psych chapter 2
measures the movement of blood molecules in the brain, permitting neuroscientists to pinpoint specific sites and details of neuronal activity. It has also provided evidence to help us understand the decline in memory and cognition that often accompanies aging. Its even possible to determine with some accuracy what a person is thinking about, may decide to do, and whether he or she is lying
fMRI
located just behind the forehead, accounts for about half the volume of the human cerebrum. It receives and coordinates messages from the other 3 lobes of the cerebrum and seems to keep track of previous and future movements of the body. Serves as an "executive control center" for the brain.
frontal lobe
plays a pivotal role in the behaviors we associate with personality, including motivation, persistence, emotional responses, character, and even moral decision making.
frontal lobe
is the study of how living things pass on traits from one generation to the next. Scientists named the basic units of inheritance genes. To understand more about these blueprints for development.
genetics
Your own unique genetic "blueprint" is internally coded on your 46 matched chromosomes and is called your
genotype
hold the neurons in place, provide nourishment, remove waste products, prevent harmful substances from passing from the bloodstream into the brain, and form the myelin sheath that insulates and protects neurons.
glial cells
play an important role in neuron regeneration, learning and memory, and enhancing communication between neurons
glial cells and astrocytes
is principally an excitatory chemical that speeds up synaptic transmission through the central nervous system. It is involved in enhancing learning and memory by strengthening synaptic connections between neurons.
glutamate
The incoming message causes a small, temporary shift in the electrical charge, called a __________, which is transmitted along the cell membrane and may simply fade away, leaving the neuron in its normal polarized state. For a neuron to fire, graded potentials caused by impulses from many neighboring neurons must exceed a certain minimum threshold of excitation.
graded potential
At the point where the spinal cord enters the skill, it becomes the
hindbrain
plays an essential role in the formation of new memories.
hippocampus
endocrine glands release chemical substances called ___________that are carried throughout your body by the bloodstream. They carry messages. Can also have dramatic effects on mood, emotional reactivity, ability to learn, and ability to resist disease.
hormones
Directly below the thalamus is the smaller _________, which exerts an enormous influence on many kinds of motivation. Portions of the this is to govern hunger, thirst, sexual drive, and body temperature and are directly involved in emotional behavior such as experiencing rage, terror, or pleasure
hypothalamus
is a netlike system of neurons that weaves through all of these structures. Its main job is to send "alert!" signals to the higher parts of the brain in response to incoming messages.
reticular formation
are another way to assess heritability, the degree to which a trait is inherited. If a trait is closely regulated by genes, when animals with the trait are interbred, more of their offspring should have the trait than one would find in the general population.
selection studies
Neurons that collect messages from sense organs and carry those messages to the spinal cord or brain are called
sensory ( or afferent) neurons
is popularly known as "the mood molecule" because it is often involved in emotional experiences. Is like a master key that opens many locks- that is, it attaches to as many as a dozen receptor sites.
serotonin
An undersupply of _________ and __________ has been linked to depression
serotonin and norepinephrine
Neurons in this system are involved in making voluntary movements of the skeletal muscles
somatic nervous system
The peripheral nervous system is subdivided into the ___________________, which transmits information about body movements and the external environment, and the ________________, which transmits information to and from the internal organs and glands.
somatic nervous system autonomic nervous system
is our communications superhighway, connecting the brain to most of the rest of the body. People who suffer damage lose all sensations from the parts of the body that can no longer send information to higher brain areas, as well as control over the movements of those body parts.
spinal cord
Rats raised in _________ perform better on a variety of problemsolving tests and develop more synapses when required to perform complex tasks. These combined results suggest that the brain changes in response to the organism's experiences, a principle called
stimulating environments neural plasticity
close relatives, such as siblings, are intensively inbred over many generations to create strains of animals that are genetically similar to one another, but different from other strains. When animals from different strains are raised together in the same environment, differences between them largely reflect genetic differences in the strains.
strain studies
tells your glands to start pumping hormones into your blood to further strengthen your body's reactions
sympathetic division
Neurons are separated by a tiny gap, called a ___________, or synaptic cleft, where the axon terminals of one neuron almost touch the dendrites or cell body of other neurons. The entire area composed of the axon terminals of one neuron, the synaptic space, and the dendrites and cell body of the next neuron is called the _______
synaptic space synapse
govern involuntary activities of your internal organs, from the beating of your heart to the hormone secretions of your glands
autonomic nervous system
The single long fiber extending from the cell body is an _____. Carries outgoing messages to neighboring neurons or the a muscle or gland
axon
A neuron may be receiving messages from other neurons, some of which are primarily _________(telling it to fire) and from other, primarily __________ (telling it to rest).
excitatory inhibitory
are all specialized to receive and transmit information
neurons
acts where neurons meet skeletal muscles. Plays a critical role in arousal, attention, memory, and motivation
Ach
allows scientists to create three-dimensional images of a human brain without performing surgery. An X-ray photography unit rotates around the person, moving from the top of the head to the bottom; a computer then combines the resulting images.
CAT or CT scanning
specifically focuses on the study of the brain and the nervous system
neuroscience
Genes are composed primarily of ________, a complex organic molecule that looks like two chains twisted around each other in a double-helix pattern. is the only known molecule that can replicate or reproduce itself, which happens each time a cell divides.
DNA
Terminal buttons at the end of each axon release chemical substances called
neurotransmitters
may serve both as a neurotransmitter and as a hormone
norepinephrine
Imbalances in ________ have been associated with sleep and eating disorders as well as with increased levels of anxiety
GABA
the neuron's cell body is made up of a
nucleus, cytoplasm, and a cell membrane
located at the very back of the cerebral hemispheres, receives and processes visual information. Damage can produce blindness or visual hallucinations
occipital lobe
electrical signals are distorted as they pass through the skull. Both measure the strength of the magnetic field and identify its source with considerable accuracy.
MEG and MSI
is even more successful at producing pictures of the inner regions of the brain, with its ridges, folds, and fissures. The energy released by different structures in the brain generates an image that appears on a computer screen
MRI
those organisms that are best adapted to their environments are most likely to survive and reproduce. If the traits that give them a survival advantage are genetically based, those same genetic characteristics are passed on to their offspring. Organisms that do not possess the adaptive traits tend to die off before they reproduce, and hence, the less-adaptive traits do not get passed along to future generations. therefore, promotes the survival and reproduction of individuals who are genetically well adapted to their particular environment
Natural selection
uses radioactive energy to map brain activity. Has been used to investigate how our memory for words and images is stored in the brain, and locate damage resulting from Alzheimer's disease
PET scanning
The calming effect is promoted by the ______________ of the autonomic nervous system.
parasympathetic division
Every firing of a particular neuron produces an impulse of the same strength. This is called the
all-or-none law
is involved in governing and regulating emotions and in establishing emotional memories, particularly those related to fear and self-preservation. Plays a role in the experience of pleasure.
amygdala
the neuron is likely to fire more often when stimulated by a strong signal. Immediately after firing, the neuron goes through an ___________. The neuron will not fire again, no matter how strong the incoming messages may be. Following that is a _________________, when the cell is returning to the resting state. During this period, the neuron will fire, but only if the incoming messages is considerably stronger than is normally necessary to make it fire. Finally, the neuron returns to its _______________, ready to fire again
absolute refractory period relative refractory period resting state
An electrical charge, called a neural impulse (or ___________), travels down the axon. When this happens, we say that the neuron has "fired."
action potential
focus on children who were adopted at birth and brought up by parents not genetically related to them. provide additional evidence for the heritability of intelligence and some forms of mental illness and the role of genetics in behavior previously thought to be solely determined by environmental influences like smoking and the risk for drug abuse. By combing the results of twin, adoption, and family studies, psychologists have obtained a clearer picture of the role of heredity in many human characteristics
adoption studies
hemispheres can be divided into four lobes, which are separated from one another by crevices, or fissures, such as the
central fissure
includes the brain and spinal cord, which together contain more than 90% of the body's neurons
central nervous system
The part of the hindbrain at the top and back of the brain stem is the __________ "the little brain" contain more neurons than the rest of the brain. Responsible for our sense of balance and for coordinating the body's actions to ensure that movements go together in efficient sequences
cerebellum
involved in psychological processes, including emotional control, attention, memory, and coordinating sensory information
cerebellum
The surface of the cerebrum is a thin layer of gray matter (unmyelinated cells) called the
cerebral cortex
is divided into 2 hemispheres. It is the part of the brain that processes thought, vision, language, memory, and emotions.
cerebrum
tiny threadlike bodies that carry genes- the basic units of heredity. Each contains hundreds or thousands of genes in fixed locations. vary in size and shape, and usually come in pairs. Human beings have 23 pairs in every normal cell
chromosomes
The primary connection between the left and the right hemispheres is a thick, ribbonlike band of nerve fibers under the cortex called the ______________. The left and right cerebral hemispheres are in close communication through the corpus callosum and work together as a coordinated unit.
corpus callosum
neurons have tiny fibers that extend out from the cell body. Their role is to pick up incoming messages from other neurons and transmit them the cell body
dendrites.
generally affects neurons associated with voluntary movement, learning, memory, and emotions. The precise location in the brain where________ is released determines the effect it will have on behavior. Regulates a wide range of behaviors including movement, pleasure, addiction, and some forms of mental illness
dopamine
This graph of so called brain waves provides an index of both the strength and the rhythm of neural activity. This technique has given researchers valuable insights into changes in brain waves during sleep and dreaming
electroencephalograph (EEG)
system plays a key role in helping to coordinate and integrate complex psychological reactions
endocrine system
appear to reduce pain by inhibiting, or "turning down" the neurons that transmit pain messages in the brain
endorphins
Myelin sheath, first, it provides __________, so that signals from adjacent neurons do not interfere with each other; second, it increases the _______ at which signals are transmitted; and third, it ________ neurons from disease.
insulation speed protects
neurons that carry messages from one neuron to another are called
internerurons ( or association neurons)
When a neuron is at rest, the membrane surrounding the cell forms a partial barrier between the fluids that are inside and outside the neuron. Both solutions contain electrically charged particles, or
ions
is a ring of loosely connected structures located between the central core and the cerebral hemispheres. Plays a central role in times of stress, coordinating and integrating the activity of the nervous system.
limbic system
Experience also causes changes in the strength of communication across synapses. ___________ appears to help the brain learn and store new information
long-term potentiation
The part of the hindbrain nearest to the spinal cord is the
medulla
controls such bodily functions as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. Is also the point at which many of the nerves from the body cross over on their way to and from the higher brain centers; nerve from the left part of the body cross to the right side of the brain and vice versa
medulla
Both the ________ and the _______ transmit messages to the upper areas of the brain
medulla and the pons
is especially important for hearing and sight. It is also one of several places in the brain where pain is registered
midbrain
are specialized neurons in the central nervous system that become active when a behavior or emotion is witnessed in another organism
mirror neurons
Neurons that carry messages from the spinal cord or the brain to the muscles and glands are called
motor ( or efferent) neurons
The axon of many neurons is surrounded by a white, fatty covering called a
myelin sheath
occupies the top back half of each hemisphere. This lobe receives sensory information from all over the body- from sense receptors in the skin, muscles, joints, internal organs, and taste buds. Messages from these sense receptors are registered in the _________________ Seems to oversee spatial abilities, such as the ability to follow a map. Is also typically involved in eye-hand coordination.
parietal lobe primary somatosensory cortex
consists of nerves that connect the brain and spinal cord to every other part of the body, carrying messages back and forth between the central nervous system and the sense organs, muscles, and glands
peripheral nervous system
Since an individual's genotype does not always obviously correspond directly to what is expressed, we use the term __________ when referring to the outward expression of a trait.
phenotype
located in the middle of the brain. It secretes the hormone melatonin, which helps to regulate sleep-wake cycles
pineal gland
which is located on the underside of the brain, is connected to the hypothalamus. Is often called the "master gland" because of its influential role in regulating other endocrine glands. influences blood pressure, thirst, sexual behavior, body growth, as well as other functions.
pituitary gland
The resting neuron is said to be in a state of
polarization
multiple genes contribute to a particular trait. Weight, height, skin pigmentation, intelligence, and countless other characteristics are polygenic.
polygenic inheritance
which produces chemicals that help maintain our sleep-wake cycle
pons
When a small area on the cell membrane is stimulated by an incoming message, _______ (or channels) in the membrane at the area open, allowing a sudden inflow of positively charged sodium ions. This process is called __________, now the inside of the neuron is positively charges relative to the outside.
pores depolarization
The forward-most surface of the frontal lobe, known as the ____________ , plays a crucial role in goal-directed behavior, the ability to control impulses, judgment, and metacognition- which involves awareness and control of our thoughts.
prefrontal cortex
The area on the surface of the frontal lobe known as the__________ plays a key role in voluntary action.
primary motor cortex
The journey through the brain is part of the branch of psychology known as _______, which deals with the biological bases of behavior and mental processes
psychobiology
Because there are more negative ions inside the neuron than outside, there is small electrical charge (called the _________) across the cell membrane
resting potential
located roughly behind the temples, plays an important role in complex visual tasks such as recognizing faces and interpreting the facial emotions of others. Also receives and processes information from the ears, contributes to balance and equilibrium, and regulates emotions and motivations such as anxiety, pleasure, and anger. The ability to understand and comprehend language is concentrated primarily in the rear portion
temporal lobe
Near its end the axon splits into many _______
terminal branches
Almost directly over the brain stem are the two egg-shaped structures that make up the ______. Is often described as a relay station: almost all sensory information passes through the this on the way to higher levels of the brain, where it is translated and routed to the appropriate brain location.
thalamus