Psychology 101- General
wilhelm wundt
-founded structuralism
Genotype
An organism's genetic makeup, or allele combinations.
which of the following statements is true of hue
It is determined by the wavelength of visible light.
sex chromosomes
The 23rd pair of chromosomes in humans that determine the sex (or gender) of the individual. Women are XX and Men are XY.
law of effect
Thorndike's view that pleasant events stamp in responses, and unpleasant events stamp them out
In the context of perceptual organization, which of the following statements is true?
When figure-ground relationships are ambiguous, or capable of being interpreted in various ways, our perceptions tend to be unstable and shift back and forth.
narcolepsy
a "sleep attack" in which a person falls asleep suddenly and irresistibly
flooding
a behavioral fear-reduction technique based on principles of classical conditioning; fear-evoking stimuli (CSs) are presented continuously in the absence of actual harm so that fear responses (CRs) are extinguished
spinal chord
a column of nerves within the spine that transmit messages to and from the brain
opiates
a group of narcotics derived from the opium poppy that provide a euphoric rush and depress the nervous system
refractory period
a phase following firing during which a neuron is less sensitive to messages from other neurons and will not fire
secondary reinforcer
a stimulus that gains reinforcement value through association with established reinforcers
hippocampus
a structure in the limbic system that pays an important role in the formation of new memories
hallucinogenics
a substance that causes hallucinations
decibels
a unit expressing the loudness of a sound
stroboscopic motion
a visual illusion in which the perception of motion is generated by the presentation of a series of stationary images in rapid succession
barbiturate
an addictive depressant used to relieve anxiety or induce sleep
electromyograph
an instrument that measures muscle tension
unconditioned response
an unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus
conditioned reinforcer
another term for a secondary reinforcer
working memory
another term for short-term memory
thalamus
area at the top of the brainstem; directs sensory messages to the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
operant behavior
behavior that operates on, or manipulates, the environment
endocrine system
body system that includes internal organs that secrete hormones
what similarity did wilhelm wundt share with aristotle
both saw the mind as a natural even that could be studied scientifically, like light and heat
nerves
bundle of axons from many neurons
case study
carefully drawn biography that may be obtained through interviews, questionnaires, and psychological tests
glial cells
cells that remove dead neurons and waste from nervous system, nourish and insulate neurons, form myelin, and play a role in neural transmissions
Photoreceptors
cells that respond to light
epigenetics
changing of genes by environment
which of the following statements is true about different types of psychologists
clinical psychologists help clients resolve problems and change self-defeating behavior
Psychologists with a(n) _____ perspective primarily venture into the realm of mental processes such as sensation and perception, memory, intelligence, language, thought, and problem solving to understand human nature.
cognitive
social cognitive theory
cognitive factors in the explanation and prediction of behavior
_____ is the tendency to perceive an object as being the same hue even though lighting conditions change its appearance.
color consistency
Peter went out cycling one morning. He was not wearing a helmet. He fell off a ridge and fell into a steep valley. Apart from fracturing his arm and acquiring several bruises, Peter severely injured his head. The doctor noticed a swelling on the right side of his head and suspected that it was a blood clot. Which of the following did the doctor use to obtain a three-dimensional image of Peter's brain for further investigation?
computerized axial tomography
A__________reveals deformities in shape and structure that are connected with blood clots, tumors, and other health problems.
computerized axial tomography scan
independent variable
condition in study that is manipulated so effects may be observed
In the context of classical conditioning, a learned reaction to a learned stimulus is known as a(n)__________
conditioned response
Cynthia had an intense fear of cats. Her psychologist repeatedly paired her love for classical music with the gradual exposure of Cynthia to a cat until her fear for cats was cured. In this scenario, Cynthia's fear was cured using _____.
counterconditioning
__________is defined as a way of evaluating the claims and comments of other people that involves skepticism and examination of evidence.
critical thinking
introspection
deliberately looking into ones own cognitive process to examine thoughts and emotions
____ are stron, slow brain waves usally emitted during stage 4 sleep
delta waves
dna
deoxyribonucleic acid, a self-replicating material present in nearly all living organisms as the main constituent of chromosomes. It is the carrier of genetic information.
nonconscious
descriptive of bodily processes, such as the growing of hair, of which we are not aware
complementary
descriptive of colors of the spectrum that when combined produce white or nearly white light
The Atkinson-Shiffrin model of stages of memory intends to _____.
determine whether and for how long information is retained in memory
school psychology
devoted to counseling children in elementary and secondary schools who have academic or emotional problems
Nearsightedness can result when the eyeball is elongated such that the images of:
distant objects are focused in front of the retina
stimulant
drug that increases activity in the central nervous system, including heart rate, respiration, and blood pressure
psychoactive substances
drugs that have psychological effects such as stimulation or distortion of perceptions
narcotics
drugs used to relieve pain and induce sleep; the term is usually reserved for opiates
psuchoanalysis
emphasizes importance of unconscious motives and conflicts as determinants of human behavior
gestalt psychology
emphasizes tendency to organize perceptions into wholes and integrate separate stimuli into meaningful patterns
long term potentiation
enhanced efficiency in synaptic transmission that follows brief, rapid stimulation
According to the biological perspective of psychology,__________interact with inherited factors to determine specific behavior and mental processes.
environmental factors
The perception of objects or events through means other than the recognized sensory organs is termed__________
extrasensory perception
anteretrograde amnesia
failure to remember events that occurred after physical trauma because of the effects of the trauma
myelin
fatty substance that encases/insulates axons, facilitating transmissions of neural impulses
william james
first modern psychology textbook
__________relatives have a genetic overlap of about 50 percent.
first-degree
In the context of reinforcement schedules, commuter trains that arrive at platforms at specific times are on a_______
fixed interval schedule
Asha has a fear of darkness. To extinguish this fear, she is placed in a dark room ensuring that she suffers no harm in the process. In this scenario, which of the following techniques is being used to reduce Asha's fear of the dark?
flooding
_________is a behavior therapy method in which fear-evoking stimuli are presented continuously in the absence of actual harm so that fear responses are extinguished.
flooding
Mindfulness meditation (MM) provides clients with techniques they can use to:
focus on the present
sociocultural perspective
focuses on roles of ethnicity, culture, and socioeconomic status in behavior and mental processes
sigmund freud
founder of psychoanalysis
semantic memory
general knowledge, as opposed to episodic memory
who among the following individuals is likely to need the least amount of sleep?
george, a 90 year old man who lives with his family
__________showed that people tend to perceive separate pieces of information as integrated wholes depending on the contexts in which they occur.
gestalt psychologists
pituitary gland
gland that secretes growth hormone, prolactin, anti diuretic hormones
Older adults are more likely than younger adults to have insomnia because of a:
greater incidence of poor health and pain
limbic system
group of structures involved in memory, motivation, emotion that form fringe along inner edge of cerebrum
experimental groups
groups whose members obtain treatment
tolerance
habituation to a drug, with the result that increasingly higher doses of the drug are needed t achieve similar effects
cognitive
having to deal with mental processes such as perception, memory, intelligence, language, thought
Erik works as a counselor. He strongly believes in an individual's capacity for self-fulfillment, self-awareness, and decision making. He follows the principle that people are responsible for choosing their conduct. Erik's beliefs best exemplify the _____ perspective.
humanistic-existential
The _____ perspective is grounded in the work of Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.
humanistic-existential
Among lower animals, stimulation of various areas of the__________can trigger instinctual behaviors such as fighting, mating, or nest building.
hypothalamus
monozygotic twins
identical twins
Magnetic Response Imaging (MRI)
imaging technique used uses magnetic fields and radiofrequency waves to visualize anatomic structures; often used to diagnose lung disorders
repression
in Freud's psychodynamic theory, the ejection of anxiety-evoking ideas from conscious awareness
generalization
in conditioning, the tendency for a conditioned response to be evoked by stimuli that are similar to the stimulus to which the response was conditioned
discrimination
in conditioning, the tendency for an organism to distinguish between a CS and similar stimuli that do not forecast a UCS
displace
in memory theory, to cause information to be lost from short-term memory by adding new information
discriminative stimulus
in operant conditioning, a stimulus that indicates that reinforcement is available
unconscious
in psychoanalytic theory, a major portion of the mind, which consists of a hidden mass of instincts, impulses, and memories and is not easily available to conscious awareness, yet plays an important role in behavior
repression
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
preconscious
in psychodynamic theory, descriptive of material that is not in awareness but can be brought into awareness by focusing one's attention
context dependent memory
information that is better retrieved in the context in which it was encored and stored or learned
state dependent memory
information that is better retrieved in the physiological or emotional state in which it was encoded and stored, or learned
endorphins
inhibitory neural regulators; involved in pain relief
gamma-aminobutyric acid
inhibitory neurotransmitter that may be involved in the anxiety disorders helps calm anxiety
cochlea
inner ear structure containing the central hearing apparatus conains the basilar membrane and the organ of corti
In Gestalt psychology, learning, especially problem solving, is accomplished primarily by _____.
insight
In the context of memory and forgetting, the view that one may forget stored material because other learning overlaps with it is known as________
interferene theory
Wilhelm Wundt used__________to try to discover the basic elements of experience.
introspection
Which of the following statements is true of alcohol?
it dilates blood vessels
Which of the following statements is true of nicotine?
it stimulates the release of nerotransmitters
direct inner awareness
knowledge of one's own thoughts, feelings, and memories without the use of sensory organs
receptor site
location on a dendrite of a receiving neuron tailored to receive a neurotransmitter
encode
modifies information so that it can be placed in memory; encoding is the first stage of information processing
_____ is part of the maturation process that leads to a child's ability to crawl and walk during the first year.
myelination
Larry, a 26-year-old man, often falls asleep suddenly. During these sleep attacks, he falls asleep for around 15 minutes and wakes up feeling refreshed. He also hallucinates that a person is sitting on his chest. In this scenario, Larry is likely suffering from__________.
narcolepsy
proximity
nearness
bipolar cells
neurons that conduct neural impulses from rods and cones to ganglion cells
feature detectors
neurons that respond selectively to very specific features of more complex stimuli
feature neurons
neurons that respond selectively to very specific features of more complex stimuli
during REM sleep, ____ tend to inhibit activity
neurotransmitters
which of he following statements is true of insomnia
older adults are more likely than younger adults to have insomnia
sample
part of a population
peripheral nervous system
part of system that consists of somatic nerves and autonomic nervous system
cerebellum
part of the hindbrain that controls balance and maintains muscle coordination
__________is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
psychology
On a bright, sunny day, Manny leaves a dimly-lit movie theater and goes out into the street. The _____ in his eyes adjust to the sudden increase in light.
pupils
taste cells
receptor cells that are sensitive to taste
which of the following is the function of the iris
regulating the amount of light that enters the eye
In the context of operant conditioning,__________is the act of following a response with a stimulus that increases the frequency of the response
reinforcement
Sofia does not like eating vegetables. To ensure that she eats vegetables, her mother offers her an extra helping of dessert every time Sofia finishes her vegetables. In the context of behaviorism, this is known as _____.
reinforcement
___ are defined as stimuli that increase the frequency of behavior
reinforcers
Sarah was required to learn a list of 20 numbers in order. Initially, she took 15 repetitions to learn the list. After five days, she had forgotten the list of numbers and had to re-learn it. This time, she only took eight tries to re-learn the numbers. The difference between the number of repetitions she originally took to learn the numbers and the number of repetitions she took to re-learn the numbers is known as _____
savings
A(n)__________is a way of mentally representing the world, such as a belief or an expectation, which can influence perception of persons, objects, and situations.
schema
Jenny is preparing for an English test, and her brother is playing music loudly in the next room. She focuses on reading her English text books and ignores the music. In this scenario, Jenny is using _____.
selective attention
In _____, people tend to be more responsive to some pitches than others.
sensorineural deafness
_________is a procedure for teaching complex behaviors that at first reinforces approximations of the target behavior.
shaping
volunteer bias
source of bias or error reflecting the prospect that people who offer to participate in research studies differ systematically from those who do not
selection factor
source of bias that may occur in research findings when participants are allowed to choose for themselves a treatment
neuron
specialized cell of the nervous system that receives and transmits messages
amphetamines
stimulants derived from alpha-methyl-beta-phenyl-ethylamine, a colorless liquid consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen
since 15 percent of a university comprises asian-amerian students, a sample for a study was chosen in such a way that it too consisted of 15 percent asian-americans. this kind of sample would be an example of a
stratified sample
hormones
substance secreted by endocrine gland that regulates various bodily functions
mutation
sudden variation in inheritable characteristics resulting from gradual selection
A neuron relays its message to another neuron across a junction called a_________
synapse
Naomi is afraid of dogs. While she is feeling relaxed, her therapist shows her a dog from a distance. The therapist gradually brings the dog closer until Naomi's fear is completely extinguished. In this scenario, which of the following techniques is being used to extinguish Naomi's fear of dogs?
systematic desensitization
sleep apnea
temporary absence or cessation of breathing while sleeping
Epilepsy
temporary disturbances of brain functions that involve sudden neural discharges
serial position effect
tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
During puberty,__________stokes the growth of muscle and bone and the development of primary and secondary sex characteristics in a male body.
testosterone
which of the following monocular cues is based on the perception that closer objects appear to have rougher surfaces
texture gradient
if the ____ is damaged, a person can form visual memories but not verbal memories
thalamus
observational learning
the acquisition or modification of a behavior after exposure to at least one performance of that behavior
priming
the activation of specific associations in memory, often as a result of repetition and without making a conscious effort to access the memory
which of the following structure of the limbic system is connected with vigilance
the amygdala
retina
the area in back of the eye that contains your rods and cones
auditory nerve
the axon bundle that transmits neural impulses from the organ of Corti to the brain
pupil
the black looking opening in the center of he iris, through which light enters the eye
suppression
the deliberate, or conscious, placing of certain ideas, impulses, or images out of awareness
savings
the difference between the number of repetitions originally required to learn a list and the number of repetitions required to relearn the list after a certain amount of time has elapsed
parasympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy
somatic nervous system
the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles
marijuana
the dried vegetable matter of the cannabis sativa plant
action potential
the electrical impulse that provides the basis for the conduction of a neural impulse along an axon of a neuron
retrograde amnesia
the failure to remember events that occurred prior to physical trauma because of the effects of the trauma
non-rapid eye movement sleep
the first four stages of sleep
selective attention
the focus of one's consciousness on a particular stimulus
Weber's constant
the fraction of the intensity by which a source of physical energy must be increased or decreased so that a difference in intensity will be perceived
Amy accidentally hit her elbow against the edge of a wall. Amy's mother rushed to her and rubbed the affected elbow. Amy's pain subsided. Which theory would best explain this incident?
the gate theory
gray matter
the grayish neurons and neural segments that are involved in spinal reflexes
nature
the inborn, innate character of an organism
proactive interference
the interference by old learning with the ability to retrieve material learned recently
Jeff observed a quick succession of cars moving together on the road. His first thought was that they were all a part of a convoy of some sort. Which law of perceptual organization best explains Jeff's assumption?
the law of common fate
afterimage
the lingering visual impression made by a stimulus that has been removed
retrieval
the location of stored information and is return to consciousness; the third stage of information processing
eidetic imagery
the maintenance of detailed visual memories over several minutes
just noticable difference
the minimal change in a stimulus that can just barely be detected
difference threshold
the minimal difference in the magnitude of energy needed for people to detect a difference between two stimuli
absolute threshold
the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time
olfactory nerve
the nerve that transmits information concerning odors from olfactory receptors to the brain
optic nerve
the nerve that transmits sensory information from the eye to the brain
bottom-up processing
the organization of the parts of a pattern to recognize, or form an image of, the pattern they compose
reticular formation
the part of the brain that regulates attention
visible light
the part of the electromagnetic spectrum that consists of waves detectable by the human eye
similarity
the perceptual tendency to group together elements that seem alike
extinction
the process by which stimuli lose their ability to evoke learned responses because the events that had followed the stimuli no longer occur
dark adaptation
the process of adjusting conditions of lower lighting by increasing the sensitivity of rods and cones
memory
the processes by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved
organ of corti
the receptor for hearing that lies on the basilar membrane in the cochlea
spontaneous recovery
the recurrence of an extinguished response as a function of the passage of time
operant
the same as an operant behavior
psychology
the science that studies behavior and metal processes
evolutionary psychology
the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection
nurture
the sum total of the environmental factors that affect an organism from conception onward
biofeedback training
the systematic feeding back to an organism information about a bodily function so that the organism can gain control of that function
brightness constancy
the tendency to perceive the apparent brightness of an object as the same even when the light conditions change
sensitization
the type of sensory adaptation in which we become more sensitive to stimuli that are low in magnitude. Also called positive adaptation
long term memory
the type or stage of memory capable of relatively permanent storage
sensory memory
the type or stage of memory first encountered by a stimulus; sensory memory holds impressions briefly, but long enough so that series of perceptions are psychologically continuous
short term memory
the type or stage of memory that can hold information for up to a minute or so after the trace of the stimulus decays, also called working memory
top-down processing
the use of contextual information or knowledge of a pattern in order to organize parts of the pattern
_________tells us whether we are falling and provides cues to whether our body is changing speed.
the vestibular sense
activation synthesis model
the view that dreams reflect activation of cognitive activity by the reticular formation and synthesis of this activity into a pattern
response set theory
the view that response expectancies play a key role in the production of the experiences suggested by the hypnotist
continuity hypothesis
the view that the content of dreams tends to be consistent with previous cognitive activity
which of the following is true of negative reinforcers
they increase the probability that a behavior will occur when they are removed
reinforce
to follow a response with a stimulus that increases the frequency of the response
polarize
to ready a neuron for firing by creating an internal negative charge in relation to the body fluid outside the cell membrane
depolarized
to reduce the resting potential to about 70 millivolts to about zero
Polygenic
trait controlled by two or more genes
what role does the somatic nervous system play?
transmits messages about sight, sounds, smells, and so on, to the central nervous system
cornea
transparent tissue forming the outer surface of the eyeball
blind
unaware of whether one is in the experimental or control group
acupuncture
use of pins to diminish pain, possible because of stimulation of release of endorphins and cortisol
Which of the following is true about the storage of information in long-term memory?
we tend to organize information to a hierarchical structure
unconditioned stimulus
A stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning
hypnosis
An altered state of consciousness or a psychological state of altered attention and expectation in which the individual is unusually receptive to suggestions.
retinal disparity
a binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.
Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT)
a brain-imaging technique that combines thousands of X-ray brain photographs to construct a cross-sectional picture of the brain
human factors
a branch of psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use - old people at light/big calculators
clinical psychology
a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders - diagnosing -working w people who cannot function
hypothalamus
a bundle of nuclei below thalamus involved in body temp, motivation, emotion
abstinence syndrome
a characteristic cluster of symptoms that results from a sudden decrease in the level of usage of a substance
higher order conditioning
a classical conditioning procedure in which a previously neutral stimulus comes to elicit the response brought forth by a conditioned stimulus by being paired repeatedly with that conditioned stimulus
favor
a complex quality of food, and other substances that is based on their odor, texture, and temperature as well their taste
consciousness
a concept with many meanings, including sensory awareness of the world outside, direct inner awareness of one's thoughts and feelings, personal unity, and the waking state
circadian rhythm
a cycle that is connected with the 24-hour period of the earth's rotation
As we enter stage 1 sleep, the transition from alpha waves to theta waves may be accompanied by__________during which we may experience brief but vivid dreamlike images.
a hypnagogic state
Broca's aphasia
a language disorder characterized by slow, laborious speech
conditioned response
a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus
basilar membrane
a membrane that lies coiled within the cochlea
icon
a mental representation of a visual stimulus that is held briefly in sensory memory
echo
a mental representation of an auditory stimulus (sound) that is held briefly in sensory memory
schemas
a way of mentally representing the world, such a belief or an expectation that can influence perceptions of persons, objects, and situations
naturalistic observation
organisms are observed in natural environments
phantom limb pain
perception of pain apparently "in" limbs that have been amputated, often because of activation of nerves in the stump of the missing limb
monochromat
person who sees only shades of gray; caused by a rare form of color deficiency
retroactive interference
the interference of new learning with the ability to retrieve material learned previously
synapse
the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron
elaborative rehearsal
the kind of coing in which new information is related to information that is already known
storage
the maintenance of information over time; the second stage of information processing
sensory adaptation
the proces by which organisms become more sensitive to stimuli that are low in magnitude and less sensitive to stimuli that are constant or ongoing in magnitude
perception
the process by which sensations are selected, organized, and interpreted
trichomatic theory
the theory that our color vision is based on three primary colors (blue, green, red)
identify a true statement about punishments
they can rapidly suppress undesirable behavior
learning
according to behaviorists, a relatively permanent change in behavior the results from experience according to cognitive theorists, the process by which organisms make relatively permanent changes in the way they represent the environment because of experience
__________is a neurotransmitter that controls muscle contractions.
acetylcholine
Bobby was standing in line to purchase a movie ticket. All of a sudden, the man in front of him took a few steps back and stepped on Bobby's foot. Bobby immediately felt pain in his foot. This sensation was transmitted to the spinal cord and the brain through _____
afferent neurons
fovea
an area near the center of the retina that is dense with cones and where vision is consequently most acute
stimulus
an environmental condition that elicits a response
model
an organism that engages in a response that is then imitated by another organism
industrial psych
applies psychological concepts and methods to optimize human behavior in workplaces - relationship bt people and work - how to make them perform better
structuralism
argues that mind consists of sensations, feelings, images to combine to form experiences
latent learning
learning that is hidden or concealed
Opiates are a group of__________derived from the opium poppy that provide a euphoric rush and depress the nervous system.
narcotics
serotonin
neurotransmitter involved in emotional arousal and sleep deficiencies have been linked to eating disorders, alcoholism, depression, aggression, and insomnia
dopamine
neurotransmitter that affects ability to perceive pleasure, voluntary movement, and learning and memory. plays a tole in Parkinsons and schizophrenia
Psychologists with a__________perspective are most likely to investigate the ways we perceive and mentally represent the world, how we learn, remember the past, plan for the future, solve problems, form judgments, make decisions, and use language.
not behaviorist
correlation coefficient
number between one and neg one that expresses strength and direction (pos,neg) of relationship between 2 variables
according to ____ when we see modeled behavior being reinoforced, we are vicariously reinfoced
observational learning
which of the following is symptomatic of sleep apnea
obstruction of air passages
episodic memory
of events that happen to a person or that take place in the persons presence
Which of the following statements is true of proactive interference?
older learning interference with new learning only if the new material shares similarity with the old material
partial reinforcement
one of several reinforcement schedules in which not every correct response is reinforced
double-blind study
An experiment in which neither the participant nor the researcher knows whether the participant has received the treatment or the placebo
Phencyclidine (PCP)
Another hallucinogenic drug whose name is an acronym for its chemical structure. Abbreviated PCP.
gate theory of pain
Melzack's view that neurons in the spine can simultaneously transmit only a limited amount of information, so that stimulation of neurons from many regions can limit the perception of pain in one region
Down Syndrome
a condition caused by an extra chromosome on the 21st pair and characterized by mental deficiency, a broad face, and slanting eyes
aphasia
a disruption in the ability to understand or produce language
depressant
a drug that lowers the rate of activity of the nervous system
counterconditioning
a fear-reduction technique in which pleasant stimuli are associated with fear-evoking stimuli so that the fear-evoking stimuli lose their aversive qualities
functional mri
a form of MRI that enables researchers to observe the brain "while it works" by taking repeated scans
medulla
a hindbrain structure that controls vital life functions such as breathing and circulation
Wernicke's aphasia
a language disorder characterized by difficulty comprehending the meaning of spoken language
method of savings
a measure of retention in which the difference between the number of repetitions originally required to learn a list and the number of repetitions required to relearn the list after a certain amount of time has elapsed is calculated
critical thinking
a way of evaluating the claims and comments of other people that involves skepticism and examination of evidence
Phoebe recently suffered a major fall in which she sustained brain injuries. Since then, she has had immense difficulty in communicating with others. She appears to understand what others tell her, but her responses are slow and laborious. Her sentences are always incomplete, with important grammatical words missing. Which of the following conditions best reflects Phoebe's case?
brocas aphasia
In E. C. Tolman's experiment, some rats were trained to run through mazes for standard food goals, while other rats were allowed to explore the mazes for 10 days without food goals or other rewards. Later, when food rewards were placed in a box at the far end of the maze, the previously unrewarded rats reached the food box as quickly as the rewarded rats after only one or two trials. This experiment demonstrated that the rats had the ability to form _____ of their surroundings.
cognitive maps
environmental psych
considers the relationship between people and their physical environment - how does environment affect people -happier in snow vs rain
behaviorism
defines psych as study of observable behavior and studies relationships between stimuli and responses
which of the following is true of functionalism
it looks at how habits help one cope with common situations
which of the following best describes psychokinesis
it refers tot he ability to mentally manipulate or move objects
which of the following statements is true of shaping
it reinforces progressive steps toward the behavioral goal
nonsense syllables
meaningless sets of two consonants, with a vowel sandwiched in between, that are used to study memory
Phenotype
ones actual development and appearance based on genotype and environment
gland
organ that secretes a substance hormones, milk
which of the following is a view of cognitive psychologists?
people choose whether or not to imitate aggressive behaviors they observe
extrasensory perception
perception of objects or vents through means other than the recognized sensory organs
which of the following statements is true of media violence
repeated exposure to media violence may decrease viowers sensitivity to real violence
dendrites
root like structures attached to cell body of a neuron, receives impulses, incoming messages from other neurons
Carl is conducting a study to determine the effects of the new technology-assisted learning methods among students. As part of this study, he has selected a group of university students, male and female, in the age group of 18 to 24 years. These students have been using the new methods of learning. In terms of research methodology, this group best describes a _____.
sample
visual acuity
sharpness of vision
__________may accompany narcolepsy and is characterized by the collapse of muscle groups or the entire body.
sleep paralysis
secondhand smoke
smoke from the tobacco products and exhalations of other people; also referred to as passive smoking
pons
structure of hindbrain that involves respiration, attention, and sleep vs arousal
Hippocampus
structure of the brain that is involved in memory formation
blind spot
the area of the retina where axons form ganglion cells meet to form the optic nerve
pitch
the highness or lowness of a sound
social psych
the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another -expirements -interractions bt people -moving at night vs day
somatosensory cortex
the section of cortex in which sensory stimulation is projected. It lies just behind the central fissure in the parietal lobe
vestibular sense
the sense of equilibrium that informs us about our bodies' positions relative to gravity
kinesthesis
the sense that informs us about the positions and motion of parts of our bodies
iconic memory
the sensory register that briefly holds mental images of visual stimuli
gene
The basic unit of heredity that consists of a segment of DNA on a chromosome
genetics
The scientific study of heredity
Which of the following is a difference between the thalamus and the hypothalamus?
The thalamus serves as a relay station for sensory stimulation, whereas the hypothalamus controls the regulation of body temperature, concentration of fluids, storage of nutrients, and motivation and emotion.
afferent neurons
Transmit messages from sensory receptors to the spinal cord and brain aka sensory neurons
systematic desensitization
a behavioral fear-reduction technique in which a hierarchy of fear-evoking stimuli is presented while the person remains relaxed
placebo
a bogus treatment that has the appearance of being genuine
presbyopia
a condition characterized by brittleness of the lens
cognitive map
a mental representation of the layout of one's environment
chromosomes
a microscopic threadlike structure in the nucleus of every living cell; it contains genes, the basic units of heredity
trichromat
a person with normal color vision
aristotle
-argued that science could rationally treat only information gathered by senses -5 senses -cause and effect - people differ from other living things in capacity of rational thought -laws of associationism -laws of association -people are motivated to seek pleasure and avoid pain
convergence
A binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object
norepinephrine
A neurotransmitter involved in arousal, as well as in learning and mood regulation may play a role in depression
conditioned stimulus
A previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response.
natural selection
A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits.
spinal reflex
A simple automatic action of the spinal cord not requiring involvement of the brain, such as the knee-jerk reflex
reflex
A simple, unlearned response triggered by stimuli.
which of the following best defines the term preconscious
It refers to material that is not in awareness but can be brought into awareness by focusing one's attention.
Amelia is a general physician. One of her patients claimed to be suffering from constant stomach aches. After running some tests, Amelia concludes that the patient is not suffering from any medical disorder. However, the patient insisted that she has stomach cancer. The patient was then made to participate in an experiment where she was given sugar pills and was told that it was a new medicine for treating cancer. Some other participants in the experiment were also given sugar pills. This best exemplifies _____.
a placebo
substances use disorder
a problem characterized by loss of control over usage, social impairment, risky use, and tolerance and withdrawl syndromes
shaping
a procedure for teaching complex behaviors that at first reinforces approximations of the target behavior
variable interval schedule
a schedule in which a variable amount of time must elapse between the previous and subsequent times that reinforcement is available
fixed-ratio schedule
a schedule in which reinforcement is provided after a fixed number of correct responses
variable ratio schedule
a schedule in which reinforcement is provided after a variable number of correct responses
continuous reinforcement
a schedule of reinforcement in which every correct response is reinforced
theory
a set of hypothesized statements about the relationships among events
classical conditioning
a simple form of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to evoke the response usually evoked by another stimulus by being paired repeatedly with the other stimulus
operant conditioning
a simple form of learning in which an organism learns to engage in behavior that is reinforced
rapid eye movement (REM) sleep
a stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, which have been linked to dreaming
instinct
a stereotyped pattern of behavior that is triggered by a particular stimulus and nearly identical among members of a species, even when they are reared in isolation
chunk
a stimulus or group of stimuli that are perceived as a discrete piece of information
role theory
a theory that explains hypnotic events in terms of the person's ability to act as though he or she were hypnotized
lens
a transparent body behind the iris that focuses an image on the retina
hertz
a unit expressing the frequency of sound waves
successive approximations
behaviors which are progressively closer to a target behavior
which of the following statements is true of depth perception
distant objects stimulate smaller areas on the retina than nearby ones
flashbacks
distorted perception or hallucinations that occur days or weeks after lsd usage but mimic the lsd experience
autonomic nervous system
division of peripheral system that regulates the body's vital functions, such as heartbeat, breathing, digestion, and blood pressure
functionalism
emphasizes uses or functions of the mind rather than elements of experience
_________is the first stage of information processing.
encoding
central nervous system
brain and spinal cord
Positron Emmission Tomography (PET)
brain imaging that injects radioactive tracer into bloodstream and assesses activity of parts of the brain according to amount of glucose metabolized
organizational psych
examines organizational influences on worker satisfaction and productivity and facilitates organizational change - how to put people in groups effectively -important in military
___ specialize in basic processes such as the nervous system, sensation and perception, learning and memory, thought, motivation, and emotion
experimental psychologists
In experiments on the extinction of conditioned responses, Pavlov found that repeated presentations of the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus led to__________of the conditioned response.
extinction
sleep terrors
frightening dreamlike experiences that occur during the deepest stage of non-REM sleep, shortly after the child has gone to sleep
Tracy had taken tennis lessons when she was very young and was a good tennis player while she was in school. However, she had not played tennis for years when she decided to enroll in a tennis class at college. At the tennis class, a moment after she picked up her racket, Tracy realized that she had shifted it to the correct forehand grip without even thinking. Tracy's _____ made this possible
implicit memory
which of the following is true in the context of taste aversions
in the taste aversion, the unconditioned stimulus can occur hours after the conditioned stimulus
Infantile Amnesia
inability to recall events that occur prior to the age of three or so; also termed childhood amnesia
in the context of behavior therapy methods, which of the following statements is true of flooding
it involves continupus exposure to fear evoking stimuli
which of the following best defines the term latent learning
it is learning that is hidden or concealed
which of the following is true about anterograde amnesia
it is the failure to remember the events that occured after a physical trauma
axon
long, thin part of a neuron that transmits impulses to other neurons from axon terminals or terminal buttons
dissociative amnesia
loss of memory of personal information that is thought to stem from psychological conflict or trauma
lsd
lysergic acid diethylamide
correlational method
mathematical method of determining if one variable increases as another variable increases/ decreases
Emily suffers from insomnia. When she went to see a doctor, she was told that her sleeplessness was caused by the deficiency of a particular hormone. The doctor then gave her sleeping pills containing the deficient hormone. Emily has _____ deficiency.
melatonin
control groups
members who do not get treatment
retrospective memory
memory for past events, activities, and learning experiences, as shown by explicit (episodic and semantic) and implicit memories
prospective memory
memory to perform an act in the future, aas at a certain time or when a certain event occurs
maintenance rehearsal
mental repetition of information to keep it in memory
______ is an example of a hallucinagenic drug
mescaline
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
method of detecting brain waves by means of measuring the current between electrodes placed on scalp
ganglion cells
neurons whose axons form the optic nerve
_____ cannot be experienced through sensory awareness or direct inner awareness.
nonconcious processes
paired associates
nonsense syllables presented in pairs in experiments that measure recall
scientific method
organized way to use experience and ideas to expand and refine knowledge
Amydgala
part of the limbic system that apparently facilitates stereotypical aggressive responses
according to sigmund freud, hypnotized adults
permit themselves to return to childish models of responding
dichromat
person who has trouble seeing one of the primary colors (red, blue, or green); caused by a form of color deficiency
__________is the activation of specific associations in memory, often as a result of repetition and without making a conscious effort to access the memory.
priming
applied research
research conducted in an effort to find solutions to particular problems
pure research
research conducted without concern for immediate applications
________of stored information means locating it and returning it to consciousness.
retrieval
Joy speaks Spanish as she had learnt the language when she was in school. She is now learning to speak French. She often notices that when speaking in Spanish, French words come to mind. This is an example of _____
retroactive interference
Memory for past events, activities, and learning experiences, as shown by explicit and implicit memories, fall under the category of__________memory
retrospective
rods
rod-shaped photoreceptors that are sensitive only to the intensity of light
A source of bias that may occur in research findings when participants are allowed to choose for themselves a certain treatment in a scientific study is called a _____.
selection factor
taste buds
sensory organs for taste
subliminal stimulation
sensory stimulation below a person's absolute threshold for conscious perception
monocular cues
stimuli suggestive of depth that can be perceived with only one eye
binocular cues
stimuli suggestive of depth that involve simultaneous perception by both eyes
In the context of Long-term memory, which of the following statements is true of flashbulb memory?
stimuli that stand out are preserved in detail in a persons long term memory
hue
the color of light, as determined by its wavelength
resting potential
the electrical potential across the neural membrane when it is not responding to other neurons
neural impulses
the electrochemical discharge of a nerve cell, or neuron
tip of the tongue phenomenon
the feeling that information is stored in memory although it cannot be readily retrieved
sensation
the stimulation of sensory receptors and the transmission of sensory information to the central nervous system
education psychology
the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning -deals directly w children
perceptual organization
the tendency to integrate perceptual elements into meaningful patterns
size contancy
the tendency to interpret an object as always being the same actual size, regardless of its distance
color constancy
the tendency to perceive an object as being the same color even though lightning conditions change its appearance
shape constancy
the tendency to perceive an object as being the same shape although the retinal image varies in shape as it rotates
common fate
the tendency to perceive elements that move together as belonging together
closure
the tendency to percieve a broken figure as being complete or whole
continuity
the tendency to percieve a series of points or lines as having unity
place theory
the theory that the pitch of a sound is determined by the section of the basilar membrane that vibrates in response to the sound
which of the following is a consequence of regular usage of opiates
they stop the production of neurotransmitters in the brain
corpus collosum
thick fiber bundle that connects the hemispheres of the cortex
debrief
to explain the purposes and methods of a completed procedure to a participant
which of the following is a function of the middle ear
to increase the pressure of the air entering the ear
Andy is a professional skydiver. During his freefall, he is able to automatically sense his body's position in relation to the earth's gravity without really having to look around him. This allows him to adjust his position appropriately during his fall to regulate his momentum. The sense that is illustrated in this scenario is the _____.
vestibular sense
cerebral cortex
wrinkled surface of the brain that regulates many functions that are distinctly human
which of the following is true of feature detectors
They refer to neurons that fire in response to specific features of sensory stimuli.
primary reinforcer
an unlearned reinforcer whose effectiveness is based on the biological makeup of the organism and not on learning
orienting reflex
an unlearned response in which an organism attends to a stimulus
counseling psych
assists people with problems in living and in achieving greater well-being - still able to function properly
The axon bundle that transmits neural impulses from the organ of Corti to the brain is known as the______
auditory nerve
Episodic memory is also referred to as _____
autobiographical memory
white matter
axon bundles that carry messages to and from the brain
Which of the following statements is true of handedness?
being left handed was once seen as a deficiency
population
complete froup of interest to researchers, from which a sample is drawn
A(n)__________is a mental representation of a visual stimulus that is held briefly in sensory memory.
icon
A(n)__________is a stereotyped pattern of behavior that is triggered in a specific situation.
instinct
cerebrum
large mass of the fore brain, consisting of two hemispheres
survey
large sample of people answer questions about attitudes/behavior
dependent variable
measure of assumed effect o independent variable
explicit memory
memory that clearly and distinctly expresses specific information
implicit memory
memory that is not easily brought into conscious awareness, such as procedural memory
perspective
monocular cue for depth based on the convergence of parallel lines as they recede into the distance
A _____ is a complete group of interest to researchers, from which a sample is drawn for an experiment.
population
symphathetic division
prepares organs for stressful situations (fight or flight response)
The interference by old learning with the ability to retrieve material learned recently is known as________
proactive interference
Implicit memories involve methods and skills, cognitive and physical, and are also referred to as _____.
procedural memories
alpha waves
rapid low-amplitude brain waves that have been linked to feelings of relaxation
biological preparedness
readiness to acquire a certain kind of CR due to the biological makeup of the organism
random sample
sample drawn so that each member o a population has an equal chance of being selected to participate
stratified sample
sample drawn so that identified subgroups in population are represented proportionately
motor cortex
section of the frontal lobe located at the back, responsible for sending motor commands to the muscles of the somatic nervous system
biological perspective
seeks to understand links between biological processes and structures such as the functions of the brain, endocrine system, heredity vs behavior
illusions
sensations that give rise to misperceptions
all or none principle
the fact that a neuron fires an impulse of the same strength whenever its action potential is triggered
echoic memory
the sensory register that briefly holds traces of aural stimuli
Transcendental Meditation
the simplified form of meditation brought to the United States by the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi and used as a method for coping with stress
opponent-process theory
the theory that color vision is made possible by three types of cones, some of which respond to red or green light, some to blue or yellow, and some to the intensity of light
heredity
the transmission of traits from one generation to the next
desensitization
the type of sensory adaptation in which we become less sensitive to constant stimuli. Also called negative adaptation
contingency theory
the view that learning occurs when stimuli provide information about the likelihood of the occurrence of other stimuli
signal detection theory
the view that the perception of sensory stimuli involves the interaction of physical, biological, and psychological factors
interference theory
the view that we may forget stored material because other learning interferes with it
frequency theory
theory that pitch is determined by the frequency with which hair cells in the cochlea fire
which of the following statements is true of rod cells in the retina of the eye
they are sensitive only to the intensity of ligt
Ludwig, a cellist, is memorizing a musical composition just by listening to it, without referring to the sheet music. He most likely is using a(n) _____
acoustic code
engram
an assumed electrical circuit in the brain that corresponds to a memory trace
hydrocarbons
chemical compounds consisting of hydrogen and carbon
neurotransmitters
chemical substances involved in the transmission of neural impulses from one neuron to another
opioids
chemicals that act on opiate receptors but are not derived from the opium poppy
a ______ is a cyce that is connected with the 24 hour period of the earths rotation
circadian rhythm
cones
cone shaped photoreceptors that transmit sensations of color
efferent neurons
Transmit messages from brain or spinal cord to muscles and glands aka motor neurons
memory trace
an assumed change in the nervous system that reflects the impression made by a stimulus
in the context of the difference threshold, identify the correct statement
On average, people can tell when a tone rises or falls in pitch by an extremely small one-third of 1 percent
higher-order conditioning
a classical conditioning procedure in which a previously neutral stimulus comes to elicit the response brought forth by a conditioned stimulus by being paired repeatedly with that conditioned stimulus
mindfulness meditation
a form of meditation that provides clients with techniques they can use to focus on the present moment rather than ruminate about problems
mescaline
a hallucinogen derived from the mescal (peyote) cactus
motion parallax
a monocular cue for depth based on the perception that nearby objects appear to move more rapidly in relation to our own motion
iris
a muscular membrane whose dilation regulates the amount of light that enters the eye
acetycholine
a neurotransmitter that controls muscle contractions
positive reinforcer
a reinforcer that when presented increases the frequency of an operant
negative reinforcer
a reinforcer that when removed increases the frequency of an operant
fixed-intercal schedule
a schedule in which a fixed amount of time must elapse between the previous and subsequent times that reinforcement is available
dizygotic twins
fraternal twins
