Psychology 101 Chapter 9
teratogen
any environmental agent—biological, chemical, or physical—that causes damage to the developing embryo or fetus.
nature
biology and genetics
Cognitive development
involves learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity.
egocentrism
preoperational child's difficulty in taking the perspective of others
germinal stage
the 2-week period of prenatal development that begins at conception
secure attachment
the most common type of attachment—also considered the healthiest - toddler prefers his parent over a stranger. (have caregivers who are sensitive and responsive to their needs.)
Adolescence
the period of development that begins at puberty and ends at emerging adulthood
Self-Concept
the primary psychosocial milestone of childhood is the development of a positive sense of self
stages of moral reasoning
After presenting people with various moral dilemmas, Kohlberg reviewed people's responses and placed them in these stages/levels: pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional.
nature versus nurture debate
Are we who we are because of biology and genetics, or are we who we are because of our environment and culture?
hospice
Cicely Saunders created the first modern of these in 1967 to help provide a death with dignity and pain management in a humane and comfortable environment, which is usually outside of a hospital setting. In 1974, Florence Wald founded the first of these in the United States
Motor skills
ability to move our bodies and manipulate objects.
assimilation
adding information similar to what is already known. (1 of 2 processes used to adjust schemata).
Psychosocial development
involves emotions, personality, and social relationships.
Physical development
involves growth and changes in the body and brain, the senses, motor skills, and health and wellness.
Primary sexual characteristics
organs specifically needed for reproduction, like the uterus and ovaries in females and testes in males.
reversibility
principle that objects can be changed, but then returned back to their original form or condition. Children begin to understand this in the 3rd stage of Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development: concrete operational
Temperament
refers to innate traits that influence how one thinks, behaves, and reacts with the environment.
emerging adulthood
relatively newly defined period of lifespan development spanning from 18 years old to the mid-20s, characterized as an in-between time where identity exploration is focused on work and love.
socioeconomic status
status in society based on level of education, income, and occupational prestige
spermarche
the first ejaculation, around 13-14 years old for boys
conservation
the idea that even if you change the appearance of something, it is still equal in size as long as nothing has been removed or added.
permissive style
the kids run the show and anything goes. parents make few demands and rarely use punishment. They tend to be very nurturing and loving, and may play the role of friend rather than parent.
living will or advance directive
written legal document that details specific interventions a person wants.
nurture
environment and culture
newborn reflexes
inborn automatic response to a particular form of stimulation that all healthy babies are born with
object permanence
Between 5 and 8 months old, the child develops the (understanding that even if something is out of sight, it still exists)
Accommodation
(2 of 2 process used to adjust schemata when they change schemata based on new information)
John Bowlby's concept of attachment theory
He defined attachment as the affectional bond or tie that an infant forms with the mother (Bowlby, 1969). An infant must form this bond with a primary caregiver in order to have normal social and emotional development. In addition, Bowlby proposed that this attachment bond is very powerful and continues throughout life. He used the concept of secure base to define a healthy attachment between parent and child (1988).
Prenatal Development
How did you come to be who you are? From beginning as a one-cell structure to your birth, your prenatal development occurred in an orderly and delicate sequence. There are 3 stages: germinal, embryonic, and fetal.
Issues in Developmental Psychology
Is the change smooth or uneven (continuous versus discontinuous)? Is this pattern of change the same for everyone, or are there many different patterns of change (one course of development versus many courses)? How do genetics and environment interact to influence development (nature versus nurture)?
Cognitive Theory of Development
Jean Piaget (1896-1980) is another stage theorist who studied childhood development. Instead of approaching development from a psychoanalytical or psychosocial perspective, Piaget focused on children's cognitive growth. His theory holds that our cognitive abilities develop through specific stages, which exemplifies the discontinuity approach to development. As we progress to a new stage, there is a distinct shift in how we think and reason.
Psychosexual Theory of Development
Sigmund Freud's (1856-1939) theory that believed that personality develops during early childhood. Frued believed childhood experiences shape our personalities and behavior as adults and viewed development as discontinuous; he believed that each of us must pass through a series of stages during childhood, and that if we lack proper nurturance and parenting during a stage, we may become stuck, or fixated, in that stage.
Socioeconomic factors
Social and economic characteristics like education, income, and occupation that influence an individual's ability to function or compete in society.
resistant attachment
children tend to show clingy behavior, but then they reject the attachment figure's attempts to interact with them. These children do not explore the toys in the room, as they are too fearful. During separation in the Strange Situation, they became extremely disturbed and angry with the parent. When the parent returns, the children are difficult to comfort. (result of the caregivers' inconsistent level of response to their child)
Schema (plural=Schemata)
concepts (mental model) that are used to help us categorize and interpret information
Developmental psychologists
uses a variety of research method approaches to better understand how individuals change mentally and physically over time.
Continuous development
views development as a cumulative process, gradually improving on existing skills
8 stages of psychosocial theory development
1.(0-1)Trust vs. mistrust: Trust (or mistrust) that basic needs, such as nourishment and affection, will be met. 2.(1-3)Autonomy vs. shame/doubt: Develop a sense of independence in many tasks. 3.(3-6)Initiative vs. guilt: Take initiative on some activities—may develop guilt when unsuccessful or boundaries overstepped. 4.(7-11)Industry vs. inferiority: Develop self-confidence in abilities when competent or sense of inferiority when not. 5.(12-18)Identity vs. confusion: Experiment with and develop identity and roles. 6.(19-29)Intimacy vs. isolation: Establish intimacy and relationships with others. 7.(30-64)Generativity vs. stagnation: Contribute to society and be part of a family. 8.(65-)Integrity vs. despair: Assess and make sense of life and meaning of contributions
concrete operational stage
3rd stage of Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development which lasts from about 7-11 years of age. In this stage, children can think logically about real (concrete) events; they have a firm grasp on the use of numbers and start to employ memory strategies. They can perform mathematical operations and understand transformations, such as addition is the opposite of subtraction, and multiplication is the opposite of division. In this stage, children also master the concept of conservation: Even if something changes shape, its mass, volume, and number stay the same.
formal operational stage
4th and last stage of Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development which lasts from about 11 years old to adulthood. Children in this stage can use abstract thinking to problem solve, look at alternative solutions, and test these solutions. In adolescence, a renewed egocentrism occurs. For example, a 15-year-old with a very small pimple on her face might think it is huge and incredibly visible, under the mistaken impression that others must share her perceptions.
formal operational thought
According to Piaget, the highest level of cognitive development which develops between 11 and 20 years old.
authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved.
Diana Baumrind (1971, 1991) 4 parenting styles
denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance
Elizabeth Kübler-Ross (1969), who worked with the founders of hospice care, described the process of an individual accepting his own death. She proposed these five stages of grief:
Psychosocial Theory of Development
Erik Erikson (1902-1994) (Figure 9.4), another stage theorist, took Freud's theory and modified it to his own. The theory emphasizes the social nature of our development rather than its sexual nature. While Frued believed personality shaped only in childhood, Erikson proposed that personality development takes place all through the lifespan. Erikson suggested that how we interact with others is what affects our sense of self, or what he called the ego identity.
psychosexual development
Freud's stages that assume children's pleasure-seeking urges are focused on a different area of the body, called an erogenous zone, at each of the five stages of development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.
Strange Situation
Mary Ainsworth's (1970) research that placed the mother (or primary caregiver) and the infant (age 12-18 months) in a room together. There are toys in the room, and the caregiver and child spend some time alone in the room. After the child has had time to explore her surroundings, a stranger enters the room. The mother then leaves her baby with the stranger. After a few minutes, she returns to comfort her child.
secure, avoidant, and resistant
Mary Ainsworth's three types of parent-child attachments. A fourth style, known as disorganized attachment, was later described
Do Not Resuscitate (DNR)
Order states that if a person stops breathing or his heart stops beating, medical personnel such as doctors and nurses are NOT to take steps to revive or resuscitate the patient.
Theory of Moral Development
Psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) extended upon the foundation that Piaget built regarding cognitive development. Kohlberg believed that ________ development, like cognitive development, follows a series of stages.
adrenarche and gonadarche
Several physical changes that occur during puberty, such as the he maturing of the adrenal glands and sex glands
Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development
Stage 1: Sensorimotor(0-2) Description: World experienced through senses and actions. Developmental issues: Object permanence, Stranger anxiety Stage 2: Preoperational(2-6) Description: Use words and images to represent things, but lack logical reasoning. Developmental issues: Pretend play, Egocentrism, Language development Stage 3: Concrete operational(7-11) Description: Understand concrete events and analogies logically; perform arithmetical operations. Developmental issues: Stage 4: Formal operational (12 & up) Description: Formal operations, Utilize abstract reasoning Developmental issues: Abstract logic, Moral reasoning
embryonic stage
The second stage of prenatal development, lasting from two weeks until the end of the second month.
fetal stage
The third stage of prenatal development, lasting from two months through birth.
Attachment
a long-standing connection or bond with others part of the psychological development process
secure base
a parental presence that gives the child a sense of safety as he explores his surroundings.
health care proxy
appoints a specific person to make medical decisions for you if you are unable to speak for yourself.
developmental milestones
approximate ages at which children reach specific normative events (e.g., crawling, walking, writing, dressing, naming colors, speaking in sentences, and starting puberty).
avoidant attachment
child is unresponsive to the parent, does not use the parent as a secure base, and does not care if the parent leaves. The toddler reacts to the parent the same way she reacts to a stranger. (most likely to have a caregiver who was insensitive and inattentive to their needs)
sensorimotor stage
first stage of Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development which lasts from birth to about 2 years old. During this stage, children learn about the world through their senses and motor behavior.
Gross motor skills
focus on large muscle groups that control our arms and legs and involve larger movements (e.g., balancing, running, and jumping).
Fine motor skills
focus on the muscles in our fingers, toes, and eyes, and enable coordination of small actions (e.g., grasping a toy, writing with a pencil, and using a spoon).
disorganized attachment
freeze, run around the room in an erratic manner, or try to run away when the caregiver returns. This type of attachment is seen most often in kids who have been abused.
Stage theories
hold that the sequence of development is universal. For example, in cross-cultural studies of language development, children from around the world reach language milestones in a similar sequence
prenatal care
medical care during pregnancy that monitors the health of both the mother and the fetus
authoritative style
parent gives reasonable demands and consistent limits, expresses warmth and affection, and listens to the child's point of view. Parents set rules and explain the reasons behind them. They are also flexible and willing to make exceptions to the rules in certain cases—for example, temporarily relaxing bedtime rules to allow for a nighttime swim during a family vacation. Of the four parenting styles, the authoritative style is the one that is most encouraged in modern American society.
authoritarian style
parent places high value on conformity and obedience. The parents are often strict, tightly monitor their children, and express little warmth
uninvolved style
parents are indifferent, uninvolved, and sometimes referred to as neglectful. They don't respond to the child's needs and make relatively few demands.
Secondary sexual characteristics
physical signs of sexual maturation that do not directly involve sex organs, such as development of breasts and hips in girls, and development of facial hair and a deepened voice in boys.
developmental psychologists view development as a lifelong process that can be studied scientifically across what three developmental domains?
physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development
preoperational stage
second stage of Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development which is from approximately 2 to 7 years old. In this stage, children can use symbols to represent words, images, and ideas, which is why children in this stage engage in pretend play.
zygote
structure created when a sperm and egg merge at conception; begins as a single cell and rapidly divides to form the embryo and placenta
normative approach
study of development using norms, or average ages, when most children reach specific developmental milestones
socioemotional selectivity theory
suggests that our social support and friendships dwindle in number, but remain as close, if not more close than in our earlier years
discontinuous development
takes place in unique stages: It occurs at specific times or ages. change is more sudden, such as an infant's ability to conceive object permanence.
menarche
the beginning of menstrual periods for girls, usually around 12-13 years old
The Achievement Gap
to the persistent difference in grades, test scores, and graduation rates that exist among students of different ethnicities, races, and—in certain subjects—sexes
Conception
when a sperm fertilizes an egg and forms a zygote
