Psych History ch. 10, ch. 11, ch. 12, & ch. 13
what was Freud's relationship with Joseph Breuer?
" Breuer, while recognizing that sexuality was involved in the case, rejected Freud's argument that hysteria had sexual origins and split with Freud over the issue, thus ending a long friendship.
what eventually happened to Anna O?
" Eventually, she did recover from her symptoms " Anna (Bertha Pappenheim) became a prominent advocate for women's rights in Germany; she once wrote that "if there is any justice in the next world, women will make the laws and men will bear the children" (quoted in Sulloway, 1979, p. 57). She became famous enough to warrant the issuance of a stamp in her honor in 1954, on the 50th anniversary of her death
what was the book about Freud's psychoanalysis?
"The Interpretation of Dreams"
behaviorism
"behavioral psychology"; a theory of learning based on the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning, which occurs through interaction with the environment - only observable behavior should be considered (cognitions, emotions, and moods are far too subjective)
What was Watson's Behaviorist Manifesto? What was the actual title?
"psychology as the behaviorist views it" - initiated behaviorism s a discipline and academic field of study and insisted that empirical data and principles generated by natural science must be applied to solving human and social problems if the science was to have substantial meaning and validity
how are Skinner's views related to Bacon's?
- Followed his inductive strategy - He also wanted to control and predict behavior just like Bacon
How does your textbook evaluate Freud's contributions
- Freud's writings were publicly burned, along with other books by Jews due to the Holocaust - Debatable contributions to psychology - Evidence that he bent the facts of his case histories to suit theories he had already decided on - Missed the opportunity to expose widespread childhood sexual abuse when he abandoned his original seduction theory - Freud is responsible for some of the most important ideas of the 20th century and that his influence spreads beyond psychology and deeply into Western culture
How did Freud come to live in Britain?
- He fled Vienna because of WWII with his family and resettled in London, where his cancer finally claimed him a year later.
how did Skinner's philosophy of science differ from Tolman's?
- He focused on inductive strategy with his four schedules of reinforcement - He also avoided intervening variables because it would open the door to explanatory fictions
describe Skinner's work on Project Pigeon
- His first attempt at developing a behavioral technology - WWII guided missile system using pigeons - he was able to train pigeons to key peck at a target screen. As they pecked at the target, the missile would change direction until the target remained in the crosshairs of the screen.
how are G Stanley Hall and Freud connected?
- In 1909, to celebrate the 20th anniversary of Clark University's founding, Hall invited Freud to Worcester to receive an honorary degree and to lecture on psychoanalysis.
why was a visit to the US to present his ideas so important to Freud? who came with him?
- It enhanced the international reputation os psychoanalysis and provided "the first official recognition of his endeavors" - Titchener and carl Jung
were Freud's ideas about sex unique in his time?
- Several other noted "sexologists" (e.g., Havelock Ellis) were also proposing that sexual strivings extended into infancy and that repressed sexuality was connected with later psychopathology.
Anna Freud was Sigmund Freud's daughter. How did she approach psychoanalysis? What population did she work with?
- She was a pioneer in extending [psychoanalytic practice to children through the use of play therapy - Helped her father develop his own theory, especially the relationship between anxiety and defense
explain the "place learning" versus "response learning" experiment
- Some rats, the "response learning" group, always found food by turning right. Others, the "place learning" group, always found food in the same location, - Rats in the place learning group learned faster, a result supporting Tolman's theory that the rats learn a map rather than a series of responses to specific stimuli
explain the study that used the simple maze and then switched the rats to the sunburst maze
- The rats were able to complete the simple maze with no mistakes and the rats quickly learned how to get to the goal box. - When given the starburst maze, the rats knew the general direction of where the goal box was. - This showed that the rats were learning the overall configuration of a maze, not a series of turns.
Freud's tripartite struct of personality (explain each part)
1. ID: personality component made up of unconscious psychic energy that works to satisfy basic urges, needs, and desires; operates based on the pleasure principle, which demands immediate gratification of needs 2. EGO: the part of the mind that mediates between the conscious and the unconscious and is responsible for reality testing and a sense of personal identity 3. SUPEREGO: the part of a person's mind that acts as a self-critical conscience, reflecting social standards learned from parents and teachers
explain the basic conditioning principles of Pavlov
1. before conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus produces and unconditioned response, and a neutral stimulus does not have an effect 2. during conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly just after the presentation of the neutral stimulus 3. after conditioning, the neutral stimulus alone produces a conditioned response, thus becoming a conditioned stimulus
what could be done to get the infant to show each emotion in Watson's study?
1. fear: being dropped or loud sound 2. rage: being too tightly wrapped 3. love: stroking or tickling
what are four schedules of reinforcement?
1. fixed-ratio (FR) 2. fixed interval (FI) 3. variable-ratio (VR) 4. variable-interval (VI)
what was the atmosphere of client-centered therapy supposed to be?
A safe place where the client can discover the answers and solutions that he/she has been looking for; a place in which clients can communicate their feelings with certainty that they are being understood rather than judged
who was Anna O?
Anna O. was the pseudonym that Breuer created for Bertha Pappenheim, an intelligent woman in her early twenties with a bewildering array of hysteric symptoms.6 At various times her right (then her left) side appeared to be paralyzed and anesthetic, she had a persistent nervous cough, experienced both visual and auditory deficits, developed bizarre eating habits (e.g., living solely on oranges for a period of several weeks), lost the ability to speak German for a time (while retaining the ability to speak English), and experienced dissociative states that she called "absences"
describe the rise of behaviorism between 1913 and the 1930s.
Behaviorism did begin to take hold in the 1930s, however, partly because of Watson's continued propagandizing but also because full translations of Pavlov's research became available for the first time
why did Breuer and Freud split as friends?
Breuer, while recognizing that sexuality was involved in the case, rejected Freud's argument that hysteria had sexual origins and split with Freud over the issue, thus ending a long friendship.
when did the title of "shell shock" appear? what did they think caused it?
British psychologist C. S. Myers gave the first thorough description of it - "shock" of falling artillery shells
who were the leaders of humanistic psychology?
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow
which aspects of Freud's early life seemed to have a large effect on him?
Freud developed a strong emotional attachment to his young mother, while his father was more distant and appeared more grandfatherly than fatherly-the family dynamics almost certainly played a role in Freud's later thinking about parent-child relation- ships, especially his advocacy of the Oedipal complex
what was Freud's seduction hypothesis? how did this change in later years?
Freud's original belief that hysteria originated from actual childhood sexual abuse - He became bothered by the idea that it was only sexual traumas in childhood that led to later problems- what about all the other, nonsexual traumas? - Freud's great intellectual breakthrough was to abandon his seduction theory and replace it with the idea that sexual events in childhood were not real but imagined and that sexuality did not begin in adolescence but existed in some form from infancy
what were humanistic psych's philosophical ideas?
Growth, development, and individuation; emphasizes the common characteristics of our existence such as love, grief, anxiety, caring, self-worth, and motivation - blends with existentialism and positive psychology
summarize the importance of sex in Freud's theories
He became convinced that unresolved sexual problems were at the heart of the matter for his troubled patients. Patients exploring their past by way of free associations and dream reports often seemed to have experienced some type of sexual trauma at a young age.
how did Rogers use reflection as a technique with clients?
He believed that by listening intently to the client, a therapist could determine best what the client needed; the therapist listens to what the client says and reflects back what they hear to confirm what the client is feeling
describe an operant chamber and how Skinner used this in his research.
He controlled an environment for a rat in the study (an operant chamber) and studied experimental analysis of behavior - effects of positive or negative consequences - stimulus control - schedules of reinforcement
explain Roger's idea of genuineness with a client
He felt as though this was the most important aspect of counseling; the counselor needs to allow the client to experience them as they really are without having a façade (be authentic)
describe Freud's academic background and early professional work
He took classes with Brentano and got his M.D. in Vienna (1883) - Desired a career in research - Influenced by materialistic zeitgeist - Mentor: Ernst Brucke (colleague of Helmholtz) - Six months with Charcot
how did Roger's feel about going into a person's past when in therapy?
He wanted to look towards the future as opposed to the past like Freud
why do historians think Freud tried to create myths about himself and his work?
He was found to be completely at odds with everyone else and has absolute originality - He maintained this by destroying papers twice (possibly because he had things about himself that he didn't want the public to know) - He also picked a loyal follower as a biographer (Jones) probably because he knew his follower would be faithful in only portraying the best about him
what was the goal of humanistic psychology?
Help the client develop a stronger, healthier sense of self, as well as access and understanding of their feelings to help gain a sense of meaning in life
What were the hypnoses controversies?
In France in the mid-19th century, two schools of thought developed about the nature of hypnotism. According to Liebeault and Bernheim of the "Nancy" school, hypnotism was a normal phenomenon that had its effects through the power of suggestion; people differed in their levels of sug- gestibility. According to Charcot in Paris, however, hypnotic effects mirrored the symptoms of hypnosis, and suggestibility was a sign of hysterical neurosis.
what was Breuer's catharsis method? how was this method developed?
In Freudian psychoanalysis, an emotional release that occurs when one gains insight into the unconscious origins of some problem; key part of the Anna O. case. - Through tracing an issue back to the root of the problem through talking
Freud thought there was transference in the Anna O case/ what does this mean?
In Freudian psychoanalysis, occurs when the patient develops a strong emotional attachment to the therapist.
How did Tolman defend academic freedom in California?
In california during the communist scare, professors were told to sign an oath of loyalty or resign. Tolman did neither since it violated our 1st amendment right and stayed at Berkeley. He led a fight that successfully repealed the oath in California and preserved the concept of academic freedom.
how did Tolman tie his intervening variables to operationally defined stimuli and responses?
Intervening variables are hypothetical factors that are not seen directly but are inferred from the manner in which independent and dependent variables are operationally defined. They are assumed to "intervene" between stimulus and behavior in such a way as to influence learning.
how did Anna O's case come to be popularized?
It eventually became featured as the first of several cases described in their coauthored Studies on Hysteria
How was psychoanalysis received in America?
It wasn't received very well in academic circles but was popular in the public and psychiatric community - Psychoanalysts argued that the critics were being critical because of unresolved unconscious issues and that they needed to be analyzed before they could criticize - Academic psychology tried to examine Freudian concepts empirically or to translate them into other terms (behavioral, perceptual defense research)
who influenced Tolman into Gestalt psychology?
Koffka
was Tolman's research able to be used in practical, everyday settings?
No- the example seemed more like a good illustration of the dangers inherent in extrapolating far beyond one's data.
how has Skinner been evaluated as contributor to psychology?
Skinner called for a technology of behavior to improve child rearing, education, and society as a whole through the use of behavioral techniques. Two of his students, Keller and Marian Breland, became famous as animal trainers, using operant techniques. They also discovered that not all behaviors were equally conditionable—an animal's instinc- tive behaviors could limit the power of conditioning
Freud came to believe that destructive behavior was as important as sexual issues in motivating behavior. What was this destructive instinct known as. Discuss the major parts of this idea:
Thanatos: In Freudian theory, the name given to the death instinct and manifested in aggression
what was the component of empathy in therapy and why was it important?
The ability to understand what the client is feeling; the therapist's ability to understand sensitively and accurately the client's experience and feelings in the here-and-now - it is SO important that the counselor follows precisely what the client is feelings and communicates to them that they understand what the client is feeling
why did client centered therapy become popular?
The focus is on the individual and the therapist is solely a sounding board; this was incredibly popular for lots of clients í people love making things all about themselves
what was Roger's idea of unconditional positive regard (unconditional worth)?
The therapist has a deep and genuine care for the client; even when the therapist does not approve of the client's actions, the therapist does approve of the client ("I'll accept you as you are")
What happened between Jung and Freud? Explain Jung's ideas of analytical psychology and the part about collective unconscious.
The two had an extremely large disagreement about the nature of libido; Freud said sexual energy was the main driving force of personality, but Jung said the libidinal energy as a creative life force that could be applied to the individual's continuous psychology growth - Libidinal energy is used for a wide range of human activities
what treatment did some doctors use who thought soldiers were faking?
The types of treatment were many and varied, but the most common include electric shock therapy, disciplinary treatment (shaming, physical re-education and the infliction of pain), and finding out what the patients liked and disliked and then ordering them to apply themselves diligently to whatever they don't like
how did clinical psychologists finally become accepted as professionals in the mental health field between the world wars?
There was an overwhelming number of psychiatric casualties in WWII which produced increased need for psychological services - Training programs developed as the need for standardized training was recognized
Describe Tolman and Elliott's research on expectancy in rats. what were the results?
Tolman believed that one result of maze learning was that the rat developed certain expectations. Rats finding food at the end of a maze expect to find food there in the future. Furthermore, it could be that they come to expect a particular type of food, a prediction tested in a clever study by Tolman's student M. H. Elliott (1928) - Tolman believed that food discovered by the rat at the end of the maze did not affect learning at all; it merely influenced the animal's motivation to complete the maze quickly and accurately. That is, learning needed to be distinguished from performance, and reinforcement affected performance but not learning. Some degree of learning the overall layout of the maze occurred whenever the animal was running through the maze, even if no food was in the goal box. - Latent learning: learning that occurred but was not reflected in an animal's performance.
what criticisms did other neobehaviorists have of Tolman's theory?
Tolman's theory proposed so many intervening cognitive factors that a rat faced with a choice in a maze would be overwhelmed
how did behaviorism finally end up represented in a NASA mission?
WWII guided missile system using pigeons - On at least two of early flights during the NASA space program that began in the 1960s, chimpanzees spent their time in space learning various operant tasks. - "[e]very technique, schedule, and programming and recording device we used then and subsequently can be traced to [Skinner] or his students"
what was done to condition little Albert's fears?
Watson conditioned little Albert to become afraid of rats by striking a metal bar with a hammer
what is shell shock? how is it like PTSD?
a defensive psychological reaction to extreme war trauma - both may result in similar symptoms such as involuntarily shivering, crying, fear, and constant intrusions of memory
logical positivism
a form of positivism, developed by members of the Vienna Circle, which considers that the only meaningful philosophical problems are those which can be solved by logical analysis
what is a cognitive map?
a hypothetical spatial memory of a maze, acquired simply as a result of experiencing the maze (i.e., reinforcement not needed).
positivism
a philosophical theory stating that certain (positive) knowledge is based on natural phenomena and their properties and relations; info derived from sensory experience, interpreted through reason and logic, forms the exclusive source of all certain knowledge - Charles W. Tolman
what, according to Watson, was the definition of psychology and what was the goal of psychology?
a purely objective experimental branch of natural science, with the goal of the prediction and control of behavior
neobehaviorism
a school of psychology based on the general principles of behaviorism butbroader and more flexible in concept. It stresses experimental research andlaboratory analyses in the study of overt behavior and in various subjectivephenomena that cannot be directly observed and measured, such asfantasies, love, stress, empathy, trust, and personality
operationalism
a view that the concepts or terms used in non analytic scientific statements must be definable in terms of identifiable or repeatable operations
what were the parts of the Behaviorist manifesto?
a. assigned psychology to the natural sciences b. articulated a set of goals for a scientific psychology c. rejected the introspection-based research of most of his peers
how did Watson determine that little Albert's fear generalized?
a. if the response would transfer to other stimuli b. he showed some fear with a rabbit, dog, and a fur coat c. suggests that his primary fear might have been of the experimenter
what are some ethical issues about the little Albert study?
a. water tortured Little Albert constantly making him fearful b. he was never reconditioned of the fears c. he became afraid of Watson instead d. they never got rid of the fears conditioned in little Albert
self-actualization
according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential
manifest dream content
actual literal content and storyline of the dream
neurotic anxiety
anxiety which arises from an unconscious fear that liberal impulses of the ID will take control at an inopportune time; driven by a fear of punishment that will results from expressing the ID's desires without proper sublimation
why did Tolman call his psychology purposive psychology? what did he mean by this?
argued that goal-directedness or purposiveness was a universal feature of the behavior we learn. - this referred to goal-directedness and was believed by him to be a universal feature of learned behavior - behavior "always seems to have the character of getting-to or getting-from a specific goal-object . . . . Thus, for example, the rat's behavior of 'running the maze' has as its first and perhaps most important identifying feature the fact that it is getting to food"
operational definition
articulation of operationalization used in defining the terms of a process needed to determine the nature of an item or phenomenon and its properties such as duration, quantity, extension in space, chemical composition, etc.
molecular behavior
behavior described in small response units rather than large ones; a specific response
what does your book conclude in its evaluation of Watson's work?
behaviorism strongly influenced methods in applied psychology; the success of behavior therapy and behavioral approaches to advertising owe part of their history to early behaviorism
denial
blocking external events from awareness; if some situation is just too much to handle, the person just refuses to experience it
what were the results of Watson's dissertation research?
correlated brain development and improved learning ability in rats
what is an extinction curve?
disappearance of a previously learned behavior when the behavior is not reinforced
according to Watson, what were the emotions infants are capable of?
fear, rage, love (unlearned emotional reactions)
how did Watson continue to "champion" behaviorism, even after he left academics?
he applied his science to a new life in advertising with marketing research and advertising campaigns based on emotions - he wrote "behaviorism" about the important of the environment and "psychological care of infant and child" emphasizing a rational rather than emotional parenting strategy
what were Roger's feelings for psychoanalysis?
he believed transference is just dealing with feelings that have been repressed for a long time; he rejected it and said that no one else can now how we perceive, we are the best experts on ourselves
how did he apply behaviorism to advertising? give examples.
he developed a number of advertising campaigns around themes derived from his research on the three basic emotions of fear, rage, and love - to sell a product, one must tell him something that will tie him up with fear, something that will stir up a mild rage, that will come out of an affectionate or love response or strike at a deep psychological or habitual need - he never abandoned his work in psych
how did Watson begin a career in advertising?
he did advertising campaigns based on emotions and did marketing research; he applied science to a new life in advertising
Discuss Alfred Adler and his inferiority complex theory. Why did he break with Freud? What did Adler call his psychology?
he emphasized social factors over biological (sex) - Organ inferiority and compensation: he believed that physical and mental illness have a physiological origin - People are sensitive to disease in organs that are "inferior" to other organs - One way to adjust to a weakness is through compensation (adaptation) - Another way is overcompensation, which is the conversation of a weakness to a strength - They broke with Freud over the issue of the universality of sexual motivation (loyalty then dissent)
what was Edward Tolman's academic background?
he got his Ph.D. from Harvard (Yerkes) in 1915
why was Watson fired from Johns Hopkins?
he had an affair with Rosalie Raynor, his graduate student
who did Freud train under in hypnosis? what was that doctors belief about hypnosis?
he studied in Paris under the neurologist Jean Charcot - believed that hypnosis could diagnose hysteria but was dangerous on non-hysteric clients (same underlying pathology)
what did BF Skinner think of cognitive psychology?
he was a physical monist; he gave a speech to the APA about how he thinks cognitive psych is a mistake - he is a determinist - he focused on the functional analysis of BEHAVIOR
explain John Watson's relationship to behaviorism
he was a pioneering figure in the development of the school of behaviorism - scientific study of human behavior - wrote an article referred to as the Behaviorist Manifesto
what seemed to shape Watson's ideas about psychology?
he was influenced by Loeb's work on tropisms - simple S-R connections
how did Watson come to get the job at Johns Hopkins? what was his job?
he was known among his professional colleagues as an up-and-coming star in the world - he was feeling unappreciated at Chicago and couldn't pass up the opportunity - he was a full time professor, had control of a lab, and was head of the psych department a year later
what system of psychology influences Maslow before he helped develop humanistic psychology?
he was originally interested in philosophy and then entered the psych world through behaviorism; he then developed humanistic psych and his hierarchy of needs
why did Watson go to the University of Chicago?
he was trained as a functionalist and later did the maze studies with Carr as a part of the Chicago faculty
latent dream content
hidden psychological meaning of the dream
who psychoanalyzed Freud? what method was used?
himself; Dream analysis: A cornerstone of Freudian psychoanalysis; for Freud, dreams were the "royal road" to the unconscious; surface or manifest content of dreams needed to be analyzed for their deeper, or latent, content.
humanistic psychology
historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual's potential for personal growth
what did Skinner mean by explanatory fictions?
hypothetical constructs proposed as mediators between stimuli and responses that erroneously become used as explanations for behavioral phenomena (e.g., recalling only a few words because of limited short-term memory)
projection
individuals attribute their own unacceptable thoughts, feelings, and motives to another person
discuss electroshock therapy and how it works
it introduces a brief seizure and temporary relief from severe mental illness (severe depression)
regression
movement back in psychological time when one is faced with stress (ex: throwing a tantrum like a toddler when you are 20 years old)
what did Skinner see as the goal of psychology? how would this goal be accomplished?
not just to predict and understand behavior, but also to control it - The "technological ideal": he featured the applicability of conditioning (based on results from various studies) to improve everyday life
schedule of reinforcement
occurs when reinforcement is delivered after every single target behavior whereas an intermittent schedule of reinforcement (INT) means reinforcement is delivered after some behaviors or responses but never after each one
resistance
phenomenon often encountered in clinical practice in which patients either directly or indirectly exhibit paradoxical opposing behaviors in presumably a clinically initiated push and pull of a change process
what would a cumulative recorder show?
rate of response as prime dependent variable
what are intervening variables?
referred to hypothetical internal factors (e.g., cognitive map for Tolman; habit strength for Hull) that intervened between stimulus and response.
object anxiety
results from a real threat in the physical world to one's well-being
displacement
satisfying an impulse (ex: aggression) with a substitute object
sublimation
satisfying an impulse (ex: aggression) with a substitute object in a socially acceptable way
describe what Mary cover Jone's work with Peter, who was afraid of rabbits. what was her process? was it successful?
systematic desensitization: exposure of the rabbit slowly until he was able to pet it - yes; she successfully eliminated the learned fear of the rabbit
discrimination
the ability to perceive and respond to differences among stimuli
what happens in Type R if the consequences of a behavior are positive?
the behavior will be continued and reproduced
what happens in Type R if the consequences of a behavior are negative?
the behavior will cease to repeat
free association
the expression of the content of consciousness without censorship as an aid in gaining access to unconscious processes
why was Carl Roger's therapy called client-centered therapy?
the focus was on the individual and it was most effective for individuals experiencing situational stressors, depression, anxiety, and other personality disorders
when was ECT most popular? is it still used?
the late 1930's; it was a newer method replacing the use of Metrazol - yes
dream analysis
therapeutic technique best known for its use in psychoanalysis; a way of tapping into one's unconscious material
describe the Watson-Carr maze studies. what was the outcome?
they eliminated senses one at a time to determine which were necessary for learning (ex: vision, smell, not needed) - determined that the key sense is kinesthetic
in his book "The Behavior of Organisms", Skinner described Type S and Type R conditioning. explain each of these. what are alternative names for each?
type S: Pavlovian - two stimuli are paired, producing the same response type R: Operant - behavior produced predictable consequences
repression
unconscious mechanism employed by the ego to keep disturbing or threatening thoughts from becoming conscious
molar behavior
views behavior as inherently extended in time and composed of activities that have integrated parts - view stems from a conviction that behavior is continuous
why did Watson & Carr believe the animals in their study learned the maze through kinesiology?
when they shortened a maze alley, rats hit the wall and when they lengthened an alley, rats tried to turn too soon
