us to do?

- Psychologists use tests and other assessment tools to measure and observe a patient's behavior to arrive at a diagnosis and guide treatment - tools also help us make inferences about human attributes, traits, or characteristics or predict future outcomes

What is one primary advantage to using reverse scoring techniques?

- Some test takers are inclined to give mostly positive responses to questions regardless of the questions' content. The test developer tries to offset the effects of this response set, known as acquiescence, by balancing positive statements with negative statements. One primary advantage of using reverse scoring techniques in surveys or psychological assessments is that it helps control for response bias and enhances the accuracy of measurement.

What is the difference between a standardized test and a nonstandardized test?

- Standardized tests are those designed to measure a specific construct, and after development, are administered to a large group of individuals who are similar to the group for whom the test has been designed. To interpret test scores, an individual's test score is compared to others similar to the individual. - Nonstandardized tests do not have standardization samples and looks at an individual's performance, and does not produce scores that allow us to compare that performance to another's. and are more common than standardized tests. Nonstandardized tests are usually constructed by a teacher or trainer in a less formal manner for a single administration. For example, in many cases, the exams you take in your college courses are nonstandardized tests.

What are the primary rights/responsibilities for test users, developers, and takers?

- Test users: A test user is a person who participates in purchasing, administering, interpreting, or using the results of a psychological test. (Regardless of where they work, what tests they use, or how they use test results, test users should understand and abide by the professional practice standards within their professions, as well as the testing guidelines that apply to all professions. - Test taker: A test taker is person who responds to test questions or whose behavior is measured. Test takers have the responsibility to: Be prepared to take a test, including knowing where and when the test will be given, paying for a test if required, and showing up on time with required materials. Understand and accept the consequences of not taking a test. Carefully read or listen to, as well as follow, test administrator instructions. Represent themselves honestly, avoiding cheating, using unapproved aids, or arranging for another person to take the test. - Responsibilities- User: need, selection, administration, scoring,interpretation- Taker: preparation, understanding consequences,understanding instructions, informing user/administrator of violations, confidentiality,honesty, ask questions, ask for accommodations, fair treatment - test publishers: Test publishers should follow professional practice standards by selling tests only to qualified users, marketing tests truthfully, and providing a comprehensive test manual for each test.

Your text described a 5-phase approach to developing a measure and we are moderately following this process to create your measures. What are the five broad levels and where do you think you and yourteam is within these levels?

- The first phase in developing a survey involves identifying the objectives of the survey, defining the objectives operationally, and constructing a plan for completing the survey. survey objectives—the purpose of the survey and what the survey will measure. operational definitions—specific behaviors that represent the purpose—are listed in the second column for each objective. - phase 2: The second phase in developing a survey involves selecting the type of survey to be constructed, writing survey questions, preparing the survey instrument, and pretesting the survey. Self-administered surveys are those that individuals complete themselves. researchers write survey questions that match the survey's objectives. Pretesting:1. Are your questions straight forward?2. Do you ask double barreled questions?(Expressive versus thought suppression) - The third phase in developing a survey requires administering the survey to the target population. This phase involves three steps: selecting the appropriate respondents, determining the sample size, and distributing the survey. - The fourth phase of survey development involves coding and entering the survey data into the computer software for analysis. This process includes coding the survey questions, entering the data into a spreadsheet program, verifying that the data are entered correctly, and conducting the statistical analysis. - The fifth and final phase involves reporting the survey results to those who commissioned the survey's development and sometimes to the public at large. Whether the report is written or oral, its effectiveness and usefulness depend on how well it is prepared and how well it addresses the questions and general knowledge of its audience

Conceptually, why does it make sense that we take interval data and conduct frequency, mean, mode, median, standard deviation, Pearson product−moment correlation, t test, F test computations?

- These statistics allow comparison of the performance of one group with the performance of another group, or the score of one individual with the score of another individual, on the same test. We also use these statistics to calculate test norms and standard scores. - Conceptually, these analyses aim to uncover patterns, relationships, and characteristics within the data, providing a deeper understanding of the underlying processes or phenomena. They help researchers and analysts make informed decisions, draw meaningful conclusions, and identify any statistically significant findings. These statistical measures and tests are essential tools in the field of data analysis, allowing for quantitative assessment and interpretation of interval data.

Why is measurement more concerned with descriptive statistics?

- descriptive statistics help us describe or summarize a distribution of test scores using numbers. Descriptive statistics allow us to determine the main points of a group of scores. The descriptive statistics we typically rely on in psychological testing are measures of central tendency, measures of variability, and measures of relationship. when it comes to measuring validation, the primary question is often concerned with the accuracy and appropriateness of a specific measurement tool or instrument. - In the context of measurement, where the focus is often on obtaining accurate and reliable data, descriptive statistics provide the necessary tools to understand and communicate the key aspects of the measurements.

What are some reasons for developing a new test? What did you identify with your group as being a reason for developing a new measure?

- esearchers develop new tests to meet the needs of a special group of test takers, to sample behaviors from a newly defined test domain, or to improve the accuracy of test scores for their intended purpose. For instance, an achievement test may be needed for a special population of individuals with a disability that affects how they perceive or answer the test questions. A new theory may suggest fresh definitions of constructs and require a new test to assess them. Finally, a better defined test domain may generate test scores that predict a critical criterion more accurately. - our reason is because we felt that the construct was very broad and so we wanted to make our construct more specific and increase reliability and validity of a test by focusing more on performance, self talk, and rotuine.

Why will you want to assess your distribution?

- help us understand the distribution such as the central tendency, is a value that helps us understand the middle of a distribution or set of scores and see the variability of our points. - Allows us to make informed decisions and predictions that are valid from our data - find outliers, Assessing the distribution helps in detecting outliers or extreme values. Outliers can have a significant impact on statistical analyses, so understanding their presence and impact is important for accurate interpretation.

where do you think you and yourteam is within these levels?

- i believe we are in the developing the survey as we are deciding our question format (likert), and we are starting to make questions and making sure they are good and readable. Also, we need to start thinking about our scale and if we are going to have an anchor point or a midpoint. As of right now we are thinking 4 so that we can take away people who circle the middle.

What are raw scores? Standardized scores? Frequency distributions?

- raw scores: Raw scores are the most basic scores calculated from a psychological test. They tell us very little about how an individual has performed on a test, how an individual has performed in comparison with others who took the test, or how an individual performed on one test compared with another test. Raw scores are not very useful at all without additional interpretive information. For example, we might score a 7 on a test. Used alone, the 7 has little meaning. - standardized scores: Standardized scores (Z-scores, stanines, percentiles) to describe data and interpret data relative to the distribution or norm. standard scores so that we can make comparisons between test scores and compare converted scores with those from what we call a norm group—a previously tested group of individuals. - standard scores—universally understood units in testing that allow test users to evaluate, or make inferences about, a person's performance. - frequency distribution: When a group of people take a test, we can summarize their scores using a frequency distribution—an orderly arrangement of a group of numbers (or test scores). Frequency distributions show the actual number (or percentage) of observations that fall into a range or category; they provide a summary and picture of group data. Although there are numerous ways to portray frequency distributions, two of the most frequently used methods are tables and histograms.

What is a survey versus a test?

- surveys are instruments used to collect important information from individuals Surveys are more focused on collecting opinions and information from a group of individuals, often in a broader context, while tests are designed to assess an individual's specific capabilities or characteristics in a standardized and objective manner. Surveys allow us to collect information so that we can describe and compare how people feel about things (attitudes), what they know (knowledge), and what they do (behaviors). - First, psychological tests focus on individual outcomes, whereas surveys focus on group outcomes. When we administer a test, the results are reported at the individual level (i.e., each person receives a test score) and sometimes at the aggregate level (e.g., the scores of many individuals may be summarized to report the results at the group level). When we administer a survey, the results are more typically presented at the group level only. For example, we might ask students to rate their satisfaction with a new college program and then report the overall results. Second, the results of a psychological test are often reported in terms of an overall derived score or scaled scores. Results of surveys, on the other hand, are often reported at the question level by providing the percentage of respondents who selected each answer alternative.

rights of test takers, users and developers

- test takers: rights: Be informed of your rights and responsibilities as a test taker. Be treated with courtesy, respect, and impartiality, regardless of your age, disability, ethnicity, gender, national origin, religion, sexual orientation, or other personal characteristics. Be tested with measures that meet professional standards and that are appropriate, given the manner in which the test results will be used. Receive a written or oral explanation of your test results within a reasonable amount of time after testing and in commonly understood terms. - Rights- Privacy, informed consent, know and understandresults, and protection from stigma- Know your rights, treatment, tests that meetprofessional standards, purpose, administrationenvironment, consequences, results,

What are some benefits of having a test plan? Do you have one?

- the test plan specifies the characteristics of the test, including an operational definition of the construct and the content to be measured (the testing universe), the format for the questions, and the administration and scoring of the test. - we have a test plan and we currently formatting the questions (Subjective test formats, on the other hand, do not have a single response that is designated as "correct." Interpretation of the response as correct or providing evidence of a specific construct is left to the judgment of the person who scores or interprets the test taker's response.)

Provide an example of testing used in educational, clinical, and organizational settings

-educational setting: colleges and universities all use psychological tests. For example, in colleges and universities, administrators (e.g., admissions officers, and deans of admissions) use the results of tests such as the SAT to help make admissions decisions and award scholarships. - clinical setting: Various clinicians and consultants administer psychological tests in clinical and counseling settings. Psychotherapists and others responsible for providing treatment to clients administer tests. Psychologists who serve as consultants to psychotherapists, physicians (and other medical providers), attorneys, school personnel, and hospital treatment teams administer tests. Mental health professionals, including psychologists, counselors, social workers, psychiatrists, and psychiatric nurses, administer tests to assist in diagnosis and treatment planning. - organizational settings: Human resources professionals and industrial and organizational psychology practitioners use psychological tests in organizations. For example, they administer tests to job applicants to measure whether applicants have the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (e.g., cognitive ability, personality) necessary to effectively perform a job and/or to predict the likelihood of success on the job. They use the test results, along with other information, to make hiring decisions. Even the National Football League (NFL) uses psychological tests to make player selection decisions

What are the broad considerations that need to be made when critiquing a test?

A critique of a test is an analysis of the test. A good critique answers many of the questions about general descriptive information (• What is the title of the test? • Who is the author of the test?), the purpose and nature of the test (• What does the test measure or predict? • What behavior does the test require the test taker to perform?), and practical evaluation (• Is the test easy or difficult to administer? • How clear are the administration directions?), technical evaluation (• What evidence exists of test reliability? • What evidence exists for the validity of the test?), test reviews (• What do reviewers say are the strengths and weaknesses of the test? • What studies that used the test as a measurement instrument have been published in peer-reviewed journals? • How did the test perform when researchers or test users, other than the test developer or publisher, used it?, and summary (overall, what are the strengths and weaknesses of the test)

How does measurement differ and relate to a tool?

A measurement instrument is a tool or technique for assessing the size, amount, or degree of an attribute. - Tools are the practical instruments or devices that facilitate the process of measurement. - measurement is the process of assigning numerical values to physical quantities, while tools are the instruments used to perform those measurements.

What is a test and how does it differ from a survey?

A psychological test is a measurement tool or technique that requires a person to perform one or more behaviors in order to make an inference about human attributes, traits, or characteristics or predict future outcomes. Psychological tests are different from surveys in that psychological tests focus on individual differences and often report one overall derived score (or scaled scores), and surveys focus on group similarities and typically report results at the question or item level.

What is a psychological construct?

An underlying, unobservable personal attribute, trait, or characteristic of an individual that is thought to be important in describing or understanding human behavior. Because we cannot directly measure psychological constructs, we must instead make inferences about constructs from the behaviors we observe.

What are cognitive aspects that need to be considered? Why are they important?

First, they must comprehend the question. Second, they must retrieve the answer to the question. Third, they must judge the appropriate answer to the question. Fourth, they must communicate the answer. - To comprehend or understand a survey question, respondents must have long enough attention spans to pay attention to the question, a certain level of language ability so that they can understand the vocabulary and the entire question, and the appropriate general knowledge so that they can understand certain concepts contained in the question. - retrieval: When the appropriate cues or hints are available, respondents will probably find the answer. When inappropriate cues are available, respondents will take bits and pieces of the information and reconstruct an answer to fit what is most likely to be the answer. - judgment: After the respondents have retrieved answers from memory, they must judge or decide whether the information meets the objectives of the question. if the question asks respondents to recall events from a specific time period, they will judge whether the events occurred during the appropriate time frame - Response communication: before they communicate their response, respondents will evaluate whether the answers to the question meet their own personal motives and objectives. If respondents believe that their answers are threatening or not socially desirable, they may choose not to provide the correct answers. In other words, they may refuse to answer or may provide fake answers.

What type of sampling are we likely doing in this class?

I believe we are doing convenience sampling. With convenience sampling, the survey researcher uses any available group of participants to represent the population. For example, if your population of interest is high school seniors, you might choose to use the high school seniors at a local high school as your participants.

Now review those standards and tell me if anything is missing in the table of contents?

I think it covers a lot of good information but I did not see much information about racism, sexism, and stuff about religion. The Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures talks about discrimination but I think more ethical standards need to be aware of possible differences in race and gender since

Be able to identify a construct (different from your own), define it, and explicate it (what behaviorswould need to be in a measure)

Identifying the Construct: Construct: Job Satisfaction Defining the Construct: Definition: Job Satisfaction refers to an employee's overall positive or negative feelings and attitudes towards their job and work environment. It involves an individual's perception of their work in relation to their expectations, needs, and values. Explicating the Construct: To measure Job Satisfaction, a comprehensive scale might include various dimensions or behaviors that reflect different aspects of the construct. Here are examples of behaviors that could be included in a measure of Job Satisfaction: a. Satisfaction with Work Tasks: Behavior: Expressing contentment with the variety, challenge, and meaningfulness of daily tasks. b. Relationships with Colleagues: Behavior: Indicating positive interactions and collaboration with colleagues, as well as the presence of a supportive work environment. c. Supervisor Relationship: Behavior: Assessing satisfaction with the supervisor's leadership style, communication, and fairness. A measure for Job Satisfaction might use a Likert scale where respondents rate their agreement or disagreement with statements related to these behaviors.

What is an example of an established set of standards related to measurement?

Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing: The Standards provide psychologists and others who develop and use standardized psychological tests and assessments with criteria for evaluating tests and testing practices (AERA, APA, & NCME, 2014). they should not only make a reasonable effort to abide by the Standards, but they should encourage others to follow the Standards as well. split into 3 sections: Part I: Foundations Category 1. Validity 2. Reliability/Precision and Errors in Measurement 3. Fairness in Testing Part II: Operations Category 1. Test Design and Development 2. Scores, Scales, Norms, Score Linking, and Cut Scores 3. Testing Administration, Scoring, Reporting, and Interpretation 4. Supporting Documentation for Tests 5. The Rights and Responsibilities of Test Takers 6. The Rights and Responsibilities of Test Users Part III: Testing Applications Category 1. Psychological Testing and Assessment 2. Workplace Testing and Credentialing 3. Educational Testing and Assessment 4. Uses of Tests for Program Evaluation, Policy Studies, and Accountability

What are some recommendations around instructions?

Test instructions need to be simple, concise, and written at a low reading level. - clarify expectations, make sure they know its confidentiality, ensure accessibility, encourage honesty, provide a purpose statement.

bell curve

The book argued that IQ tests are an accurate measure of intelligence; that IQ is a strong predictor of school and career achievement; that IQ is highly heritable; that IQ is little influenced by environmental factors; that racial differences in IQ are likely due at least in part, and perhaps in large part, to genetics; that environmental effects of all kinds have only a modest effect on IQ; and that educational and other interventions have little impact on IQ and little effect on racial differences in IQ.

What will you calculate to assess whether or not there is a relationship between two variables?

The correlation coefficient is a statistic that we typically use to describe the relationship between two or more distributions of scores. Using a correlation coefficient, we can relate one set of scores to another set to see whether the same individuals scored similarly on two different tests. (For example, if individuals scored low on one test, did they also score low on another test?) Such a relationship is described as a positive correlation.

What scoring method will you likely use?

The cumulative model of scoring—which assumes that the more the test taker responds in a particular fashion, the more the test taker exhibits the attribute being measured—is probably the most common method for determining an individual's final test score. The categorical model and the ipsative model are other scoring methods. - The cumulative model assumes that the more the test taker responds in a particular fashion (with either "correct" answers or ones that are consistent with a particular attribute), the more the test taker exhibits the attribute being measured.

What is the first step in the test development process?

The first step in test development is to define the testing universe, the target audience, and the purpose of the test. the testing universe is the body of knowledge or behaviors that the test represents, the target audience is the group of individuals who will take the test, and the purpose of the test is the information that the test will provide to the test user. - To define the testing universe, the developer prepares a working definition of the construct that the test will measure. If the test will measure an abstract construct, the developer conducts a thorough review of the psychological literature to locate studies that explain the construct and any current tests that measure the construct. - When defining the target audience, the developer makes a list of the characteristics of the persons who will take the test—particularly those characteristics that affect how test takers will respond to the test questions. - The purpose includes not only what the test will measure—for instance, self-esteem—but also how the test users will use the test scores. Will the scores be used to compare test takers with other test takers (normative approach), will they be used to compare a test taker standing on one trait with their own standing on other traits (ipsative approach) or will they be used to indicate achievement (criterion approach)?

Provide an example of a question stem?

The multiple-choice format consists of a question or partial sentence, called a stem, followed by a number of responses (usually four or five) - Response Options: Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree In this example, the question stem provides a context for the respondent to express their level of agreement or disagreement with a statement related to job satisfaction

What scale are your and your group considering? What level of measurement does it fall into and why?

We are considering a likert type scale. This falls under an interval scale. This is because each number represents a point that is an equal distance from the points adjacent to it. You can easily remember this level of measurement because interval means gap or distance, and with this level of measurement we can determine the gap or distance between numbers. assuming that each point on the Likert-type rating scale represents an equal distance or amount of the construct being measured (Trochim, 2006). We assume that everyone responding has the same understanding of what somewhat agree and agree represent as well as the distance between the two.

Maul et al.

Why is it misleading to consider testing and measurement as synonymous? Testing is different from measurement. Testing is a broader implication of a certain measurement. You use tests to measure something. A test can also be assessing something that can be measured, but at times may be assessing something that cannot be necessarily measured. How does clarifying the test versus measurement relate to the "why" we considered in lab related to our own constructs? The test revolves around the specific measurement that you are looking to find. In having a specified measurement it allows the test to be narrowed down and more targeted towards the goal of the study. The test should also have a direction, which is led by the measurement you are intended to find. how to capture a question of our measured construct in a questionnaire Why do you think it is or is not important to have knowledge of historical philosophical background related to testing? without philosophical background you could cross ethical, cultural, or moral boundaries. This allows you to not cause harm, while getting the results that you desire.

What are levels of measurement?

level of measurement, we are referring to the relationship among the numbers we have assigned to the information. Understanding levels of measurement is critical to describing and interpreting psychological test and measurement results because we use numbers, at the item level, the scale level, and the test result level. - nominal: At the nominal level, numbers are assigned to represent labels or catagories of data only. - ordinal: At the ordinal level, numbers are assigned to rank-order data. However, the distances or values between numbers are not equal; they can vary. - Interval: At the interval level, numbers are also assigned to rank-order data, and the distance between numbers is judged to be equal. However, there is no absolute zero point (a number that indicates the complete absence of what is measured). - ratio: At the ratio level, numbers are also assigned to rank-order data, and the distance between numbers is also equal, and there is an absolute zero point

When you analyze your data, and you're looking at Pearson Product Correlation Coefficients, what will you also want to visualize, and why?

pearson product correlation coefficient: the coefficient measures the linear association between two variables, or sets of test scores, that have been measured on interval or ratio scales. - visualize regression lines because Overlaying a regression line on a scatter plot can help visualize the trend in the data. This line represents the best-fit linear relationship between the two variables and helps assess how well the correlation coefficient reflects the data. - scatter plots: Scatter plots are a fundamental visualization tool to display the relationship between two variables. Each data point is plotted on the graph, with one variable on the x-axis and the other on the y-axis. This allows you to visually inspect the pattern and strength of the correlation.

Why is testing important and how does importance relate to the decisions that can be made based on test results?

psychological testing is important because people use test results to make important decisions. These decisions affect every one of us. Consider some of the decisions we have made in our roles as college faculty, industrial and organizational psychology practitioners, and organizational leaders using test scores: What grade to award a student Whether to hire a job candidate Whether an employee will receive a merit increase (and if so, how much) What coaching advice to offer a business leader Likewise, consider some of the decisions others have made about us or our families based on psychological test scores: Whether to admit us or our children to specific colleges Whether to invite our children to participate in elementary school gifted programs What grades to award our children Whether our children will receive college scholarships. - Both individuals and institutions use the results of psychological tests to make decisions. Individual decisions are those made by the person who takes a test, and institutional decisions are made by others who use an individual's performance on a test to make a decision about that individual. - Testing is also important because different professionals, in a variety of clinical, educational, and organizational settings, use psychological tests for many purposes.

What will you calculate to assess whether or not change in one variable predicts change in another?

regression Regression builds on correlation- The difference is a question of prediction versus relation- Regression predicts and correlation describes relations- When one variable changes by a certain amount the other changes on an average by a certain amount (e.g., Vocabulary and shoe size)- If y represents the outcome variable and x the predictor, this relationship is described as the regression of y on x.- The relationship can be represented by a simple equation called the regression equation.- The regression equation representing how much y changes with any given change of x

What are some types of response biases to be aware of? What are some sources of non-sampling error that can occur?

response bias: Researchers have found that some people have response sets (also known as response styles) for choosing answers to test items. Response sets are patterns of responding that result in false or misleading information. - One problem for test developers is the tendency of some test takers to provide or choose answers that are socially acceptable or that present themselves in a favorable light. This response is called social desirability. - Another response set familiar to test developers is acquiescence, the tendency to agree with any ideas or behaviors presented. For instance, someone who labels each statement on a true/false test as true would be demonstrating a response set of acquiescence. - random responding—responding to items in a random fashion by marking answers without reading or considering them. - faking, which refers to the inclination of some test takers to try to answer items in a way that will cause a desired outcome or diagnosis.

What is the purpose of the pilot test?

the test developer conducts a pilot test—a scientific evaluation of the test's performance—followed by revisions to determine the final form that the test will take. The test developer then follows up the pilot test with other studies that provide the necessary data for validation and norming. Conducting the pilot test and analyzing its data are integral parts of the test development process. - In summary, the purpose of a pilot test is to catch and address issues early in the research process, ensuring that the final survey or assessment instrument is clear, reliable, and capable of producing valid data when administered to the full target population.