psych chapter 2

measures the movement of blood molecules in the brain, permitting neuroscientists to pinpoint specific sites and details of neuronal activity. It has also provided evidence to help us understand the decline in memory and cognition that often accompanies aging. Its even possible to determine with some accuracy what a person is thinking about, may decide to do, and whether he or she is lying

fMRI

located just behind the forehead, accounts for about half the volume of the human cerebrum. It receives and coordinates messages from the other 3 lobes of the cerebrum and seems to keep track of previous and future movements of the body. Serves as an "executive control center" for the brain.

frontal lobe

plays a pivotal role in the behaviors we associate with personality, including motivation, persistence, emotional responses, character, and even moral decision making.

frontal lobe

is the study of how living things pass on traits from one generation to the next. Scientists named the basic units of inheritance genes. To understand more about these blueprints for development.

genetics

Your own unique genetic "blueprint" is internally coded on your 46 matched chromosomes and is called your

genotype

hold the neurons in place, provide nourishment, remove waste products, prevent harmful substances from passing from the bloodstream into the brain, and form the myelin sheath that insulates and protects neurons.

glial cells

play an important role in neuron regeneration, learning and memory, and enhancing communication between neurons

glial cells and astrocytes

is principally an excitatory chemical that speeds up synaptic transmission through the central nervous system. It is involved in enhancing learning and memory by strengthening synaptic connections between neurons.

glutamate

The incoming message causes a small, temporary shift in the electrical charge, called a __________, which is transmitted along the cell membrane and may simply fade away, leaving the neuron in its normal polarized state. For a neuron to fire, graded potentials caused by impulses from many neighboring neurons must exceed a certain minimum threshold of excitation.

graded potential

At the point where the spinal cord enters the skill, it becomes the

hindbrain

plays an essential role in the formation of new memories.

hippocampus

endocrine glands release chemical substances called ___________that are carried throughout your body by the bloodstream. They carry messages. Can also have dramatic effects on mood, emotional reactivity, ability to learn, and ability to resist disease.

hormones

Directly below the thalamus is the smaller _________, which exerts an enormous influence on many kinds of motivation. Portions of the this is to govern hunger, thirst, sexual drive, and body temperature and are directly involved in emotional behavior such as experiencing rage, terror, or pleasure

hypothalamus

is a netlike system of neurons that weaves through all of these structures. Its main job is to send "alert!" signals to the higher parts of the brain in response to incoming messages.

reticular formation

are another way to assess heritability, the degree to which a trait is inherited. If a trait is closely regulated by genes, when animals with the trait are interbred, more of their offspring should have the trait than one would find in the general population.

selection studies

Neurons that collect messages from sense organs and carry those messages to the spinal cord or brain are called

sensory ( or afferent) neurons

is popularly known as "the mood molecule" because it is often involved in emotional experiences. Is like a master key that opens many locks- that is, it attaches to as many as a dozen receptor sites.

serotonin

An undersupply of _________ and __________ has been linked to depression

serotonin and norepinephrine

Neurons in this system are involved in making voluntary movements of the skeletal muscles

somatic nervous system

The peripheral nervous system is subdivided into the ___________________, which transmits information about body movements and the external environment, and the ________________, which transmits information to and from the internal organs and glands.

somatic nervous system autonomic nervous system

is our communications superhighway, connecting the brain to most of the rest of the body. People who suffer damage lose all sensations from the parts of the body that can no longer send information to higher brain areas, as well as control over the movements of those body parts.

spinal cord

Rats raised in _________ perform better on a variety of problemsolving tests and develop more synapses when required to perform complex tasks. These combined results suggest that the brain changes in response to the organism's experiences, a principle called

stimulating environments neural plasticity

close relatives, such as siblings, are intensively inbred over many generations to create strains of animals that are genetically similar to one another, but different from other strains. When animals from different strains are raised together in the same environment, differences between them largely reflect genetic differences in the strains.

strain studies

tells your glands to start pumping hormones into your blood to further strengthen your body's reactions

sympathetic division

Neurons are separated by a tiny gap, called a ___________, or synaptic cleft, where the axon terminals of one neuron almost touch the dendrites or cell body of other neurons. The entire area composed of the axon terminals of one neuron, the synaptic space, and the dendrites and cell body of the next neuron is called the _______

synaptic space synapse

govern involuntary activities of your internal organs, from the beating of your heart to the hormone secretions of your glands

autonomic nervous system

The single long fiber extending from the cell body is an _____. Carries outgoing messages to neighboring neurons or the a muscle or gland

axon

A neuron may be receiving messages from other neurons, some of which are primarily _________(telling it to fire) and from other, primarily __________ (telling it to rest).

excitatory inhibitory

are all specialized to receive and transmit information

neurons

acts where neurons meet skeletal muscles. Plays a critical role in arousal, attention, memory, and motivation

Ach

allows scientists to create three-dimensional images of a human brain without performing surgery. An X-ray photography unit rotates around the person, moving from the top of the head to the bottom; a computer then combines the resulting images.

CAT or CT scanning

specifically focuses on the study of the brain and the nervous system

neuroscience

Genes are composed primarily of ________, a complex organic molecule that looks like two chains twisted around each other in a double-helix pattern. is the only known molecule that can replicate or reproduce itself, which happens each time a cell divides.

DNA

Terminal buttons at the end of each axon release chemical substances called

neurotransmitters

may serve both as a neurotransmitter and as a hormone

norepinephrine

Imbalances in ________ have been associated with sleep and eating disorders as well as with increased levels of anxiety

GABA

the neuron's cell body is made up of a

nucleus, cytoplasm, and a cell membrane

located at the very back of the cerebral hemispheres, receives and processes visual information. Damage can produce blindness or visual hallucinations

occipital lobe

electrical signals are distorted as they pass through the skull. Both measure the strength of the magnetic field and identify its source with considerable accuracy.

MEG and MSI

is even more successful at producing pictures of the inner regions of the brain, with its ridges, folds, and fissures. The energy released by different structures in the brain generates an image that appears on a computer screen

MRI

those organisms that are best adapted to their environments are most likely to survive and reproduce. If the traits that give them a survival advantage are genetically based, those same genetic characteristics are passed on to their offspring. Organisms that do not possess the adaptive traits tend to die off before they reproduce, and hence, the less-adaptive traits do not get passed along to future generations. therefore, promotes the survival and reproduction of individuals who are genetically well adapted to their particular environment

Natural selection

uses radioactive energy to map brain activity. Has been used to investigate how our memory for words and images is stored in the brain, and locate damage resulting from Alzheimer's disease

PET scanning

The calming effect is promoted by the ______________ of the autonomic nervous system.

parasympathetic division

Every firing of a particular neuron produces an impulse of the same strength. This is called the

all-or-none law

is involved in governing and regulating emotions and in establishing emotional memories, particularly those related to fear and self-preservation. Plays a role in the experience of pleasure.

amygdala

the neuron is likely to fire more often when stimulated by a strong signal. Immediately after firing, the neuron goes through an ___________. The neuron will not fire again, no matter how strong the incoming messages may be. Following that is a _________________, when the cell is returning to the resting state. During this period, the neuron will fire, but only if the incoming messages is considerably stronger than is normally necessary to make it fire. Finally, the neuron returns to its _______________, ready to fire again

absolute refractory period relative refractory period resting state

An electrical charge, called a neural impulse (or ___________), travels down the axon. When this happens, we say that the neuron has "fired."

action potential

focus on children who were adopted at birth and brought up by parents not genetically related to them. provide additional evidence for the heritability of intelligence and some forms of mental illness and the role of genetics in behavior previously thought to be solely determined by environmental influences like smoking and the risk for drug abuse. By combing the results of twin, adoption, and family studies, psychologists have obtained a clearer picture of the role of heredity in many human characteristics

adoption studies

hemispheres can be divided into four lobes, which are separated from one another by crevices, or fissures, such as the

central fissure

includes the brain and spinal cord, which together contain more than 90% of the body's neurons

central nervous system

The part of the hindbrain at the top and back of the brain stem is the __________ "the little brain" contain more neurons than the rest of the brain. Responsible for our sense of balance and for coordinating the body's actions to ensure that movements go together in efficient sequences

cerebellum

involved in psychological processes, including emotional control, attention, memory, and coordinating sensory information

cerebellum

The surface of the cerebrum is a thin layer of gray matter (unmyelinated cells) called the

cerebral cortex

is divided into 2 hemispheres. It is the part of the brain that processes thought, vision, language, memory, and emotions.

cerebrum

tiny threadlike bodies that carry genes- the basic units of heredity. Each contains hundreds or thousands of genes in fixed locations. vary in size and shape, and usually come in pairs. Human beings have 23 pairs in every normal cell

chromosomes

The primary connection between the left and the right hemispheres is a thick, ribbonlike band of nerve fibers under the cortex called the ______________. The left and right cerebral hemispheres are in close communication through the corpus callosum and work together as a coordinated unit.

corpus callosum

neurons have tiny fibers that extend out from the cell body. Their role is to pick up incoming messages from other neurons and transmit them the cell body

dendrites.

generally affects neurons associated with voluntary movement, learning, memory, and emotions. The precise location in the brain where________ is released determines the effect it will have on behavior. Regulates a wide range of behaviors including movement, pleasure, addiction, and some forms of mental illness

dopamine

This graph of so called brain waves provides an index of both the strength and the rhythm of neural activity. This technique has given researchers valuable insights into changes in brain waves during sleep and dreaming

electroencephalograph (EEG)

system plays a key role in helping to coordinate and integrate complex psychological reactions

endocrine system

appear to reduce pain by inhibiting, or "turning down" the neurons that transmit pain messages in the brain

endorphins

Myelin sheath, first, it provides __________, so that signals from adjacent neurons do not interfere with each other; second, it increases the _______ at which signals are transmitted; and third, it ________ neurons from disease.

insulation speed protects

neurons that carry messages from one neuron to another are called

internerurons ( or association neurons)

When a neuron is at rest, the membrane surrounding the cell forms a partial barrier between the fluids that are inside and outside the neuron. Both solutions contain electrically charged particles, or

ions

is a ring of loosely connected structures located between the central core and the cerebral hemispheres. Plays a central role in times of stress, coordinating and integrating the activity of the nervous system.

limbic system

Experience also causes changes in the strength of communication across synapses. ___________ appears to help the brain learn and store new information

long-term potentiation

The part of the hindbrain nearest to the spinal cord is the

medulla

controls such bodily functions as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. Is also the point at which many of the nerves from the body cross over on their way to and from the higher brain centers; nerve from the left part of the body cross to the right side of the brain and vice versa

medulla

Both the ________ and the _______ transmit messages to the upper areas of the brain

medulla and the pons

is especially important for hearing and sight. It is also one of several places in the brain where pain is registered

midbrain

are specialized neurons in the central nervous system that become active when a behavior or emotion is witnessed in another organism

mirror neurons

Neurons that carry messages from the spinal cord or the brain to the muscles and glands are called

motor ( or efferent) neurons

The axon of many neurons is surrounded by a white, fatty covering called a

myelin sheath

occupies the top back half of each hemisphere. This lobe receives sensory information from all over the body- from sense receptors in the skin, muscles, joints, internal organs, and taste buds. Messages from these sense receptors are registered in the _________________ Seems to oversee spatial abilities, such as the ability to follow a map. Is also typically involved in eye-hand coordination.

parietal lobe primary somatosensory cortex

consists of nerves that connect the brain and spinal cord to every other part of the body, carrying messages back and forth between the central nervous system and the sense organs, muscles, and glands

peripheral nervous system

Since an individual's genotype does not always obviously correspond directly to what is expressed, we use the term __________ when referring to the outward expression of a trait.

phenotype

located in the middle of the brain. It secretes the hormone melatonin, which helps to regulate sleep-wake cycles

pineal gland

which is located on the underside of the brain, is connected to the hypothalamus. Is often called the "master gland" because of its influential role in regulating other endocrine glands. influences blood pressure, thirst, sexual behavior, body growth, as well as other functions.

pituitary gland

The resting neuron is said to be in a state of

polarization

multiple genes contribute to a particular trait. Weight, height, skin pigmentation, intelligence, and countless other characteristics are polygenic.

polygenic inheritance

which produces chemicals that help maintain our sleep-wake cycle

pons

When a small area on the cell membrane is stimulated by an incoming message, _______ (or channels) in the membrane at the area open, allowing a sudden inflow of positively charged sodium ions. This process is called __________, now the inside of the neuron is positively charges relative to the outside.

pores depolarization

The forward-most surface of the frontal lobe, known as the ____________ , plays a crucial role in goal-directed behavior, the ability to control impulses, judgment, and metacognition- which involves awareness and control of our thoughts.

prefrontal cortex

The area on the surface of the frontal lobe known as the__________ plays a key role in voluntary action.

primary motor cortex

The journey through the brain is part of the branch of psychology known as _______, which deals with the biological bases of behavior and mental processes

psychobiology

Because there are more negative ions inside the neuron than outside, there is small electrical charge (called the _________) across the cell membrane

resting potential

located roughly behind the temples, plays an important role in complex visual tasks such as recognizing faces and interpreting the facial emotions of others. Also receives and processes information from the ears, contributes to balance and equilibrium, and regulates emotions and motivations such as anxiety, pleasure, and anger. The ability to understand and comprehend language is concentrated primarily in the rear portion

temporal lobe

Near its end the axon splits into many _______

terminal branches

Almost directly over the brain stem are the two egg-shaped structures that make up the ______. Is often described as a relay station: almost all sensory information passes through the this on the way to higher levels of the brain, where it is translated and routed to the appropriate brain location.

thalamus