psychology 001
what is the "scope of an explanation"?
the range of the observations that is being explained - all people - groups of people -individuals within a group (genes, experience, learning) -indivdual actions by individuals
"mechanism explanations"
we want to know what mechanism causes something to happen
When neurotransmitter molecules bind to receptors, this creates a postsynaptic potential . If this is large enough, it will generate an action potential at the axon hillock .
1. a postsynaptic potential 2. an action potential 3. axon hillock
A postsynaptic potential is analogous to squeezing the trigger of a gun because it is continuously variable . An action potential is analogous to a bullet firing from a gun .
1. squeezing the trigger of a gun 2.continuously variable 3. a bullet firing from a gun
The story of Clever Hans is important in psychology because it tells us that _________.
A. Horses, like many other animals, are quite smart B. People are easily fooled into believing ridiculous claims C. The responses of research participants in psychology studies are never trustworthy D. The responses of research participants in psychology studies might be influenced by nonverbal cues from the experimenter The responses of research participants in psychology studies might be influenced by nonverbal cues from the experimenter
In science and other areas of academia, being "critical" usually means Finding fault in the research or theories of other people Being essential Carefully and thoughtfully evaluating something Expressing a negative view
Carefully and thoughtfully evaluating something Expressing a negative view
Brain stimulation studies provide evidence for a causal link between mind and brain because they show that: Changing the pattern of activity in the brain can cause a change in the state of the mind The observed pattern of brain activity changes when the state of the mind is changed Stimulating the brain always damages it Damaging the brain can change mental processes
Changing the pattern of activity in the brain can cause a change in the state of the mind
Mechanistic explanations in psychology __________.
Explain a psychological phenomenon in terms of how the parts of the system work together to produce the observed result
Evidence for materialism includes: [Select all that are correct.] Recordings of brain activity show that the pattern of brain activity changes as the contents of the mind change Brain stimulation studies show that it is possible to change the state of the mind by changing the state of the brain Lesion studies show that mental processes are changed in systematic ways when specific brain areas are damaged
Recordings of brain activity show that the pattern of brain activity changes as the contents of the mind change Brain stimulation studies show that it is possible to change the state of the mind by changing the state of the brain Lesion studies show that mental processes are changed in systematic ways when specific brain areas are damaged
Which of the following would be an explanation at the scope of "groups of people"?
The average 10-year-old has faster reaction times than the average 5-year-old because processing speed depends in part on myelination of neurons, which increases between 5 and 10 years of age
In his experiments with cats in puzzle boxes, Edward Thorndike found that _________.
The cats slowly learned how to escape the puzzle box by being rewarded for engaging in the appropriate behavior
what is dualism?
The idea that the mind and body are independent of each other.
Most scientific journals use peer review. This means that: The research is reviewed by other expert scientists to determine if it is sufficiently sound and novel to warrant publication After a study is published, other scientists publish reviews of the study Before a scientist publishes a study, the scientist reviews related research by other scientists When a scientist want to publish a paper, the scientist must pay people to provide reviews
The research is reviewed by other expert scientists to determine if it is sufficiently sound and novel to warrant publication
In 1966, Charles Whitman killed over a dozen people at the University of Texas. Which of the following is a true statement about Whitman? Whitman had a long history of odd behavior prior to the shooting Whitman had a brain tumor that was probably responsible for the shooting Whitman also exhibited odd sexual behavior Whitman did not seek out any help prior to the shooting
Whitman had a brain tumor that was probably responsible for the shooting
what is a population?
a large group of people we are trying to understand ( all human beins, all college students)
what does psychology aim to do?
describe, explain, predict , and control human mind and behavior
biological level
explaining something a lower level biological level, how neurons work to see something such as two grey regions such as retina
What is "control"
means that psychological research is focused on developing practical applications and new technologies that will help people live a better life
Introspection is not useful as a source of evidence about the mind because _________. [Select all that are correct.]
A. Introspections are easily biased by a person's expectations B. Researchers have a hard time replicating other researchers' introspection results C. The Id, Ego, and Superego are not real D. Freudian slips do not always reflect unconscious desires A,B are correct
Signals from other neurons are typically collected by receptors on the _______. [Select all that are correct] Axon Dendrites Nucleus Cell Body
Dendrites Cell Body
Practical applications are useful in science because ____________. [Select all that are correct.] Governments and philanthropists are willing to invest in scientific research mainly because science has a history of leading to significant practical applications Practical applications give scientists more confidence that their theories are correct (or at least approximately correct) Most scientific research is funded by royalties and licensing fees that are a result of the practical applications of the research Practical applications are the only purpose of scientific research
Governments and philanthropists are willing to invest in scientific research mainly because science has a history of leading to significant practical applications Practical applications give scientists more confidence that their theories are correct (or at least approximately correct)
In an explanation that involves the principle "X causes Y":
In an explanation that involves the principle "X causes Y":
Which of the following are examples of explanations rather than descriptions? [Select all that are correct.] A. People who are politically conservative report being happier, on average, than people who are politically liberal B. People who play certain kinds of video games perform better on a wide range of visual tasks because these games train the ability to spread attention broadly C. Children who spend a lot of time reading have larger vocabularies than children who do not read very much D. Male monkeys who lose a dominance battle exhibit a drop in testosterone after the battle
People who play certain kinds of video games perform better on a wide range of visual tasks because these games train the ability to spread attention broadly
An action potential: Gets smaller as it travels down an axon Gets larger as it travels down an axon Becomes half as large when it splits down two branches of an axon Remains the same size until it reaches the terminals of the axon
Remains the same size until it reaches the terminals of the axon
Vision seems easy because we devote so much brain power to it, but recognizing objects and scenes is actually a very difficult problem. A major reason why vision is so challenging is that _____________________. It is difficult to perceive a source of light that is out of view Surfaces such as shirts, walls, and desks often change their color and lightness Humans actively construct perceptions of the environment rather than passively receiving sensory information We must reconstruct a 3-dimensional world from 2-dimensional images on the eyes that can be very different depending on the lighting conditions and our viewing position
We must reconstruct a 3-dimensional world from 2-dimensional images on the eyes that can be very different depending on the lighting conditions and our viewing position
Why do scientists tend not to use the word "fact"? The word "fact" implies truth, and science does not seek to find truths The word "fact" implies that a theory or finding will never be modified, updated, or reevaluated Facts are already known prior to the development of a theory and therefore cannot be used as predictions The word "fact" is simple and common, and scientists prefer to use longer, more sophisticated words
The word "fact" implies that a theory or finding will never be modified, updated, or reevaluated
Match the psychologist with the corresponding concept:
Wilhelm Wundt - introspection Sigmund Freud - psycho dynamic Edward Thorndike - puzzle Box Saul Sternberg - Memory Scanning
Which of the following is an example of successful perceptual constancy? Two similar-looking species of birds are hard to tell apart if you're not a bird expert You see a blue shirt on a Web site, order it, but then find out that the color isn't really what it looked like on the Web site You see a book from an angle where the top cover is barely visible, and you recognize that it's the same book when you see it from a different angle where you can easily see the top cover You see your nephew for the first time in five years, but you can still recognize him even though his face is much longer and thinner now that he is older
You see a book from an angle where the top cover is barely visible, and you recognize that it's the same book when you see it from a different angle where you can easily see the top cover
What is description?
a careful and objective account for what was observed in a given experiment or natural setting they do not tell us the factors that CAUSE the observed pattern of results
explanations can be valid?
at any level
Cognitive psychologists have shown that people judge a type of event as being more likely to occur if they can more easily retrieve instances of that event from memory. This is called the "availability heuristic." Child abductions are now reported in the media more widely than they were 50 years ago, and parents now have a greater fear of child abduction. A social psychologist might explain this greater fear in terms of the availability heuristic: Because of greater media coverage of abductions, parents can more easily retrieve instances of abductions from memory and therefore overestimate how common they are. This psychologist's explanation is at the level of:
internal mental processes
Cognitive psychologists have shown that people judge a type of event as being more likely to occur if they can more easily retrieve instances of that event from memory. This is called the "availability heuristic." Child abductions are now reported in the media more widely than they were 50 years ago, and parents now have a greater fear of child abduction. A social psychologist might explain this greater fear in terms of the availability heuristic: Because of greater media coverage of abductions, parents can more easily retrieve instances of abductions from memory. This explanation is at the level of: internal mental processes Biology Physical Environment Social/Cultural Environment All people Groups of people Individual people Individual actions
internal mental processes
what is the relationship between poverty and IQ?
it is a statement about averages, not every single person. on AVERAGE poverty causes lower IQ
effects of brain damage
lets us see how a part of the brain is related to perception, thought and behavior
conformation bias
people tend to pay more attention to evidence that confirms their beliefs and ignore dis conforming evidence competition between scientist helps to minimize problems
see patterns in random data
people tend to see patterns when there are none
what is the resource theory?
short term memory that is a limited resource that is divided among the items you are trying to remember
what is slot theory?
states that you can only store a limited amount of items, as if you only have 3 or 4 memory slots
effects of brain activity
stimulation lets us see how changing the neural activity changes mental activity and behavior can be done by injecting small electrical currents or chemical compounds directly into the brain or no inversely
what are descriptive statistics?
tell us about the properties of the observed sample ex- we can ask what the average amount of eye twinkling is in our sample of 10 ppl
What is an explanation?
tells us what caused the observed pattern of data and the underlying mechanisms that were responsible Has to tell us WHY something is happening
when do we use statistical analyses ?
they are used to draw probabilistic conclusions about whether the results from a given sample are likely to be representive of a larger population
correlational studies
using data generated from real world situations to correlate related phenomenon - correlation does not equal causation - directionality problem- third variable problem - ethical problems
what is a random sample?
we obtain a random sample of ppl from that population and try to draw conculsions about entire population
why do we use the confidence interval?
we use it to infer the range of plausible means in the population
internal mental process
we use theories of mental phenomena to explain observations of behavior
Which of the following statements is true about explanations in psychology?
An explanation of a psychological phenomena can be valid if it appeals to a general principle at any level of analysis
what does an explanation need?
An observation, a general principle, antecedent principle
It takes a fair amount of time for an action potential to travel down a long axon, but the speed of transmission can be increased if the axon is coated in myelin . When an action potential reaches an axon terminal, it typically leads to the release of neurotransmitter molecules into the synaptic cleft . In general, information flows from the presynaptic cell to the postsynaptic cell .
1. the axon is coated in myelin 2. leads to the release of neurotransmitter molecules into the synaptic cleft 3. presynaptic cell to the postsynaptic cell
1. Clever Hans was able to answer questions correctly by... 2. One piece of evidence for this is that he was unable to answer questions correctly if...
1. watching his owner's unconscious facial expressions 2. his owner did not know the answer .
Bees are able to learn an association between an odor and the presence of sucrose after a single pairing of these two stimuli. Researcher A explains this in terms of natural selection, saying that this ability must exist because it increases the ability of bees to survive and reproduce. The shortcoming of this explanation is that Not all traits exist because they increase the likelihood of survival and reproduction . However, the validity of the explanation would be increased if Researcher B showed that Eliminating this ability leads to decreased survival and reproduction .
1.Not all traits exist because they increase the likelihood of survival and reproduction 2.Eliminating this ability leads to decreased survival and reproduction
In which one of the following studies would we be concerned that the results might be influenced by experimenter expectation effects? A researcher theorizes that a common factor is responsible for both memory impairments and hearing impairments in people with Alzheimer's disease. The researcher's expectation is confirmed by another researcher who looks at medical records from hospitals around the country and finds that memory impairments and hearing impairments are correlated. A researcher theorizes that a particular gene variant leads to an outgoing personality. The researcher interviews 1000 people and rates how outgoing each person is. The researcher then sends a saliva sample of each person to a laboratory to determine whether each person has the specific gene variant. The results indicate that the researcher's expectation was correct: People with the gene variant had higher ratings of outgoing personality. A researcher theorizes that being the oldest child in a family leads to higher IQ scores compared to being a young child. The researcher conducts a study with 100 people. Each person comes to the lab, is asked by the researcher whether he or she was the oldest child, and then takes a computerized IQ test. The results indicate that the researcher's expectation was correct: People who were the oldest child performed better on the IQ test.
A researcher theorizes that being the oldest child in a family leads to higher IQ scores compared to being a young child. The researcher conducts a study with 100 people. Each person comes to the lab, is asked by the researcher whether he or she was the oldest child, and then takes a computerized IQ test. The results indicate that the researcher's expectation was correct: People who were the oldest child performed better on the IQ test.
Which of the following would NOT be related to the field of neurolaw? A study showing that a specific brain area influences the prison sentences recommended by jurors A study showing that a specific brain area plays a role in whether someone becomes violent A study showing that blocking a specific neurotransmitter receptor can decrease the likelihood that a convicted criminal will return to a life of crime after being release from prison A study showing that harsh prison sentences are more likely to be given to people of a specific ethnic group
A study showing that harsh prison sentences are more likely to be given to people of a specific ethnic group
Which of the following are key aspects of science (as described in the lecture)? Science... [Select all that are correct.] Aims to explain as well as describe the natural and social worlds Focuses on ideas that make testable predictions Relies on methods, observations, and measurements that are objective and replicable Can distinguish between random flukes and consistent patterns Aims to find causes and not just correlations Depends on critical evaluation of evidence rather than deference to authorities Always moves in the direction of truth Requires the use of machines for making objective and replicable measurements Aims to understand the natural world but cannot provide explanations of the social world
Aims to explain as well as describe the natural and social worlds Focuses on ideas that make testable predictions Relies on methods, observations, and measurements that are objective and replicable Can distinguish between random flukes and consistent patterns Aims to find causes and not just correlations Depends on critical evaluation of evidence rather than deference to authorities
In science, predictions ___________. Are valued because it is can be relatively easy to develop an incorrect theory that only accounts for findings that were used to develop the theory Are always about future events Are important only for practical applications Are not usually possible because the future is unknown
Are valued because it is can be relatively easy to develop an incorrect theory that only accounts for findings that were used to develop the theory
The classic "readiness potential" study of Libet provided evidence that: Brain activity corresponding to a choice occurs before a person is conscious of having made the choice Only humans have free will Stimulating the brain can change the state of the mind People can make decisions without any corresponding brain activityImagine that a researcher studies a group of people who are dieting and finds that dieters who skip breakfast are less successful at losing weight than dieters who reduce snacks during the day. The researcher then explains this in terms of differences in the release of the hormone ghrelin in the morning versus other times of day. This explanation is at the scope of: Group of answer choices
Brain activity corresponding to a choice occurs before a person is conscious of having made the choice
The case of Kitty Genovese is famous among psychologists for showing:
Bystander apathy
Which of the following are key aspects of the process of science, as described in the lectures. Science... [Select all that are correct.] Continually reevaluates and refines ideas on the basis of new evidence Builds on previous research and makes links across seemingly different phenomena Leads to practical applications and new technologies Is a highly social process that involves a community of competing and cooperating researchers Is a fallible human activity but endeavors to minimize the effects of human weaknesses and magnify human strengths Ultimately results in a mathematical description Can work well only if most or all researchers are unbiased Operates mainly by individual researchers working in isolation
Continually reevaluates and refines ideas on the basis of new evidence Builds on previous research and makes links across seemingly different phenomena Leads to practical applications and new technologies Is a highly social process that involves a community of competing and cooperating researchers Is a fallible human activity but endeavors to minimize the effects of human weaknesses and magnify human strengths
Science often involves: [Select all that are correct.] Cooperation among researchers Competition between researchers Incorrect conclusions (at least in the short term) Fabrication of results
Cooperation among researchers Competition between researchers Incorrect conclusions (at least in the short term)
As described in the lecture videos, the goals of psychology are to ____ the human mind and human behavior. [Select all correct options.]
Correct! Describe Correct! Predict Correct! Explain Correct! Control
If your fusiform face area were lesioned, you would likely have which of the following symptoms? [Select all that are correct.] Difficulty determining whether you were looking at someone's face or at a guitar Difficulty determining which of two famous actors was shown in a picture (e.g., Brad Pitt or George Clooney) Difficulty recognizing your mother's voice on the telephone Difficulty recognizing your professors when you see them outside of class
Difficulty determining which of two famous actors was shown in a picture (e.g., Brad Pitt or George Clooney) Difficulty recognizing your professors when you see them outside of class
The main goal of inferential statistics is to _______. Tell us the degree of confidence that we can have in a given theory Tell us whether we can have confidence in the statistical significance of a given finding Draw inferences about some characteristic of a sample taken from a large population Draw inferences about some characteristic of a large population on the basis of a sample from that population
Draw inferences about some characteristic of a large population on the basis of a sample from that population
what is the "flaw of averages"?
Even though something is true on average, it may not be true in all cases. example : It would not be correct to conclude that all infants of higher income parents will acquire vocab faster than all infants of lower income parents.
Researcher A conducts a study in which she tests 50 college students and finds that students who eat a healthy breakfast have a slightly higher GPA than students who don't eat a healthy breakfast. Researcher B conducts the same study with a new group of 50 college students and finds no difference in GPA between students who do and do not eat a healthy breakfast. This would be a: Failure to replicate Failure of objectivity Failure to average Failure of statistical significance
Failure to replicate
Imagine that a researcher finds that dieters who are given a new medication are more successful at losing weight than dieters who are given a placebo. The researcher then explains this in terms of how the medication influences the release of the appetite-related hormone ghrelin. This explanation is at the scope of:
Groups of people
Phineas Gage sustained major damage to his left prefrontal cortex in a construction accident. Which of the following symptoms did he exhibit following this damage? [Select all that are correct.] His personality was changed He became impulsive He became rude His speech became less grammatical He lost the ability to recognize faces He had trouble understanding normal speech
His personality was changed He became impulsive He became rude
Match the hypothetical psychological entity with its central characteristics:
Id - basic desires Ego - rational, conscious Superego - moral values
Select the two main reasons why replications are important in science. [Select the two that are correct.] If a result can be replicated by the same researcher or by different researchers, then it is unlikely to have been an accidental consequence of a non-representative sample If a result can be replicated by a different researcher, then it is unlikely to have been the result of some kind of systematic error in the methods of the original study If a result can be replicated by a non-scientist, then it's unlikely to reflect the biases of the scientists If a result can be replicated by any researcher, then the conclusions that can be drawn from the result are clearer
If a result can be replicated by the same researcher or by different researchers, then it is unlikely to have been an accidental consequence of a non-representative sample If a result can be replicated by a different researcher, then it is unlikely to have been the result of some kind of systematic error in the methods of the original study
A study by Gordon, Zogoory-Sharon, Leckman, & Feldman (2010) found that increased levels of the hormone oxytocin in new fathers were correlated with increases in the amount of certain types of parenting behaviors. Which of the following invalid conclusions would be an example of the "flaw of averages"? Increases in oxytocin cause increases in these specific parenting behaviors This effect of oxytocin evolved because of natural selection Fathers who engage in high rates of these specific types of parenting behaviors must have high levels of oxytocin If a specific father has high levels of oxytocin, we can be sure that this father will engage in high levels of these specific types of parenting behaviors
If a specific father has high levels of oxytocin, we can be sure that this father will engage in high levels of these specific types of parenting behaviors
One of the classic experiments from the early days of cognitive psychology was performed by Saul Sternberg. He studied the process of memory scanning by:
Varying the number of items being held in short-term memory and measuring how much reaction time increases with each additional item
Psychology is like astrophysics in which of the following ways? [Select all that are correct.] Many interesting experiments are impossible to do because of ethical concerns In many cases, we can only observe the phenomena of interest and cannot manipulate these phenomena When a phenomenon of interest cannot be experimentally manipulated, researchers may instead use laboratory models that do allow controlled experiments In the end, researchers can only speculate about the phenomena of interest
In many cases, we can only observe the phenomena of interest and cannot manipulate these phenomena When a phenomenon of interest cannot be experimentally manipulated, researchers may instead use laboratory models that do allow controlled experiments
If all human behavior is caused by physical interactions among the components of the brain, this calls into question whether humans have free will. The question of whether people actually have free will is an important practical issue because: In the U.S. legal system, people are not usually held responsible for actions that were not performed freely If people do not have free will, then this proves that materialism is correct and dualism is incorrect If people do not have free will, then this proves that materialism is incorrect and dualism is correct Certain kinds of brain damage may eliminate free will
In the U.S. legal system, people are not usually held responsible for actions that were not performed freely
Cooperation among scientists is good for science because it allows scientists with different expertise to conduct studies together than could not be conducted by a single scientist working alone. Why is competition between scientists good for science? [Select all that are correct.] Competition mainly leads to problems and is not good for science It helps to expose flaws and weaknesses in the design and interpretation of studies It motivates scientists to conduct the best possible studies so that competitors cannot find flaws in the research It helps weed out scientists who are too meek to engage in healthy debate
It helps to expose flaws and weaknesses in the design and interpretation of studies It motivates scientists to conduct the best possible studies so that competitors cannot find flaws in the research
The idea of dualism is appealing to many people because: It is not clear how the mind, which does not seem to be physical, could be causally related to the brain, which is clearly physical Many pieces of evidence show that the mind operates independently of the brain The human brain contains a left hemisphere and a right hemisphere Humans are conscious but other animals that have similar brains are notF
It is not clear how the mind, which does not seem to be physical, could be causally related to the brain, which is clearly physical
Evolutionary explanations of psychological phenomena often involve proposing that a given psychological trait occurs because evolution tends to select traits that increase the likelihood of survival and reproduction. Which of the following is a common problem with establishing the validity of such explanations?
It is often difficult to establish that the antecedent condition is true (i.e., that the trait being explained actually increases the likelihood of survival and reproduction)
Why is it so important for scientific progress that researchers publish their results in scientific journals? [Select all that are correct.] Journal articles are a primary means for scientists to find out about the findings of other researchers and are therefore important for allowing new research to build on prior research Scientists receive royalties from the journals that publish their papers, and these royalties are used to fund future research Journal articles make it possible for students and the general public to access scientific findings Articles that have been published in scientific journals have gone through a peer review process, which tends to reduce methodological flaws and invalid conclusions in published studies
Journal articles are a primary means for scientists to find out about the findings of other researchers and are therefore important for allowing new research to build on prior research Articles that have been published in scientific journals have gone through a peer review process, which tends to reduce methodological flaws and invalid conclusions in published studies
Dr. Besson has invented a drug that she believes will be an effective treatment for migraines. If the drug is truly safe and effective, she may become quite rich, so she has a strong financial incentive to conduct research that proves that the drug is safe and effective even if it isn't. What aspects of the scientific process will tend to decrease the likelihood that she will publish low-quality research that mistakenly concludes that the drug is safe and effective? [Select all that are correct.] Journal articles are subjected to rigorous peer review before being published True experiments can distinguish between causation and correlation Scientists come from a wide diversity of backgrounds and viewpoints
Journal articles are subjected to rigorous peer review before being published
In what way or ways are scientific studies analogous to Lego pieces? [Select all that are correct.] Just as one layer of Lego pieces provides a base on which other Lego pieces can be placed, a set of scientific studies can provide concepts and methods that form the base for future studies Just as a given Lego piece can rest directly on only one or a few underlying Lego pieces, a typical scientific study is typically based on only or a few previous studies Just as individual pieces of Lego are very strong and last a very long time, individual scientific studies provide strong evidence that lasts a very long time
Just as one layer of Lego pieces provides a base on which other Lego pieces can be placed, a set of scientific studies can provide concepts and methods that form the base for future studies Just as a complex structure can be formed by many interconnected pieces of Lego, a given area of scientific knowledge involves many interconnected studies
What is the "converse error"?
Just because one thing is true, doesn't mean the converse is true. The fact that X causes Y, doesn't mean that Y can only happen if X does ex: All dogs are mammals, but it doesn't mean all mammals are dog ex 2: if infants in group A acquire more vocab faster than infants in group b , we cant conclude that infants in group a heard more words than infants in group b
An observation is considered objective if: Most other researchers would, if they followed the same protocol, make the same observation It is true It is made by a machine and not by a human It is made by someone who is biased
Most other researchers would, if they followed the same protocol, make the same observation
Which of the following statements is true of most contemporary psychology research? Researchers focus on behavior because it is impossible to study the mind scientifically Researchers typically use a single approach, and research in a given area (e.g., cognition, personality) is conducted independently of research in other areas Researchers use introspection as a key source of evidence about the mind Researchers use subjective measures because objectivity is impossible when studying the mind None of the above
None of the above
Libet et al. (1983) found that: [Select all that are correct.] On average, the participant's brain began to prepare a movement before the time at which the participant reported being aware of making the decision to move On average, the participant's brain began to prepare a movement after the time at which the participant reported being aware of making the decision to move On average, the participants reported making the decision to move approximately 200 milliseconds before the actual movement On average, the participants reported making the decision to move approximately 200 milliseconds after the actual movement None of the above
On average, the participant's brain began to prepare a movement before the time at which the participant reported being aware of making the decision to move On average, the participants reported making the decision to move approximately 200 milliseconds before the actual movement
Which of the following is an example of a way in which science works to minimize the shortcomings of human nature? [Select all that are correct.] People have a confirmation bias which leads them to pay more attention to evidence that confirms their theories than to evidence that disconfirms their theories. In science, competition between scientists with differing views can force researchers to pay attention to disconfirming evidence. People often see patterns in random data, and this may lead a person to believe that a data set shows a consistent pattern that is not really there. In science, inferential statistics and replication give us methods for distinguishing between true effects and random variation People tend to assume causation when they see a correlation, even though such an assumption is not usually warranted. When possible, scientists use controlled experiments to provide stronger evidence about causation. People may be motivated by self interest, which can cause them to cut corners or cheat. Science reduces the negative impact of self interest by emphasizing replication and by subjecting research to peer review in the publication process.
People have a confirmation bias which leads them to pay more attention to evidence that confirms their theories than to evidence that disconfirms their theories. In science, competition between scientists with differing views can force researchers to pay attention to disconfirming evidence. People often see patterns in random data, and this may lead a person to believe that a data set shows a consistent pattern that is not really there. In science, inferential statistics and replication give us methods for distinguishing between true effects and random variation People tend to assume causation when they see a correlation, even though such an assumption is not usually warranted. When possible, scientists use controlled experiments to provide stronger evidence about causation. People may be motivated by self interest, which can cause them to cut corners or cheat. Science reduces the negative impact of self interest by emphasizing replication and by subjecting research to peer review in the publication process.
Imagine that Person A gambles a lot, whereas Person B has tried gambling but doesn't gamble much. We might try to explain this by saying that gambling is more rewarding to Person A than to Person B, and people tend to do things that they find rewarding. For this to be a valid explanation, we would need evidence that the antecedent condition is true. This means we would need evidence that ________.
Person A finds gambling to be more rewarding than does Person B
Scientists tend not to use words like "prove" or "fact" because: Science is not static, and scientists want to remain open to the possibility that a well-accepted conclusion might turn out to be not quite right Science has no way of determining whether something is likely to be true or false Scientists are too timid to use strong words like these They are afraid of lawsuits
Science is not static, and scientists want to remain open to the possibility that a well-accepted conclusion might turn out to be not quite right
Scientific journal articles usually contain citations to other published studies. This reflects which of the following characteristics of science? Scientific research builds on previous research Scientific research leads to practical applications and new technologies Science is a fallible human activity Science relies on methods, observations, and measurements that are objective and replicable Science can distinguish between random flukes and consistent patterns
Scientific research builds on previous research
Which of the following would be an explanation at the level of "the social/cultural environment"? A. Some people spend a lot of money on gambling because they occasionally win money B. Some people spend a lot of money on gambling because their friends and family like to gamble C. Some people spend a lot of money on gambling because they overestimate the probability that they will win D. Some people spend a lot of money on gambling because gambling leads to the release of dopamine in a part of the brain called the nucleus accumbens
Some people spend a lot of money on gambling because their friends and family like to gamble
what are functional explanations?
Something is explained in terms of how it benefits the individual or the species ex: humans are more likely than most primate species to form long term monogamous pair bonds, use to explain how monogamy affects relationships in survival and reproduction
Freud's theories were not very scientific because they were not:
Testable
Researcher A conducts a study in which she surveys 50 college students and finds that students who report eating a high-protein breakfast have a substantially higher GPA than students who report that they eat a low-protein breakfast. She finds that this difference was statistically significant. A blogger hears about this finding and writes a blog saying that all students would get better grades if they started eating a high-protein breakfast. Which of the following statements are potential problems with this conclusion about what students should do? [Select all that are correct.] The blog is drawing a conclusion about causation based on a mere correlation Even though the effect was statistically significant, there is still a chance that it might be a fluke Even though the effect was statistically significant, it shouldn't be trusted because only 50 people were surveyed The result was based on self reports, and it's possible that the students' reports are not accurate Although the effect might be true on average, it might not be true of all people
The blog is drawing a conclusion about causation based on a mere correlation Even though the effect was statistically significant, there is still a chance that it might be a fluke The result was based on self reports, and it's possible that the students' reports are not accurate Although the effect might be true on average, it might not be true of all people
Researcher A conducts an experiment showing that increased dietary consumption of omega-3 fatty acids leads to increased vocabulary acquisition in 2-year-old children. Because 2-year-olds raised in high-income families acquire vocabulary faster than 2-year-olds raised in low-income families, Researcher B concludes that high-income families must be consuming more omega-3 fatty acids than low-income families. This conclusion would be an example of: Correct!
The converse error
In psychology and related fields, "materialism" is the idea that: The brain is material but the mind is not The mind is independent of the brain Many people are interested mainly in gaining material possessions The mind arises from the physical material of the brain
The mind arises from the physical material of the brain
Which of the following is NOT a true statement? The occipital lobe is mainly devoted to vision The parietal lobe contains both the somatosensory cortex and the motor cortex The temporal lobe plays an important role in both the perception and memory of objects The prefrontal cortex is important for higher mental functions, such as planning, decision-making, and inhibitory control
The parietal lobe contains both the somatosensory cortex and the motor cortex
Recordings of human brain activity indicate that: The pattern of activity in the human brain changes as the contents of the human mind changes It is possible to change the contents of the mind by stimulating the brain Activity in the fusiform face area causes our conscious experience of face all of the above none of the above
The pattern of activity in the human brain changes as the contents of the human mind changes
Researcher A conducts a study in which she tests 50 college students and finds that students who eat a healthy breakfast have a slightly higher GPA than students who don't eat a healthy breakfast. However, this effect was not statistically significant. This means that: The researcher cannot conclude that this effect is present in the general population of college students The researcher cannot conclude that this effect is present in her sample of college students The researcher can conclude that this effect is present in the general population of college students The researcher can conclude that this effect is present in her sample of college students
The researcher cannot conclude that this effect is present in the general population of college students
Although we cannot directly observe the human mind, it is possible to study the mind in a scientific manner by _____________________.
a. Using intuition b. Carefully observing your own thought processes C. Observing the effects of mental processes on things we can observe, such as behavior and brain activity D. Observing the effects of mental processes on things we can observe, such as gravity and magnetism c. Observing the effects of mental processes on things we can observe, such as behavior and brain activity
According to data provided by the U.S. government, decreases in margarine consumption are correlated with decreases in the divorce rate between 2000 and 2009 in Maine, and this correlation is statistically significant. Which of the following explanations for this correlation are logically possible (although not necessarily plausible or proven by the data)? Decreasing margarine consumption causes a decreased likelihood of divorce Avoiding divorce causes a decrease in margarine consumption Both decreases in margarine consumption and decreases in the likelihood of divorce are caused by some third factor all of the above
all of the above
What is inferential statistics?
allows the experimenter to draw inferences about the population from which the sample was drawn we can use confidence interval to tell us that we have 95 percent confidence that the average of all frogs of this species is between 800 and 900 grams.. The conclusion about the population will be wrong in about 5 percent of the studies
what is a valid explanation based on?
based on casual principle that is more general than the thing being explained
what does replication tell us
it tells us whether the results from a sample were a fluke or representative of the general population not the results of some peculiarity or error in how a particular researcher conducts the study
physical or social / cultural environment
looking where the immediate threat is coming from when you are about to cross the road. for cultural, different cultures have different norms for how women and men should behave
Recording brain activity
measuring the activity of a given neuron or region at a given time. it is done by recording the eeg, that is conducted to the surface of the scalp. or by using MRI to track changes in blood flow as different parts of the brain become active
what is materialism?
the mind arises from the physical material of the brain
what is correlation?
the occurrence of magnitude of one variable systematically varies with the occurrence of magnitude or another variable. 1 causes 2, 2 causes 1 3 causes one and 2