Psych module 13

completion rate stats

In 2011, the completion rate for 4-year institutions was 59% (NCES, 2013a). There was variability among different types of institutions: private nonprofit institutions had the highest completions rates (65%), and private for-profit institutions the lowest (42%). Not surprisingly, the most selective institutions had the highest completion rate (88%). The overall rate was higher for females than for males (61% versus 56%). At 2-year institutions the completion rate for an associate's degree within 3 years was 31%.

activity stats

In one national survey, 92.4% of U.S. teens took part in at least one activity, 27.1% in one to three, 31.4% in four to six, and 33.9% in seven or more activities in the previous year

Preconventional moral judgment

Moral judgment that is marked by self-interest and motivation based on rewards and punishments.

Conventional moral judgment

Moral judgment that moves beyond self-interest to take into account the good of those around you.

Postconventional moral judgment

Moral judgment that moves beyond society as a defining factor of what is moral or right and is based on universal principles that apply to all.

In the first substage of conventional moral judgment , a person bases moral decisions on the moral expectations of important people in his life. Here "trust, loyalty, respect, and gratitude" are central values

Mutual interpersonal expectations and conformity

Conventional

Mutual interpersonal expectations and conformity (Act so as to be seen as "good" by those around you, in accordance with their expectations, including caring, loyalty, and gratitude) Social system and conscience (Consider the good of society as a whole, maintaining order for the good of all)

If adolescents are improving their ability to control their thoughts and behaviors to achieve a goal, why is it also true that they have a greater tendency to respond impulsively in many situations?

Once again the answer is linked to brain maturation and increase of dopamine and risk rewards scenarios

A report from the Harvard Graduate School of Education, titled _______________, estimates that nearly half the 14 million jobs that will be created by 2018 will go to people with an associate's degree or occupational certificate

Pathways to Prosperity

It does more than help young people avoid the pitfalls associated with too much unsupervised time ; it strives to identify the people, contexts, circumstances, and activities that help youth develop to their maximum potential.

Positive youth development

A person in this stage believes in the human rights of all people, so his or her moral judgments are based on universal principles that apply to all.

Postconventional moral judgment

ways in which theory of mind becomes more complex is through its interaction with executive function,

Recursive thinking inhibition or stop a behavior

Girls although they do perform slightly more poorly than boys on "high stakes math tests," including the ____________

SAT, the ACT, and advanced placement exams

schools with the ______________ program were compared to a control group of schools without the program. As a result of what they learned in this training program, teachers became more attuned to the different peer groups that existed in their classes and were better able to manage the social dynamics, including bullying, that can interfere with learning. They were better able to use peers to promote positive classroom behavior.

SEALS

Postconventional

Social contract and individual rights (Understand that the rules of society may differ for different groups and that some values, such as life and liberty, are universal) Universal ethical principles (Follow self-chosen principles of equal rights even when they conflict with society's rules)

Individualism, instrumental purpose, and exchange

Stage in Preconventional that says; Be fair; take everyone's self-interest into account

Heteronomous morality

Stage in Preconventional that says; Obey the word of authorities and fear punishment

example of imaginary audience

Teens may refuse to go to school because their hair looks bad, or they may become self-conscious about the way their body looks. In the young teen's mind, everyone at school will also be very aware of such perceived flaws. One teen said "Sometimes when I see a good-looking girl/boy, I think that they are looking at me in a very admiring way" (Alberts et al., 2007, p. 75). Or a teen may be dancing at a party and think everyone is looking at her because of how cool she looks.

Terlecki, Newcombe, and Little (2008) demonstrated that training girls on spatial skills using computer games such as _____________, that are based on shapes, could produce large improvements in their abilities in this area, and Tzuriel and Egozi (2010) found that specific training on spatial skills erased gender differences in mental rotation in first grade

Tetris

Although Gilligan did much of her research using real-life moral dilemmas, she also set up hypothetical dilemmas, such as the following fable she presented to children:

The Porcupine and the Moles

how boys and girls deal with dyslexia

06). Girls were more likely to try to find ways to make themselves feel better about the situation. For instance, they were more likely than boys to try to avoid the tasks at hand or to distract themselves from their problems by socializing with friends rather than studying. In contrast, boys were more likely than girls to attack the situation directly in an attempt to deal with it. They showed persistence and hard work and tried to analyze their past attempts to figure out what went wrong and could be corrected in the future.

Piaget believed that someone with formal operations is able to follow a logical process even if it does not fit reality. For example:

1. Brown cows give chocolate milk. 2. This is a brown cow. 3. Therefore, it gives chocolate milk.

In a longitudinal study of teenagers, Boelema et al. (2013) examined three elements of executive function:

1. Control of attention, including focused attention, sustained attention, and inhibition 2. Information processing, including speed of processing 3. Cognitive flexibility, including the ability to shift attention to complete a task, and working memory

During the 2009-2010 school year, over_______________million high school students took at least one advanced placement course

1.8

Teens report sending a median of 60 texts a day, with older teens between ages 14 and 17 sending __________texts a day, which far outdistances any other form of daily communication they use

100

Women earn 60% of all bachelor's degrees but only __________ of degrees in the STEM fields (St. Rose, 2010), with the smallest numbers (18%) in Engineering and Computer Science (National Science Foundation, 2013)

20%

Teens may not be negatively affected by texting, but their overall level of writing skills remains relatively low. in 2011, only_____________ of students at grades 8 and 12 were able to write at or above the proficient level on the National Assessment of Educational Progress with girls scoring higher than boys and those in suburban areas scoring higher than those in urban and rural areas

27%

Mahoney, Harris, and Eccles (2006) found that only ______________of youth ages 5 to 18 report spending more than 20 hours a week in organized activities. These authors conclude that only 1 in 10 children could be described as overscheduled.

3% to 6%

While higher education is still a pathway to prosperity for many young people, the fact that only ___________in 10 young adults obtain either an associate's degree or a bachelor's degree before they reach their mid-20s means college cannot be the only pathway.

4

The Search Institute in Minneapolis has identified a set of______ developmental assets that serve as these building blocks.

40

____________of young adults report they have texted while driving

49%

There are various ways of measuring college completion, but one of the most common is the___________________. This is the percentage of first-time undergraduate students at 4-year institutions who complete all their requirements for a bachelor's degree within 6 years.

6-year-completion rate

Another bit of good news here is that one study found _________ of students who drop out of high school go on to eventually pass their GED (General Educational Development test) within 8 years of their original anticipated graduation date

63%

In 2012, about_____________ of high school students dropped out of school without receiving a diploma or equivalency certificate. This is a decline from a 17% dropout rate in the 1970s,

7%

School programs can also help. In one high school, Latino males entering ninth grade were paired with seniors who provided support and meaningful connections in the school environment. The graduation rate of this group rose to _____________, while students in a control group had a graduation rate of only 63%

81%

In another study, girls as young as ____ were already showing implicit gender-based stereotypes about math ability. Middle school girls showed stronger implicit association between gender and math ability than boys did and the strength of this association was related to the adolescent's intentions or preference to take math classes and to their actual achievement in math

9

blogging stats

About 28% of teens maintain a personal blog (Rideout et al., 2010), and blogging appears to promote more writing among teens. Of those who have a blog, 47% write outside of school assignments for their own personal reasons, while only 33% of teens without blogs do so. In addition, 65% of blog-gers believe writing is important for their later success, while only 53% of nonbloggers have this belief

In a simulated driving experience, teens and adults had to make decisions about whether to stop at a light as it turned yellow

Adolescents, but not adults, took more risks in their decision making and had more crashes when their peers were observing them. fMRI results indicated a heightened response of the reward system in the brain when teens believed their peers could see what they did. This same result has been found even if the peer is a stranger

Positive youth development

An approach to finding ways to help all young people reach their full potential.

In the study by Good et al. (2008) the effects of manipulating stereotype threat were found only for __________American students, but not for Asian American, Hispanic American, and African American students.

Anglo

lives. In one study in England, 14-year-old students tested on the pendulum task in 1976 were compared with 14-year-olds tested in 2007 (Shayer & Ginsburg, 2009).

At both times, the majority of 14-year-olds did not reach the level of formal operations on this task, but the percentage who did declined over this time period from 23% to 10% for boys and from 25% to 13% for girls. Formal operational thinking continues to develop through adolescence, so it may be that these stu-dents will develop this level of thought later in their development. However, they may not ever develop formal operational thinking.

Developmental assets

Common sense, positive experiences, and qualities that help young people become caring, responsible adults.

In the second sub-stage, a person makes decisions based more on the expectations of society as a whole. Laws are to be followed because society would break down if everyone disobeyed them. In this stage, a person might respond to the Heinz dilemma by saying Heinz should not break in because if everyone did things like this, our society would be chaotic.

Consider the good of society as a whole, maintaining order for the good of all

SAT stats

Fifty-four percent of students who achieved a benchmark level of achievement on the SAT completed college in 4 years, while only 27% of those who didn't meet this level graduated in 4 years.

Convergent thinking

Finding one correct solution for a problem.

example of postformal operations

For example, people who agree with the following statements are indicating that they think at the postformal operational level: ''I see that a given dilemma always has several good solutions," ''There are many 'right' ways to define any life experience; I must make a final decision on how I define the problems of life," and ''I am aware that I can decide which reality to experience at a particular time; but I know that reality is really multi-level and more complicated"

______________l thought also includes the ability to generate many possible solutions to a problem and test them before making a decision in order to discover which one is correct.

Formal operationa

continuing education stats

From the high school graduating class of 2013, 68.4% of women and 63.5% of men were attending college in the fall. The enrollment rate by race/ethnicity was: Asian: 79.1%, White: 67.1%, Black: 59.3%, Latino: 59.9%

A survey conducted in 2004 by the National Commission on Writing gathered information from the human resource directors of 120 major U.S. companies. ____________ the respondents said they take writing into consideration when hiring an employee (especially salaried employees) and that an applicant who submits a poorly written application might not be considered for any position.

Half

Kohlberg developed a series of moral dilemmas to assess moral judgment in children of different ages. Based on their responses, Kohlberg named and described stages of moral development. His most famous dilemma is a brief story titled "_______________":

Heinz and the Drug

Preconventional1.

Heteronomous morality (Obey the word of authorities and fear punishment) 2. Individualism, instrumental purpose, and exchange (Be fair; take everyone's self-interest into account)

Forgotten half

High school students who graduate from high school but do not continue their education by going to college and are not well prepared for the transition to work.

Being able to think abstractly means teenagers no longer take literally a statement such as

"Don't count your chickens before they hatch."

example of A personal fable

"My mother could never understand what I am going through. She could never have felt a love like I felt." Unfortunately, the personal fable can also be the basis of risky behaviors . For instance, a teen may understand the effect of alcohol on reaction time but still believe he is such a good driver that "I can drive drunk and nothing will happen to me." Or a teen might understand the risks of unprotected sex but still feel that "I won't get pregnant—that only happens to other people."

Chung is a central value in Korean society that translates as an emotional bond between people in which

"the boundary between individuals was dimmed and a sense of oneness, sameness, affection, comfort, acceptance and so forth emerged"

The National Commission on Writing concluded that employees' writing deficiencies cost U.S. businesses as much as ___________ billion a year.

$3.3

Students who receive a score on an advanced placement exam that exceeds a required minimum can use the course to fulfill a degree requirement in their college coursework. Slightly more females _____________than males take advanced placement tests, although more males than females (61% versus 54%) receive a score above the required minimum.

(56%)

This approach allowed students, regardless of their eventual level of education, to make better informed decisions as they move through the educational system.

The School-to-Work Opportunities Act of 1994

It defines a developmental asset as "common sense, positive experiences, and qualities that help influence choices young people make and help them become caring, responsible adults"

The Search Institute in Minneapolis

Hypothetico-deductive reasoning

The ability to form hypotheses about how the world works and to reason logically about these hypotheses.

Metacognition

The ability to think about and monitor one's own thoughts and cognitive activities.

Recursive thinking

The ability to think about other people thinking about your thinking.

Stereotype threat

The anxiety that results when individuals feel they are behaving in ways that confirm negative stereotyped expectations of a group with which they identify.

Postformal operations

The cognitive ability to consider multiple perspectives and bring together seemingly contradictory information.

In one set of studies, children and adolescents between 8 and 17 were given a scenario in which the protagonist had been working to save up the money she needed for something she really wanted to do with her friends but was still $10 short. While she is riding on an empty bus, another passenger gets on and drops a $10 bill when getting out the change for the fare. The participant is asked whether the protagonist should tell the other passenger she has dropped the money or stay silent and pick it up and keep it. In a second scenario, participants were asked to decide whether it is acceptable to hit a child who is hitting or hurting another child as a way of stopping the incident.

The responses of the 8-year-old participants looked very similar to those of the 17 - year-old participants, but the responses of the 14-year-olds looked very different. Relatively few 8- and 17-year-olds said the protagonist had the right to keep the money dropped on the bus, compared to the number of 14-year-olds who said this. Likewise, more 8- and 17-year olds than 14-year-olds said people had an obligation to intervene if someone else was being hurt.

Metamemory

The understanding of memory, how it works, and how to use it effectively.

In a longitudinal study of teenagers, Boelema et al.

They examined Dutch adolescents by testing them at age 11 and then again at age 19 to determine the normative pattern of achievement of these aspects of executive function. They found that each aspect had its own timetable, but all improved over the teen years. Cognitive flexibility showed the most growth during this time, followed by speed of processing, and the smallest change was found in attention variables including inhibition. With the exception of cognitive flexibility, girls generally started at a higher level than boys, but boys went a long way toward catching up as they reached the end of their teen years. For most areas, teens from low-income families started at a lower level than their peers from higher-income families, but they seemed to catch up in the area of sustained attention. For inhibition, which is the ability to control our own behavior, there was even a larger difference between the high- and low-income groups by the end of adolescence.

Participation in service-oriented activities in the community also can directly contribute to academic success such as

This type of activity has an impact on a wide variety of academic outcomes, including "subject matter learning, standardized test performance, school attendance, earned grades, motivation for learning, and engagement in school"

Although there are some cultural similarities, cross-cultural differences at the higher levels of moral thought may be the reflection of a ___________ in the way we assess moral reasoning rather than by any true differences in the level of moral reasoning in different cultures.

Western bias

In middle childhood, children were able to think logically about concrete events but were not yet able to think about _______________concepts.

abstract or hypothetical

Robert Sternberg believes there are three types of intelligence—______________

analytical, practical, and creative.

The cognitive processes we have examined as they develop earlier in life, including _______________, all continue to develop from early to late adolescence.

attention, memory, metacognition, executive function, and social cognition

Adolescents raised by _______________, who not only are loving but also give structure and set limits, have higher achievement orientation than children raised with other parenting styles; that is, they are more motivated to learn and do well in school and less likely to drop out during high school

authoritative parents

When Kohlberg did his original research, he studied only _____________'When he did include girls, they tended to perform at a lower level of moral reasoning than the boys.

boys

The first level, preconventional moral judgment , is most characteristic of young ______________. It is marked by self-interest and motivation based on rewards and punishments.

children

example, in one study that compared Korean and British children, the researchers found that a concept Koreans refer to as __________ could not be scored according to Kohlberg's method.

chung

Each decision you make when directing your own learning is an indication of your level of understanding of how ______________

cognition and memory work

Piaget believed that not everyone reaches the stage of formal operations and that many people remain ____________thinkers all their lives.

concrete

Many people (including most adolescents) reason at the _________________,

conventional level

Research conducted in Australia has shown that_____________ can help adolescents with specific learning disorder develop a stronger sense of control over their situation and increase their use of coping strategies such as working hard and engaging in active problem solving

coping interventions

The School-to-Work Opportunities Act of 1994

created school programs that supported non-college bound students in the United States in their transition from school into productive careers (Hamilton & Hamilton, 1999) by providing information about careers and a range of work-related experiences.

To test their hypotheses, they must use _______________, a form of logic in which a general principle leads to a logical conclusion.

deductive reasoning

This finding has been confirmed in neurological research. It appears that when we try to do two things at once, we do not use the part of the brain designed for __________ of information. Instead we use a different part designed for more superficial, rapid processing

deep processing

Young teens with lower working-memory ability are also more likely to act without thinking and lack the ability to ___________

delay gratification.

The influence of peers can be

direct or indirect

Teachers can support creativity in the classroom by requiring both ____________________

divergent and convergent thinking

J. P. Guilford proposed that creativity is based on an ability to see multiple solutions to a problem—that is, the ability to use _____________

divergent thinking.

it appears that adolescence is a peak period for ___________ availability and effective functioning . This peak occurs around the same time that teens are most likely to seek immediate rewards, perhaps through risky behaviors

dopamine's

In a study of 34 countries, implicit associations between science and gender predicted sex differences in science and math achievement in_____________

eighth-grade students

It is well known that teenagers are prone to engage in risky behavior, and the immaturity of ____________ may be one reason.

executive function

This has often been assessed with the use of the game The Tower of Hanoi, shown in Figure 15.1, in which the goal is to move all the disks to the right-hand rod by moving one disk at a time and never putting a larger disk on top of a smaller disk.

executive functioning planning

Adolescents are able to study while listening to a favorite TV show because by this age their attentional processes are so well developed that they can split their attention between multiple activities.

f

Good writing skills are not as important in today's tech-savvy business world.

f

Many teens these days are overscheduled, spending most of their time after school in multiple organized activities like sports and music lessons.

f

The smarter you are, the more likely it is that you will also be creative.

f

Throughout the elementary school years and into high school, girls do more poorly in math than boys.

f

When teens are given statistical evidence to support an argument and personal opinions to support the same argument, they think logically and are more likely to base their own opinion on the statistical evidence

f

Your moral values and beliefs are the best predictor of what you will actually do when faced with a moral dilemma.

f

Piaget's studies led him to the conclusion that the stage of formal operations was the ________________and, as we have already noted, not every-one reaches it.

final, highest stage of mental development

According to Guilford (1950), being able to think divergently requires ____________, which is the ability to find multiple solutions relatively quickly; flexibility, which is the ability to consider multiple alternatives or shift your mind-set; and originality, which is the ability to come up with solutions that are unique.

fluency

Because slightly more than two thirds of high school students go to college today, this group may now have become the "______________," but it still represents a substantial portion of high school students

forgotten third

in the _____________, teens can think about broad abstract concepts such as democracy rather than just concrete concepts, such as counting votes in an election. A younger child can think about doctors and nurses , but someone in formal operations can think about the field of medicine

formal operational stage

Piaget believed _____________allow adolescents to step back from the concrete reality to reason in this more abstract, purely logical way.

formal operations

Piaget's stage of _____________ is marked by the development of abstract thinking. Being able to think abstractly means teenagers no longer take literally a statement such as "Don't count your chickens before they hatch."

formal operations

Bowman, Levine, Waite, and Gendron (2010)

found that students who were interrupted with instant messages while reading a textbook online took much longer to do the same amount of reading than students who were not interrupted.

Roeser and Peck (2003)

found that vulnerable youth who were highly active in both school and community sports activities were twice as likely to graduate from high school and go on to college as students who did not have this level of engagement.

In one study, second-grade girls thought they were better at math than boys, but by_____________ they believed boys were better at it

fourth-grade

In this study, being dyslexic had a greater effect on the academic and general self-esteem of __________ than it had on the self-esteem of boys, and girls reported higher levels of depression.

girls

Goldstein and Winner (2012) attempted to promote theory of mind in teens through a 10-month intensive acting program while students in a control group took part in a fine arts program. Acting, of course, requires that the individual step into the shoes of another person to portray that person's thoughts and feelings. The students who were trained in acting had a _____________ gain in theory of mind over this period of time than the control group did.

greater

The skills and attitudes required to be successful in college are "_____________" that include "critical thinking, an inquisitive nature, a willingness to accept critical feedback, an openness to possible failure, and the ability to cope with frustrating and ambiguous learning tasks"

habits of the mind

Robert Sternberg (2003a)

has defined creative thinking as "thinking that is novel and that produces ideas that are of value" (pp. 325-326), and in this sense, we need both divergent thinking to produce new ideas and convergent thinking to narrow the alternative ideas down to the one that is most practical or likely to succeed.

Although a certain amount of intelligence is necessary to be creative, ___________ intelligence is not sufficient by itself.

high

Although these tests are good predictors of academic performance in college,_______________have been found to be even better, especially for minority and first-generation students (Hiss & Franks, 2014) so many colleges are dropping the SAT and ACT as major admissions requirements.

high school grades

Piaget (1999) said that by the age of about 12 children begin to reason logically about hypothetical possibilities rather than only about the concrete world. He called this new ability

hypothetico-deductive reasoning

In the stage of formal operations, adolescents develop the ability to think about abstract concepts and use _____________

hypothetico-deductive reasoning.

One consequence of this ability to think hypothetically is that teens may become ____________ because they now can imagine what could be rather than simply what is

idealistic

example of Preconventional moral judgment

if you are driving faster than the speed limit and you hit the brakes when you see a police car, you are not thinking about the underlying reasons for the speed limit (such as safety or conserving gasoline). You are trying to get somewhere as fast as you can without get-ting caught breaking the law, and you hit your brakes because you don't want to get an expensive speeding ticket.

The______________ gives them the chance to imagine what might happen and anticipate some ways to handle it.

imaginary audience

When Elkind refers to an _____________ , he means that young teens believe they are the center of other people's attention in the same way they are the center of their own.

imaginary audience

We can also see them as adaptations that help the adolescent deal with some of the important developmental tasks of this stage of life.

imaginary audience and per-sonal fable

According to Elkind, adolescent egocentrism is expressed through what he has called the _________________

imaginary audience and the personal fable

a type of egocentric thinking reappears in the form of the _________________

imaginary audience and the personal fable

Unconscious stereotypes have been assessed by_____________ which measure the strength of the automatic associations you make between concepts.

implicit association tests

A personal fable

is a belief held by teenagers that their experiences are unique and different from those of all other people.

Creativity

is central to the ability to move beyond what we know to the realm of possibility.

example of Postconventional moral judgment

members of the organization Greenpeace broke the law in May 2014, when they tried to block a Russian oil tanker from offloading its cargo of oil from the Arctic. All were arrested but they felt that their moral principles were more important than the rules of their society. One protestor said, "This tanker is the first sign of a reckless new push to exploit the Arctic, a place of incredible beauty which is melting before our eyes"

An evaluation of the effectiveness of various types of school-to-work transition pro-grams found that cooperative education programs that combine classroom education and work experience, school enterprise programs that provide goods or services within the school environment, and internship/apprenticeship programs were positively related to employment for _____________.

men

As children move toward adolescence, they become increasingly able to think about and regulate their own thoughts and cognitive activities. This process is called _____________

metacognition

As adolescents develop the cognitive ability to think logically and hypothetically, they can think about the consequences of different decisions and this, in turn, affects the way they think about ______________. As we learned in Chapter 10, Piaget believed moral judgments were based on a child's level of cognitive development.

moral issues

The major conclusion we can draw at the present time is that there is no clear gender difference in _______________

moral reasoning.

research on study habits has shown that the students who perform worst on exams are those who study with many distractions:

music, television, e-mail, and/or conversations with friends

Across a number of outcomes, including postsecondary school attainment, rates of employment, amount of earned income, and receipt of public assistance, there were ____________significant differences between students with learning disorders and their peers except that the former were more likely to be receiving public aid at age 21

no

college women were shown either neutral commercials or commercials that promoted the stereo-type that women are worse at math and science than men. When they were then asked to choose a career area, women who saw the stereotyped commercials were more likely to choose careers that did ___________ involve math and science than those who saw the neutral commercial

not

our brain can carry out only ___________thinking activity at a time.

one

Survey research conducted by the Search Institute found that ;

only 21% of the youth surveyed said they participated in creative activities at least at the level the Search Institute considers adequate to support youth development, though 57% participated in youth programs, 58% participated in a religious community, and 51% did not spend more than 2 days a week outside their home just hanging out with friends.

Piaget tested children of various ages on what he called the "_______________." He provided each child with a pendulum, consisting of an object hanging from a string, and asked the child to figure out what determines how fast the string swings back and forth.

pendulum problem

The belief in the _______________ can be associated with risk-taking during adolescence.

personal fable

The________________, with its focus on the uniqueness of the individual, helps prepare the young person for the individuation (or separation) from family that typically comes as the adolescent moves into young adulthood.

personal fable

Another central aspect of executive function is the ability to _____________. Planning includes thinking through a task ahead of time and then evaluating the outcomes as you proceed through the task, changing what you are doing as necessary.

plan

example of Recursive thinking

poker

In the stage of _____________, the individual comes to understand that knowledge is not absolute; that is, there is not always one and only one right answer. Through this process, an individual can consider multiple perspectives and reconcile seemingly contradictory information

postformal operations

Based on these different types of reasoning, Kohlberg described three levels of moral judgment:

preconventional, conventional, and postconventional.

By age 18, teens use only the _____________, as adults do

prefrontal cortex

when working on a memory task, younger teens are more likely to use both the _________________

prefrontal cortex and the hippocampus.

Piaget described young children in the______________stage as egocentric because they are unable to see things from the perspective of people other than themselves

preoperational

Gilligan argued that women do not have a lower level of morality than men but rather have a different type. Her idea was that women base their moral judgments more on what she called the __________ while men base their judgments on impersonal, ____________, which she believed was the basis for Kohlberg's stages.

principle of care, abstract justice

You will remember from Chapter 14 that _____________ can be an effective strategy when stress is caused by a situation that you can realistically change.

problem-focused coping

The SEALS (Supporting Early Adolescent Learning and Social Success)

professional development program has been designed to help sixth-grade teachers use the transition to middle school as a time to orient students toward positive engagement with academics by supporting "peer cultures of effort and achievement"

On average, girls do well in school, often outperforming their male classmates, but the one area in which they continue to lag regarding interest and involvement is the STEM disciplines—

science, technology, engineering, and math.

hypothetico-deductive reasoning is also called

scientific thinking

Young adolescents from low-income or ethnic minority families, especially boys, are particularly at risk during the transition from elementary to ____________

secondary education

reaction time for people who either talk or text on a cell phone while driving is _____________ than the reaction times of drunk drivers

slower

The one area of ability in which there are small but significant cognitive differences that favor boys is in ____________, and it has been argued that this difference is wired into the brains of boys and girls before birth.

spatial relationships

a substantial amount of research has shown there is only a moderately strong link between moral judgment and moral behavior (Hardy & Carlo, 2011), suggesting that morality is more _____________ than trait-like because any number of situational factors affect how likely it is that we behave in accordance with our moral values or beliefs.

state-like

A major transition in the lives of young adolescents is the move from elementary school to middle school. This typically occurs when the child is 11 or 12 (grades 6-8). It is usually considered the most _____________ school transition students experience

stressful

In the past 40 years we have cut the high school dropout rate by more than half.

t

Nearly half the 14 million jobs that will be created in the United States by 2018 will go to people with an associate's degree or occupational certificate.

t

Students who do a lot of texting do not differ from students who do not in their ability to spell or use Standard English.

t

girls frequently earn better grades in math classes than boys in elementary school and in high school

t

Executive function

the ability to organize and control our thinking and behavior to achieve a goal, continues to develop during adolescence.

Scientific thinking

the type of thinking scientists use when they set out to test a hypothesis.

it has been suggested that an important approach to preventing bullying is training in _____________

theory of mind.

According to the Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics (2013b), in 2009,

three quarters of high school graduates had successfully completed Algebra II, over a third had taken a mathematics course in analysis/precalculus, and over two thirds had taken at least one course each in biology and chemistry.

People often believe their behavior mirrors their values. In other words, they adopt a ____________approach to understanding morality (Doris, 2002). They see themselves as a moral person and believe they act based on that morality.

trait

About ________________of high school graduates enroll in college in the fall immediately following their high school graduation

two thirds

Parenting style also relates to children's achievement in school. In Chapter 10, we learned about four types of parenting style as described by Diana Baumrind (2013)—a_______________________—each of which has a different balance of control and warmth.

uthoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and disengaged

adolescents who had shown less ability to understand others' states of mind during childhood were more likely to become

victims of bullies or to become both victim and bully

Most European countries place a much greater emphasis on _________________ education than the United States does.

vocational

Much evidence suggests that teens who drink heavily develop subtle differences in cognitive abilities, including a lower ability to use ______________ efficiently. However, it also appears that teens who have poorer working memory are more likely to begin drinking heavily

working memory

One reason so many students drop out of school is that they cannot see the connection between what they are studying and opportunities in the_____________

workplace