Psych 320 Final

In the phonemic restoration effect, participants "fill in" the missing phoneme based on all of the following EXCEPT

a mental "skimming" of the lexicon to find likely words.

Consider the following sentences: "Captain Ahab wanted to kill the whale. He cursed at it." These two sentences taken together provide an example of a(n)

anaphoric inference

Gick and Holyoak consider which of the following to be the most difficult step to achieve in the process of analogical problem solving?

Noticing that there is an analogous relationship between problems because most participants need prompting before they notice a connection

The retroactive interference hypothesis states that the misinformation effect occurs because

MPI obstructs or distorts memories formed during the original experiencing of an event.

Which of the following is a connectionist model proposing that concepts are represented by activity that is spread across a network?

Parallel distributed processing theory

Which of the following statements is true of the cognitive interview technique?

Police allow witnesses to talk with a minimum of interruption from the officer

____ occurs when reading a sentence leads a person to expect something that is not explicitly stated or necessarily implied by the sentence

Pragmatic inference

____ occurs when more recent learning impairs memory for something that happened further back in the past

Retroactive interference

Coherence refers to the

representation of the text in a reader's mind, so that information in one part of the text is related to information in another part of the text.

Your friend has been sick for several days, so you go over to her home to make her some chicken soup. Searching for a spoon, you first reach in a top drawer beside the dishwasher. Then, you turn to the big cupboard beside the stove to search for a pan. In your search, you have relied on a kitchen

schema

In the experiment in which participants sat in an office and then were asked to remember what they saw in the office, participants "remembered" some things, like books, that weren't actually there. This experiment illustrates the effect of _____ on memory.

schemas

Jackie went to the grocery store to pick up yogurt, bread, and apples. First, she picked up a hand basket for carrying her groceries, and then she searched the store. After finding what she needed, she stood in a check-out line. Then, the cashier put her items in a plastic bag, and soon after, Jackie left the store. As readers of this event, we understand that Jackie paid for the groceries, even though it wasn't mentioned, because we are relying on a grocery store _____.

script

A phoneme refers to

the shortest segment of speech that, if changed, changes the meaning of a word.

Brain imaging studies reveal that semantics and syntax are associated with which two lobes of the cerebral cortex?

the frontal and temporal lobes

Loftus and Palmer's "car-crash films" experiment described in the text shows how a seemingly minor word change can produce a change in a person's memory report. In this study, the MPI was (were) the word(s)

"smashed."

Holly was in her mother-in-law's kitchen preparing lunch for the family. When she was ready to dish up the soup, she searched all the cupboards and drawers for a ladle but couldn't find one. She decided to wait until her mother-in-law returned to ask her where the ladle was, leaving the soup in the stove pot. Her mother-in-law later explained that the ladle had been broken, so she told Holly to use a coffee mug to "spoon" the soup into bowls. Holly's ability to solve the "dish up the soup" problem was hindered by which of the following obstacles?

Functional fixedness

____ identified people's tendency to focus on a specific characteristic of a problem that keeps them from arriving at a solution as a major obstacle to successful problem solving

Gestalt psychologists

____ identified people's tendency to focus on a specific characteristic of a problem that keeps them from arriving at a solution as a major obstacle to successful problem solving.

Gestalt psychologists

In a study, participants listened to the following tape recording: Rumor had it that, for years, the government building had been plagued with problems. The man was not surprised when he found several spiders, roaches, and other bugs in the corner of the room. As participants heard the word "bugs," they completed a lexical decision task to a test stimulus flashed on a screen. To which of the following words would you expect participants to take the longest to respond to?

SKY

The ____ states that the nature of a culture's language can affect the way people think.

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

Wei has allergy symptoms. He has gone to his regular doctor and an allergy specialist, but he wasn't given a prescription by either doctor. Instead, he was advised to buy an over-the-counter medicine. While he was in the specialist's waiting area, he read a magazine where he saw three ads for an allergy medicine called SneezeLess. A week later, in a drug store, Wei says to his brother, "My doctor says SneezeLess works great. I'll buy that one." Wei and his doctor never discussed SneezeLess. Wei has fallen victim to which of the following errors?

Source monitoring

Amber lives in a housing development between two parallel streets that both connect to a freeway. She usually takes the street to the south when heading southbound on the freeway to work, but that street is closed for repairs for three months. Amber takes the street to the north during that time. After the street to the south is re-opened, she continues to take the street to the north, even though it is a slightly longer route. Continuing to take the street to the north represents

a mental set

"You can't have any pudding unless you eat your meat," says a man to his son at the dinner table. This is an example of

a permission schema.

Suppose that, as a participant in an imagery study, you are asked to memorize the four outside walls of a three-story rectangular house. Later, you are asked to report how many windows are on the front of the house. You will probably be fastest to answer this question if you create an image as though you were standing

at the far side of the front yard, away from the house.

In Lindsay's "misinformation effect" experiment, participants saw a sequence of slides showing a maintenance man stealing money and a computer. This slide presentation included narration by a female speaker who described what was happening in the slides as they were shown. Results showed that the misinformation effect was greatest when MPI presentation was

auditory from a female speaker.

Derrick purchased a new car, a Ford Mustang, less than a month ago. While sitting in traffic, Derrick says to his girlfriend, "Mustangs must be the best-selling car now. I can't remember seeing as many on the road as I have recently." Derrick's judgment is most likely biased by a(n)

availability heuristic

The finding that people tend to incorrectly conclude that more people die from tornados than from asthma has been explained in terms of the

availability heuristic.

Schrauf and Rubin's "two groups of immigrants" study found that the reminiscence bump coincided with periods of rapid change, occurring at a normal age for people emigrating early in life but shifting to 15 years later for those who emigrated later. These results support the

cognitive hypothesis.

Which property below is NOT one of the characteristics that makes human language unique?

communication

Cosmides and Tooby tested participants' ability to solve variations of the Wason problem, including ones containing stories about a particular culture. Their results showed that ____ is not always necessary for conditional reasoning.

familiarity

The principle illustrated when most people are able to recognize a variety of examples of chairs even though no one category member may have all of the characteristic properties of "chairs" (e.g., most chairs have four legs but not all do) is

family resemblance

In its discussion of expertise and problem solving, your text identifies the kind of scientists who are most likely to make revolutionary discoveries in their fields. This particular discussion suggests that _____ may be more important than _____ in creative thinking.

flexibility; experience

One reason that most people do not easily solve the original (abstract) version of the Wason four-card problem is that they

ignore the falsification principle.

Perky's experiment, in which participants were asked to "project" visual images of common objects onto a screen, showed that

imagery and perception can interact with one another

Shepard and Meltzer's "image rotation" experiment was so influential and important to the study of cognition because it demonstrated

imagery and perception may share the same mechanisms.

"Early" researchers of imagery (beginning with Aristotle until just prior to the dominance of behaviorism) proposed all of the following ideas EXCEPT

imagery requires a special mechanism.

A researcher records a brainstorming session in an industrial research and development department rather than in an artificial laboratory setting. Later, she analyzes the recorded discussions, identifying certain problem-solving techniques. This research is an example of ____ research.

in vivo problem-solving

Kirk is a generally anxious person. His anxiety sometimes gets in the way when he tries to make decisions. The anxiety Kirk feels is an example of an ________ emotion.

incidental

The experiment in which participants first read sentences about a baseball game and were then asked to identify sentences they had seen before, illustrated that memory

involves making inferences

Sanfey and coworkers' "ultimatum game" experiment revealed that people tended to make the ____ decision of ____.

irrational; accepting only high offers

Imagine that a young child is just learning about the category "dog." Thus far, she has experienced only two dogs, one a small poodle and the other a large German shepherd. On her third encounter with a dog, she will be LEAST likely to correctly categorize the animal as a dog if that animal

is a dog that does not bark

The "imagery debate" is concerned with whether imagery

is based on spatial or language mechanisms.

When we look at a record of the physical energy produced by conversational speech in a person's native language, we see that the speech signal

is continuous.

In drawing conclusions about the relationship between imagery and perception, a notable difference between them is that

it is harder to manipulate mental images than perceptual images

According to the typicality effect,

items that are high in prototypicality are judged more rapidly as being in a group

The observation that older adults often become nostalgic for the "good old days" reflects the self-image hypothesis, which states that

memory for life events is enhanced during the time we assume our life identities.

Shepard and Meltzer measured the time it took for participants to decide whether two objects were the same (two different views of the same object) or different (two different objects). These researchers inferred cognitive processes by using

mental chronometry

Perky's imagery study (1910) had participants describe images of objects that were dimly projected onto a screen. The significance of Perky's results was that

people were influenced by the projected images when forming their mental images, even when they were unaware that the projected images were present.

Ganis and coworkers used fMRI to measure brain activation for perception and imagery of objects. Their results showed that

perception and imagery activate the same areas of the frontal lobe, but perception activates more of the back of the brain than imagery does.

When the "abstract" version of the Wason four-card problem is compared to a "concrete" version of the problem (in which beer, soda, and ages are substituted for the letters and numbers),

performance is better for the concrete task

The application of a(n) ____ makes it easier to solve the "drinking beer" version of the Wason problem.

permission schema

spreading activation

primes associated concepts.

Kieran found that studying for his Spanish exam made it more difficult to remember some of the vocabulary words he had just studied for his French exam earlier in the day. This is an example of

retroactive interference

The misinformation effect can be explained by

retroactive interference.

Warmth judgments on nearness to a solution ____ prior to the solution of an insight problem and ____ prior to the solution of a non-insight problem.

rise suddenly just; gradually rise

The analogy that makes the solution to the mutilated checkerboard problem obvious is the ____ problem.

russian marriage

Imagine that your friend James has just taken up the habit of smoking cigars because he thinks it makes him look cool. You are concerned about the detrimental effects of smoking on his health, and you raise that concern to him. James gets a bit annoyed with your criticism and says "George Burns smoked cigars, and he lived to be 100!" You might point out that a major problem with his "George Burns" argument involves

sample size

When presenting lineups to eyewitnesses, it has been found that a(n) ____ lineup is much more likely to result in an innocent person being falsely identified.

simultaneous

Your text describes the case of M.G.S. who underwent brain surgery as treatment for severe epilepsy. Testing of M.G.S. pre- and post-surgery revealed that the right visual cortex is involved in the

size of the field of view

In the word list experiment that was based on work by Deese (1959) and Roediger & McDermott (1995), many students incorrectly remembered hearing the word ________ as part of the list of presented stimuli. This highlights a disadvantage of memory's constructive nature.

sleep

The word frequency effect refers to the fact that we respond more

slowly to low-frequency words than high-frequency words.

Which concept below is most closely associated with the evolutionary perspective to solving the Wason four-card problem?

social-exchange theory

Considering the fortress and the radiation problems together, the fortress problem represents the _____ problem

source

A psycholinguist conducts an experiment with a group of participants from a small village in Asia and another from a small village in South America. She asked the groups to describe the bands of color they saw in a rainbow and found they reported the same number of bands as their language possessed primary color words. These results

support the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.

The fortress problem involves a fortress and marching soldiers, while the radiation problem involves a tumor and rays. Therefore, the two problems have very different

surface features

A _____ string led to a restructured representation in the two-string problem.

swinging

When two people engage in a conversation, if one person produces a specific grammatical construction in her speech and then the other person does the same, this phenomenon is referred to as

syntactic priming

A syllogism is valid if

the conclusion follows logically from the two premises

Tanenhaus and coworkers' eye movement study presented participants with different pictures for interpreting the sentence, "Put the apple on the towel in the box." Their results support

the interactionist approach to parsing

Lexical ambiguity studies show that people access ambiguous words based on

the meaning dominance of each definition of the word

Insight refers to

the sudden realization of a problem's solution

Kaplan and Simon's experiment presented different versions of the mutilated checkerboard problem. The main purpose of their experiment was to demonstrate that

the way the problem is represented can influence the ease of problem solving

For the category "fruit," people give a higher typicality rating to "banana" than to "kiwi." Knowing that, we can also reason that

the word "fruit" will lead to a larger priming effect for banana than for kiwi

The lesson to be learned from the imagery techniques for memory enhancement (for example, the pegword technique) is that these techniques work because

they showcase the fact that memory improvement requires a great deal of practice and perseverance.

Autobiographical memory research shows that a person's brain is more extensively activated when viewing photos

they took themselves

"Kitchen tables" consists of ____ morphemes

three

The word "bad" has ____ phoneme(s).

three

Research on eyewitness testimony reveals that

when viewing a lineup, an eyewitness's confidence in her choice of the suspect can be increased by an authority's confirmation of her choice, even when the choice is wrong

Which of the following is NOT influenced by meaning?

word frequency effect

Which of the following is not one of the types of units found within a parallel distributed processing model?

working units

Donovan volunteers his time to campaign for Joel Goodman. He spent all afternoon putting up "Goodman for Congress" signs around his town and arrived back at Goodman headquarters just in time to watch the Goodman-Hernandez debate on TV. Donovan was eager to watch the candidates debate each other, even though he was 100% sure he was going to vote for Goodman. Donovan's first response to the debate will most likely be

"Did you hear how well Goodman answered that question on job creation?"

Janet is alone in a room that contains a chair and a shelf with a book resting on top. She attempts to retrieve the book, but the shelf is a foot above her reach. How will Janet retrieve the book? Psychologists would NOT classify this scenario as a problem because

. the solution is immediately obvious.

Which of the following reaction time data sets illustrates the typicality effect for the bird category, given the following three trials? (NOTE: Read data sets as RTs for Trial 1: Trial 2: Trial 3) ​ Trial 1: An owl is a bird. Trial 2: A penguin is a bird. Trial 3: A sparrow is a bird.

583: 653: 518 msec

Luis is taking his girlfriend, Rosa, to a resort town neither one of them has visited. Luis wants to make a good impression on Rosa, so he spends the week before the trip reading about fun places to go while they are there. He also memorizes a map of the small resort town so he can lead her around without bothering to ask for directions. When they arrive, they first visit a botanical garden. When Rosa says, "Where to next?" Luis conjures a mental image of the map and says, "art museum." Let's assume the garden was six inches due south on the map and that it took Luis four seconds to scan the map image between the two. After they visit the museum, Luis takes Rosa to a fancy restaurant. On the map, the restaurant was three inches northwest of the museum, so it is most likely that when Luis scanned the image to find the restaurant, the scan took approximately _____ seconds.

2

Jacoby's experiment, in which participants made judgments about whether they had previously seen the names of famous and non-famous people, found that inaccurate memories based on source misattributions occurred after a delay of

24 hours

A circular plate rests at the center of a small square table. Around the table are a total of four chairs, one along each side of the square table. A person with unilateral neglect sits down in one of the chairs and eats from the plate. After he is "finished," he moves to the next chair on his right and continues to eat from the plate. Assuming he never moves the plate and he continues with this procedure (moving one chair to the right and eating) how many chairs will he have to sit in to eat all the food on the plate?`

3

Dominic is at a job interview sitting across from the company's CEO, Ms. Bing. While she takes a phone call, Dominic tries to recall her first name. Her business card is on the desk, but its orientation is not facing Dominic straight on. The business card has the initial of Ms. Bing's first name, so Dominic mentally rotates that initial letter into a straight-up orientation. For which angle (compared to the final straight-up orientation) would you predict Dominic would be fastest in identifying the initial?

30 degrees

One hundred students are enrolled in State University's course on introductory physics for math and science majors. In the group, 60 students are math majors and 40 are science majors. Sarah is in the class. She got all As in her high school science courses, and she would like to be a chemist someday. She lives on campus. Her boyfriend is also in the class. There is a ____ chance that Sarah is a science major.

40%

Pollack and Pickett's experiment on understanding speech found that when participants were presented with individual words taken out of conversations (single words presented alone with no context), they could identify

50% of the words spoken by their own voices.

The rule of the Wason four-card problem is, "If there is a vowel on one side, then there is an even number on the other side." Let's say you are presented with A, 8, M, and 13, each showing on one of four cards. To see if the rule is valid, you would have to turn over the cards showing

A and 13

In evaluating retrieval rates for category information for a concept, Collins and Quillian's semantic network approach would predict the slowest reaction times for which of the following statements using a sentence verification technique?

A field sparrow is an animal.

______ is a "typical" member of a category.

A prototype

Which of the following statements is true of police lineups?

A sequential lineup increases the chance that the witness compares each person in the lineup to his or her memory of the event.

According to Collins and Quillian's semantic network model, it should take longest to verify which statement below?

A turtle is an animal

Your text describes an experiment by Talarico and Rubin (2003) that measured people's memories of the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001. Which of the following was the primary result of that research?

After 32 weeks, participants had a high level of confidence in their memories of the terrorist events, but lower belief in their memories of "everyday" events.

Which statement below is NOT true, based on the results of memory research?

Although eyewitness testimony is often faulty, people who have just viewed a videotape of a crime are quite accurate at picking the "perpetrator" from a lineup.

Which of the following is NOT a property of the connectionist approach?

Before any learning has occurred in the network, the weights in the network all equal zero.

Which of the following is the best example of a garden path sentence?

Before the police stopped the Toyota disappeared into the night.

Which of the following statements does NOT apply to the results of research on differences between how experts and novices solve problems?

Being an expert in one field can transfer to better problem solving in another field.

The conceptual peg hypothesis would predict enhanced memory for which word pair?

Cake mug

Which of the following statements is NOT cited in your text as a reason why categories are useful?

Categories provide definitions of groups of related objects

When the process of analogical problem solving was applied to the fortress and radiation problems, which of the following represented the mapping step of this process?

Connecting the fortress with the tumor

Which of the following is the most accurate statement regarding post-event information and the misinformation effect?

Even when participants are told that the post-event information is incorrect, the misinformation effect can still occur.

Which of the following is NOT associated with the semantic network model?

Family resemblance

Extrapolating from the cultural life script hypothesis, which of the following events would be easiest to recall?

Graduating from college at age 22

Which of the following statements would most likely invoke the operation of a permission schema?

If I get an A on my cognitive psychology exam, I can go out with my friends Saturday night.

Suppose we ask people to perform the following cognitive tasks. Which is LEAST likely to strongly activate the visual cortex?

Imagine the meaning of the word "ethics."

Which of the following is an example of the sentence verification technique?

Indicate whether the following statement is true: An apple is a fruit. YES NO

Which of the following is not true about divergent thinking?

It has a single correct answer.

Flashbulb memory is best represented by which of the following statements?

It is memory for the circumstances surrounding how a person heard about an emotional event that remains especially vivid but not necessarily accurate over time.

Yoda, a central character of the Star Wars movies created by George Lucas, has a distinctive way of speaking. His statement, "Afraid you will be," violates which property of the English language?

Languge has a structure that is governed by rules

Lydia is 48 years old, single, outspoken, and very bright. She majored in philosophy as an undergraduate. As a student, she was deeply concerned with issues of discrimination and social justice, and she participated in anti-nuclear demonstrations. Which of the following alternatives is most probable?

Lydia is a U.S. Congresswoman.

Consider the following argument: Observation: Here in Nashville, the sun has risen every morning. Conclusion: The sun is going to rise in Nashville tomorrow.

The argument is strong because there are a large number of observations

Consider the following syllogism: Premise 1: All dogs are cats. Premise 2: All cats say "meow." Conclusion: Therefore, all dogs say "meow." Which statement below describes this syllogism?

The conclusion is valid

You are conducting a study on how fluency influences the phonemic restoration effect. You study two groups of non-native English speakers, one with a year of English classes and the other with 10 years. All of your stimuli are in English. Who would you expect to show the greatest phonemic restoration effect?

The group with 10 years of English instruction

Which of the following has been used as an argument AGAINST the idea that imagery is spatial in nature?

The tacit-knowledge explanation

Which statement below is most closely associated with the early history of the study of imagery?

Thought is always accompanied by imagery.

Which of the following provides the best example of functional fixedness?

Using a juice glass as a container for orange juice

Which set of stimuli would be the best selection for having people perform a lexical decision task?

Words "pizza, history" and non-words "pibble, girk"

Suppose we asked people to form simultaneous images of two or more animals such as a rabbit alongside an elephant. Then, we ask them basic questions about the animals. For example, we might ask if the rabbit has whiskers. Given our knowledge of imagery research, we would expect the fastest response to this question when the rabbit is imagined alongside

a bumblebee

When a participant is asked to list examples of the category vegetables, it is most likely that

a carrot would be named before eggplant.

Carly is an interior design student. As part of her internship, she is redesigning a small kitchen for a client. She would like to expand the kitchen and add a dining area. Before creating sketches for the client, she imagines the new layout in her mind, most likely using

a depictive representation.

Mental-scanning experiments found

a direct relationship between scanning time and distance on the image

Lindsay and coworkers "slime in the first-grade teacher's desk" experiment showed that presenting

a photograph of the participant's first-grade class increased the likelihood of false memories.

In a lexical decision task, participants have to decide whether

a presented stimulus is a word

A script is a type of schema that also includes knowledge of

a sequence of actions

The propositional approach may use any of the following EXCEPT

a spatial layout

A task for determining how prototypical an object is would be

a task where participants rate the extent to which each member represents the category title

Consider the following syllogism: If p then q. p q This syllogism is a(n) ____ syllogism.

abstract conditional

For most adults over age 40, the reminiscence bump describes enhanced memory for

adolescence and young adulthood

The misinformation effect occurs when a person's memory for an event is modified by misleading information presented

after the event

Imagery neurons respond to

an actual visual image as well as imagining that same image.

An experiment on the phonemic restoration effect would most likely include

an extraneous cough

Mia has lived in New York City all her life. She has noticed that people from upper Manhattan walk really fast, but people from lower Manhattan tend to walk slowly. Mia's observations are likely influenced from a judgment error based on her using

an illusory correlation

Jonas bought a new leather jacket after saving for many months for the luxury purchase. On the first day he went out wearing the new garment, he found a $50 bill on the sidewalk outside of his office. He now refers to the jacket as his "lucky jacket" and believes that it has some magical power to give him good fortune. Jonas's belief in the jacket's cosmic ability is an example of

an illusory correlation.

The ability to shift experience from one problem solving situation to a similar problem is known as

analogical transfer

Dr. Curious is doing a follow-up study to the mutilated checkerboard problem experiment. In this new study, participants solve the following shoe problem before tackling the checkerboard problem. By doing this, Dr. Curious is studying the effect of _____ on problem solving. The shoe problem: A first-grade class is using a trampoline in gym class, so all the children have removed their shoes, which are all jumbled in a large pile. One of the students, Miguel, is leaving early, so the teacher tells him to grab his shoes and report to the lobby. In his hurry, Miguel grabs two identical left-footed, size 6 red sneakers and runs to his mother still sock-footed. Will the remaining students be able to shoe-up with the remaining shoes without getting a foot-ache?

analogies

The text's discussion of the research on in vivo problem solving highlighted that ____ play(s) an important role in solving scientific problems.

analogies

The radiation problem was used in your text to illustrate the role of ____ in problem solving

analogy

Boxing champion George Foreman recently described his family vacations with the statement, "At our ranch in Marshall, Texas, there are lots of ponds and I take the kids out and we fish. And then of course, we grill them." That a reader understands "them" appropriately (George grills fish, not his kids!) is the result of a(n) _____ inference.

anaphoric

Your text's discussion of false memories leads to the conclusion that false memories

arise from the same constructive processes that produce true memories

Wally and Sharon are out on a date. When Sharon asks Wally where they should go for dinner, Wally says "My coworkers keep telling me about that new Japanese place downtown, so it must be a great place to eat." Wally's response illustrates the use of a(n)

availability heuristic

Learning takes place in a connectionist network through a process of _____ in which an error signal is transmitted starting from the property units.

back propagation

According to Rosch, the ____ level of categories is the psychologically "privileged" level of category that reflects people's everyday experience.

basic

The tendency to think that a syllogism is valid if its conclusion is believable is called the ________.

belief bias

Peggy is participating in a paired-associate learning experiment. During the study period, she is presented with pairs of words such as boat-hat and car-house. While taking the test, she would be presented with

boat _______ - car ________

The validity of a syllogism depends on

both the truth of its premises and the truth of its conclusion

In explaining the paradox that imagery and perception exhibit a double dissociation, Behrmann and coworkers suggested that perception necessarily involves _____ processing and imagery starts as a _____ process.

bottom-up; top-down

In Kaplan and Simon's experiment, they presented different versions of the mutilated checkerboard problem. Participants in the ____ group had the fastest response time.

bread and butter

The typical purpose of subgoals is to

bring the problem solver closer and closer to the goal state.

Given its definition, expected utility theory is most applicable to deciding whether to

buy first class or coach tickets for a spring break trip.

Of the following real-world phenomena, the confirmation bias best explains the observation that people

can cite several reasons for their position on a controversial issue but none for the opposing side

How is cognitive economy represented in the following example? The property _____ is stored at the _____ node.

can fly; bird

The conclusion to be drawn from the man named Shereshevskii whose abnormal brain functioning gave him virtually limitless word-for-word memory is that having memory like a video recorder

can seriously disrupt functioning in one's personal life

Imagine you are interpreting a pair of sentences such as "The sidewalk was covered with ice" and "Ramona fell down." The kind of inference we use to link these sentences together would most likely be a(n) _____ inference.

casual

The prototype approach to categorization states that a standard representation of a category is based on

category members that have been encountered in the past.

Which term below is most closely associated with semantic networks?

cognitive economy

The given-new contract is a method for creating

comprehension between a speaker and a listener in a conversation

Two different definitions of ________ offered by your book include (a) "the mental representation of a class or individual," and (b) "the meaning of objects, events, and abstract ideas."

concepts

Consider the following syllogism: If it's a robin then it is a bird. It is a bird. Therefore, it is a robin. In the example above, "Therefore, it is a robin" is a ____ of a ____ syllogism.

conclusion; conditional

If a motorcycle cop believes that young female drivers speed more than other drivers, he will likely notice young female drivers speeding in the fast lane but fail to notice young male or older drivers doing the same. In this case, the police officer's judgments are biased by the operation of the

confirmation bias.

Learning in the connectionist network is represented by adjustments to network

connection weights.

One of the key properties of the _____ approach is that a specific concept is represented by activity that is distributed over many units in the network.

connectionist

The process of back propagation is most closely associated with

connectionist networks.

According to the _____ approach to memory, what people report as memories is based on what actually happened plus additional factors such as other knowledge, experiences, and expectations.

constructive

The "telephone game" is often played by children. One child creates a story and whispers it to a second child, who does the same to a third child, and so on. When the last child recites the story to the group, his or her reproduction of the story is generally shorter than the original and contains many omissions and inaccuracies. This game shows how memory is a ______ process

constructive

In the "word list" false memory experiment where several students incorrectly remembered hearing the word sleep, false memory occurs because of

constructive memory processes.

Bartlett's experiment in which English participants were asked to recall the "War of the Ghosts" story that was taken from the French Indian culture illustrated the

constructive nature of memory.

Intermediate states can be created by

creating subgoals

Arkes and Freedman's "baseball game" experiment asked participants to indicate whether the following sentence was present in a passage they had previously read about events in a game: "The batter was safe at first." Their findings showed inaccurate memories involved

creations from inferences based on baseball knowledge

Phoenix Decorating Company is responsible for designing and building many of the floral floats seen in the Tournament of Roses Parade every New Year's Day. Phoenix's designers start preparing the floats for the next year's parade soon after the first of the year. For each corporate sponsor, Phoenix gets their best advertising team members, and they sit in a room for several hours throwing out every idea they can come up with, no matter how good or bad it is. After a substantial list has been created, they then go through every idea and rate its merits or deficits, until they come up with the best idea to pitch to the corporate sponsor. This process demonstrates

creative cognition *

It may be difficult for young Matthew, who is only 4 years of age, to understand the difference between the iPad that his mother uses, the Kindle that his brother uses, and the Galaxy tablet that his sister uses. After all, all of them are tablets, have touch screens, are electronic technology, and run "apps" that include games and educational programs. These similarities remind us of the concept of ________, which refers to the fact that animals tend to share many different properties

crowding

Unconscious plagiarism of the work of others is known as

cryptomnesia

In the "War of the Ghosts" experiment, participants' reproductions contained inaccuracies based on

cultural expectations

One beneficial property of connectionist networks is graceful degradation, which refers to the property that

damage to the system does not completely disrupt its operation

If a system has the property of graceful degradation, this means that

damage to the system doesn't completely disrupt its operation

In the lexical decision task, participants are asked to

decide whether a string of letters is a word or a non-word.

An experiment measures participants' performance in judging syllogisms. Two premises and a conclusion are presented as stimuli, and participants are asked to indicate (yes or no) if the conclusion logically follows from the premises. Error rates are then calculated for each syllogism. This experiment studies _____ reasoning.

deductive

If you are given the information that in order to vote in a presidential election, you must be at least 18 years of age, and that Will voted in the last presidential election, you can logically conclude that Will is at least 18 years old. This is an example of using _____ reasoning.

deductive

Not all of the members of everyday categories have the same features. Most fish have gills, fins, and scales. Sharks lack the feature of scales, yet they are still categorized as fish. This poses a problem for the _______ approach to categorization.

definitional

Metcalfe and Wiebe gave participants problems to solve and asked them to make "warmth" judgments every 15 seconds to indicate how close they felt they were to a solution. The purpose of this experiment was to

demonstrate a difference between how people solve insight and non-insight problems.

Greg was recounting a fishing tale of the one that got away: "I had a huge ahi tuna on my line. I fought for it for a few minutes, then my line snapped. The tuna swam away across the pond." Greg's friend, Matt, didn't believe his story because Matt knew that tuna are salt-water fish and aren't found in ponds. Greg's account contains

descriptive information that is inconsistent with base rate information

Research on the physiology of semantic memory has shown that the representation of different categories in the brain (like living and non-living things) is best described as being

distributed

Ali works for Citrus Squeeze, a company that makes orange juice. Sales of their calcium-enhanced OJ have been poor, and the product was cancelled. His factory still had three cases of cartons, and Ali was told he could take them if he wanted them. With the cartons, Ali made several birdfeeders for his backyard and also planted tree seedlings in some of them; he used the remaining ones to build a "fort" for his four-year-old son. Ali's use of the cartons represents

divergent thinking

In the movie Apollo 13, astronauts aboard a damaged spacecraft have to build a carbon dioxide filter out of random items that are aboard the ship with them. If they do not, they will all die rapidly of carbon dioxide poisoning. The fact that they are able to do so with the help of experts on Earth is similar to the _______ approach developed by Ronald Finke.

divergent thinking

The definitional approach to categorization

doesn't work well for most natural objects like birds, trees, and plants

Examples like Paul McCartney's composition of the song "Yesterday" and Jack Nicklaus's improvement of his golf swing demonstrate a connection between imagery and

dreams

Sometimes a behavioral event can occur at the same time as a cognitive process, even though the behavior isn't needed for the cognitive process. For example, many people look toward the ceiling when thinking about a complex problem, even though "thinking" would likely continue if they didn't look up. This describes a(n)

epiphenomenon.

Lindsay's misinformation effect experiment, in which participants were given a memory test about a sequence of slides showing a maintenance man stealing money and a computer, showed that participants are influenced by MPI

even if they are told to ignore the postevent information

If you say that "a Labrador retriever is my idea of a typical dog," you would be using the _____ approach to categorization.

exemplar

Research suggests that the _____ approach to categorization works best for small categories (e.g., U.S. presidents).

exemplar

Which approach to categorization can more easily take into account atypical cases such as flightless birds?

exemplar

_______ are actual members of a category that a person has encountered in the past

exemplars

Glinda is sure that if her boyfriend proposes, she will feel elation. This is an example of an

expected emotion

Josiah is trying to decide whether or not to take a new job in a new city. He is worried that if he takes the job and fails, he will suffer from intense anxiety and depression. This is an example of

expected emotion

mental imagery involves:

experiencing a sensory impression in the absence of sensory input

A lesson to be learned from the research on flashbulb memories is that

extreme vividness of a memory does not mean it is accurate

Priming occurs when presentation of one stimulus

facilitates the response to another stimulus that usually follows closely in time.

Your text's discussion of eyewitness testimony illustrates that this type of memory is frequently influenced by all of the following EXCEPT

failing to elaborately rehearse these kinds of events due to fear.

In an eye movement study, Rayner and coworkers had participants read sentences that contained either a high- or low- frequency target word. For example, the sentence "Sam wore the horrid coat though his ____ girlfriend complained," contained either the target word "pretty" or "demure." Results showed the participants' _____ was shorter for the target word _____.

fixation; pretty

Holyoak and Koh presented different versions of the light bulb problem to assist in solving the radiation problem. They found the ____ version to be more effective, because it had ____ features in common with the radiation problem.

fragile-glass; structural

Paivio (1963) proposed the conceptual peg hypothesis. His work suggests which of the following would be most difficult to remember?

freedom

Juanita is in a convenience store considering which soda to buy. She recalls a commercial for BigFizz she saw on TV last night. BigFizz is running a promotion where you look under the bottle cap, and one in five bottles has a voucher for a free soda. If Juanita decides to purchase a BigFizz based on this promotion, which is framed in terms of _____, she will use a _____ strategy.

gains; risk-aversion

Experts categorize problems based on

general principles that problems share.

Which of the following represents a basic level item?

guitar

In New Guinea, tribes that had been isolated for centuries were found that

had a large number of sophisticated language systems

Which of the following is not part of a complete definition of a problem?

has one correct answer

There are two gumball machines outside the local grocery store, one large machine and one small machine. Both machines have only yellow and orange gumballs, and each machine contains 50 percent of each color. For each coin, the large gumball machine dispenses 15 gumballs, while the small machine dispenses 5. Tim is a young genius whose interests include probability and sound decision-making. His "probability project of the day" is to get a greater percentage of either of the colors, but not an equal amount of each color. Given this, and presuming Tim has only one coin,

he should use his coin in the small machine.

To explain the fact that some neuropsychological studies show close parallels between perceptual deficits and deficits in imagery, while other studies do not find this parallel, it has been proposed that the mechanism for imagery is located at _____ visual centers and the mechanism for perception is located at _____ visual centers.

higher; both lower and higher

Noam Chomsky proposed that

humans are genetically programmed to acquire and use language

Much research has been dedicated to improving the reliability of eyewitness testimony. One finding reveals that when constructing a lineup,

increasing similarity between "fillers" and a suspect leads to an increased level of missed identification of some guilty suspects.

Making probable conclusions based on evidence involves _____ reasoning.

inductive

Most of the coherence in text is created by

inference

In the Tower of Hanoi problem, the ________ state involves having three discs stacked on the left peg, with the middle and right pegs empty.

initial

Newell and Simon called the conditions at the beginning of the problem the

initial state

Ira and his sister are playing "Name that Tune," the object of which is to name the title of the song when given the song's first line. Ira suggests the line "Sleigh bells ring, are you listening?" His sister can't come up with the answer at first, but realizing that the title is often embedded in the lyrics, she tries to sing them silently to herself. She then bursts out "Ah! It's 'Winter Wonderland'!" It is most likely that Ira's sister used _____ in playing the game.

inner audition

Chaz is listening to his grandma reminisce about the first time she danced with his grandpa 60 years ago. When his grandma says, "It seemed like the song would play forever," Chaz understands that it is more likely his grandma was listening to a radio playing and not a CD. This understanding requires Chaz use a(n)

instrument inference.

In the two-string problem, tying the pliers to one of the strings best represents a(n) ____ state.

intermediate

Consider the following conditional syllogism: Premise 1: If I don't eat lunch today, I will be hungry tonight. Premise 2: I ate lunch today. Conclusion: Therefore, I wasn't hungry tonight. This syllogism is

invalid

Consider the following conditional syllogism: Premise 1: If I study, then I'll get a good grade. Premise 2: I got a good grade. Conclusion: Therefore, I studied. This syllogism is

invalid

Evidence that language is a social process that must be learned comes from the fact that when deaf children find themselves in an environment where there are no people who speak or use sign language, they

invent a sign language themselves

The analogical paradox refers to problem-solving differences between

laboratory and real-world settings

Lilo can't wait for school to start. This year is the first time she gets to take a foreign language class, and she is taking Japanese. Dr. Nabuto is a professor interested in studying how people learn additional languages later in life, and he is including Lilo's class in his research. Dr. Nabuto is most likely studying

language acquisition

Your textbook suggests that a trait that appears to be common to both mental illness and creativity is ________.

latent inhibition

Ron is an avid reader. He has a large vocabulary because every time he comes across a word he doesn't know, he looks it up in the dictionary. Ron encounters "wanderlust" in a novel, reaches for the dictionary, and finds out this word means "desire to travel." The process of looking up unfamiliar words increases Ron's

lexicon

Finke's creating an object studies show that people were more likely to come up with creative uses for preinventive objects if they

made the objects themselves.

Experiments that argue against a special flashbulb memory mechanism find that as time increases since the occurrence of the flashbulb event, participants

make more errors in their recollections.

The solution to the candle problem involves realizing that the

match box can be used as a shelf

The scanning task used by Kosslyn involves

mental images

Ben has had problems with the pipes in his apartment. First, he had a clog in his bathroom sink, and then two months later, his garbage disposal in the kitchen sink clogged. Ben's superintendant told him he was not adequately flushing the debris from his pipes. She suggested that he run the water a little longer and visualize the debris (be it carrot peelings or toothpaste) traveling through the pipes all the way out to the sewer connection in the street. Using this technique, Ben has had no more clogs. The superintendant's suggestion involved

mental scanning

Kosslyn's island experiment used the _____ procedure.

mental scanning

Kosslyn concluded that the image field is limited in size. This conclusion was drawn from the _____ experiment.

mental walk

The technique in which things to be remembered are placed at different locations in a mental image of a spatial layout is known as

method of loci

Wilma is a famous chef. Since she does not like to share her secret family recipes, she does not write down her special creations, which makes it difficult to remember their ingredients. To aid her memory, she has created a unique "mental walk" that she takes to recall each recipe. For each one, she has a familiar "route" she can imagine walking through (e.g., from the end of her driveway to her living room) where she places each item in the recipe somewhere along the way (e.g., Tabasco sauce splattered on the front door). By doing so, Wilma is using _____ to organize her memories.

method of loci

Gallese and colleagues (1996) noted that certain types of neurons, now called ________ neurons, activated when a monkey grasped food on a tray, but also activated when they watched the experimenter grasping food on a tray.

mirror

Olin and Bob are neighbors. Olin loves birds and his father works for the zoo. He has been to a dozen bird sanctuaries, and he and his dad go on bird watching hikes once a month. In contrast, Bob doesn't think much about birds. His only contact with them is in his backyard. It would be correct to say that Olin's standard probably involves

more exemplars than Bob's.

The idea that we remember life events better because we encounter the information over and over in what we read, see on TV, and talk about with other people is called the

narrative rehearsal hypothesis

Your text describes imagery performance of a patient with unilateral neglect. This patient was asked to imagine himself standing at one end of a familiar plaza and to report the objects he saw. His behavior shows

neglect always occurred on the left side of the image, with "left side" being determined by the direction in which the patient imagined he was positioned.

In the semantic network model, a specific category or concept is represented at a

node

Gick and Holyoak proposed that analogical problem solving involves the following three steps:

noticing, mapping, and applying.

Functional fixedness would be LOWEST for a(n)

novel object

Finke's "creating an object" experiment had participants create a novel object by combining parts. Once they created an object, they were given the name of an object category and instructed to interpret their creation as a practical object or device within that category. Finke used the term preinventive forms to describe the

novel objects before a function was described.

The elements of the problem space include all of the following EXCEPT

operators.

By using a(n) _____, a country could increase the percentage of individuals agreeing to be organ donors dramatically.

opt-out procedure

The pegword technique is particularly suitable for use when you need to remember items based on their

order

utility refers to:

outcomes that achieve a person's goals.

According to the situation model of text processing,

people create a mental representation of what the text is about in terms of people, objects, locations, and events.

Kosslyn's transcranial magnetic stimulation experiment on brain activation that occurs in response to imagery found that the brain activity in the visual cortex

plays a causal role in both perception and imagery.

Research in neuroeconomics has found that the function of the ________ may be to deal with the cognitive demands of a given task, while the ________ is responsible for handling emotional goals such as resenting an unfair outcome.

prefrontal cortex; insula

One of Chomsky's most persuasive arguments for refuting Skinner's theory of language acquisition was his observation that children

produce sentences they have never heard.

"3x + 9 = 16" is a _____ representation.

propositional

As described in your text, the pegword technique relies on all of the following EXCEPT

propositions

Rosch found that participants respond more rapidly in a same-different task when presented with "good" examples of colors such as "red" and "green" than when they are presented with "poor" examples such as "pink" or "light green." The result of this experiment was interpreted as supporting the _____ approach to categorization.

prototype

Which approach to categorization involves forming a standard representation based on an average of category members that a person has encountered in the past?

prototype

B.F. Skinner, the modern champion of behaviorism, proposed that language is learned through

reinforcement

Your text argues that the proper procedure for measuring the accuracy of flashbulb memories is

repeated recall

The radiation problem can be solved using

representation and restructuring

The circle problem, in which the task is to determine the length of a line inside a circle, was proposed to illustrate

representation and restructuring.

Newell and Simon were early pioneers in designing computer programs that could solve problems. Their research program was based on the idea that problem solving is a process that involves

search

The information processing approach describes problem solving as a process involving

search

Mr. Huff always passes back exams to his algebra class in descending order (the highest grade is handed out first). Today, Maddelyn was the first to receive her exam. Joy complained, remarking, "Maddelyn, you always get the highest grade in algebra. It was true all last year and so far this year." Maddelyn was not sure if this was correct. To figure out if this was true, Maddelyn should

search her memory for instances when she did get her exam back first and for instances when she did not

The water-jug problem demonstrates that one consequence of having a procedure that does provide a solution to a problem is that, if well-learned, it may prevent us from

seeing more efficient solutions to the problem

According to the ________ approach, there are certain types of concepts that have specific neural circuits in the brain

semantic category

The _____ model includes associations between concepts and the property of spreading activation

semantic network

The interactionist approach to parsing states that

semantics is activated as a sentence is being read

According to the S-F hypothesis, our ability to differentiate living things and artifacts depends on a semantic memory system that distinguishes ________ and one that distinguishes ________.

sensory attributes; function

According to the idea of _____, when we read a sentence like, "Carmelo grabbed his coat from his bedroom and his backpack from the living room, walked downstairs, and called his friend Gerry," we create a simulation of Carmelo's apartment and keep track of his location as he moves throughout the apartment.

situation models

The "wedding reception" false memory experiment shows that false memories can be explained as a product of familiarity and

source misattribution

The experiment for which people were asked to make fame judgments for both famous and non-famous names (and for which Sebastian Weissdorf was one of the names to be remembered) illustrated the effect of _____ on memory.

source misattributions

Which of the following members would most likely be ranked highest in prototypicality in the "birds" category?

sparrow

Kosslyn interpreted the results of his research on imagery (such as the island experiment) as supporting the idea that the mechanism responsible for imagery involves ____ representations.

spatial

When the front part of a sentence can be interpreted more than one way, but the end of the sentence clarifies which meaning is correct, we say that the sentence is an example of

speech segmetation

Collins and Quillian explained the results of priming experiments by introducing the concept of _____ into their network model.

spreading activation

Many people receive unsolicited calls from telemarketers or unwanted "junk" mailers advertising offers for products such as cable or internet services or cellular phone companies. Most people do not consider these offers and do not make a change to the plans or services that they receive because they do not want to make a decision that requires serious consideration or thought. This is an example of the ________ bias.

status quo

Items high on prototypicality have ____ family resemblances

strong

People are most successful at noticing an analogous relationship between problems if they focus on

structural features

Gentner and Goldinmeadow (2003) illustrated that analogical encoding causes problem solvers to pay attention to ____ features that ____ their ability to solve other problems.

structural; enhance

If we were conducting an experiment on the effect knowledge has on categorization, we might compare the results of expert and non-expert groups. Suppose we compare horticulturalists to people with little knowledge about plants. If we asked the groups to name, as specifically as possible, five different plants seen around campus, we would predict that the expert group would primarily label plants on the _____ level, while the non-expert group would primarily label plants on the _____ level.

subordinate; basic

People playing the parlor game "20 Questions" often use hierarchical organization strategies. One player asks up to 20 yes/no questions to determine the identity of an object another player has selected. The player's questions usually start as general and get more specific as the player approaches a likely guess. Initial questions asked by a player are often one of three questions: "Is it an animal?" "Is it a vegetable?" and "Is it a mineral?" Each of these three questions describes which level of categorization?

superordinate

Based on the information your textbook provided about different category types, jumping from _______ categories results in the largest gain in information.

superordinate level to basic level

The idea that the rules governing the grouping of words in a sentence is the primary determinant of the way a sentence is parsed is part of the _____ approach to parsing.

syntax-first

In their imagery study, Finke and Pinker presented a four-dot display briefly to participants. After a two-second delay, participants then saw an arrow, and their task was to indicate whether the arrow would have pointed to any of the dots in the previous display. The significance of their results was they called into question the ____ explanation of imagery.

tacit-knowledge

Experts _____ than novices.

take a more effective approach to organizing the solution to a problem

In analogical problem solving, the ________ problem is the problem that an individual is trying to solve, and the ________ problem, which has been solved in the past, is used as a guide for reaching that solution.

target; source

The evolutionary approach proposes that the Wason problem can be understood in terms of people's

tendency to detect when others are cheating

Illustrative of functional fixedness, people are more likely to solve the candle problem if

the box is empty

The semantic network model predicts that the time it takes for a person to retrieve information about a concept should be determined by

the distance that must be traveled through the network.

The connectionist network has learned the correct pattern for a concept when

the error signals are reduced to nearly none and the correct properties are assigned.

According to your text, the key to solving the Wason four-card problem is

the falsification principle

Stereotypes are reinforced by all of the following EXCEPT

the falsification principle

Cecile has dreamed of owning her own home for years, and she can finally afford a small cottage in an older neighborhood. She notices that she feels more positive about her home when she drives home by the abandoned shacks, but she hates her home when driving past the fancy mansions with their large lawns. Cecile's emotions are influenced by

the framing effect

Research on eyewitness testimony has shown that the more confident the person giving the testimony is of their memories,

the more convincing the testimony is to a jury.

At a lunch meeting with a client, the CEO of Gossip Polls, Inc., was asked to determine America's favorite day of the week. Hundreds of Gossip employees across the U.S. started collecting data immediately, calling people at their residences. One hour later, the attitudes from 10,000 Americans, across all 50 states, were collected. A staff member called the CEO, still at her lunch meeting, to tell her the results of the poll: America's favorite day of the week is Monday. Given your text's discussion of inductive reasoning in science, we might suspect that the observations in this poll are not representative because

the people who are home to answer the phone in the early afternoon are not an appropriate cross-section of the U.S. population.

Stanny and Johnson's "weapons focus" experiment, investigating memory for crime scenes, found that

the presence of a weapon hinders memory for other parts of the event.

Within the realm of conversational speech, knowledge refers to

the previously understood information that we bring into the conversation.

Rosch and coworkers conducted an experiment in which participants were shown a category label, like car or vehicle, and then, after a brief delay, saw a picture. The participants' task was to indicate as rapidly as possible whether the picture was a member of the category. Their results showed

the priming effect was most robust for basic level categories.

The conjunction rule states that

the probability of two events co-occurring is equal to or less than the probability of either event occurring alone

Failing to consider the law of large numbers most likely results in errors concerning

the representativeness heuristic

Gabrielle is blonde, extremely attractive, and lives in an expensive condo. If we judge the probability of Gabrielle's being a model quite high because she resembles our stereotype of a model, we are using

the representativeness heuristic

syntax is

the rules for combining words into sentences

Collins and Quillian's semantic network model predicts that the reaction time to verify "a canary is a bird" is _____ the reaction time to verify "an ostrich is a bird."

the same as

In an experiment that combined both physiological and behavioral approaches to the study of decision making, PFC activity was recorded while participants accepted or rejected proposals to split a sum of money ($10). PFC activation was

the same for accepted and rejected offers

The repeated reproduction technique used in memory studies involves

the same participants remembering some information at longer and longer intervals after learning the information

Asking people to recall the most influential events that happened during their college careers shows that ____ in people's lives appear to be particularly memorable.

transition points

Your text describes cross-cultural studies of categorization with U.S. and Itzaj participants. Given the results of these studies, we know that if asked to name basic level objects for a category, U.S. participants would answer ____ and Itzaj participants would answer ____.

tree; oak

A researcher had participants read each of the sentences below and measured the time it took to read each sentence. Trial 1: The lamb ran past the cottage into the pasture. Trial 2: The dog ran past the house into the yard. The participants' response times were longer for _____ because of the _____ effect.

trial 1; word frequency

Which of the following would be in a basic level category?

truck

Which problem provides an example of how functional fixedness can hinder solution of a problem?

two-string problem

An advantage of the exemplar approach over the prototype approach is that the exemplar approach provides a better explanation of the ________ effect.

typicality

Amedi and coworkers used fMRI to investigate the differences between brain activation for perception and imagery. Their findings showed that when participants were ____, some areas associated with non-visual sensation (such as hearing and touch) were ____.

using visual images; deactivated

Consider the following syllogism: All cats are birds. All birds have wings. All cats have wings. This syllogism is

valid

Consider the following syllogism: All of the students are tired. Some tired people are irritable. Some of the students are irritable. It is likely that most people will judge this syllogism as

valid because this conclusion is believable.

One of Sarah's friends asks her to describe her new house by asking her how many windows are on the front of it. After a minute, Sarah answers 12. She has most likely used _____ in answering the question.

visual imagery

Behaviorists branded the study of imagery as being unproductive because

visual images are invisible to everyone except the person experiencing them.

The best description of the purpose of think-aloud protocols is that they are used to determine

what information a person is attending to while solving a problem

People tend to overestimate

what negative feelings will occur following a decision more so than positive feelings.

The crucial question in comparing syntax-first and interactionist approaches to parsing is ____ is involved.

when semantics

a task where participants rate the extent to which each member represents the category title

when semantics