Psychology 1011

Different neurotransmitters

- Acetylcholine a neurotransmitter used by neurons in the peripheral and central nervous systems in the control of functions ranging from muscle contraction and heart rate to digestion and memory - Norepinephrine a neurotransmitter involved in arousal as well as in learning and mood regulation - Serotonin a neurotransmitter used by cells in parts of the brain involved in the regulation of sleep, mood and eating - Dopamine a neurotransmitter used in the parts of the brain involved in regulating movement and experiencing pleasure - Gamma- amino butyric acid (GABA) is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system - Glutamate is the major excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system

Associative learning

1. Classical Conditioning 2. Operant Conditioning

Types of neurons

Examples of different types and how their structure relates to their function - Fast conducting --> Big axon - Long distance --> Long axon - Association between many neural structures --> Many dendrites

Operant Conditioning - Extinction

If reinforcement/punishment has ceased, the individual will eventually stop producing the learned response.

Types of Reinforcers

Primary reinforcers • innately rewarding properties Secondary reinforcers • neutral stimuli that have, through repeated associations with a primary reinforcer, acquired reinforcing properties

Classical Conditioning - Stimulus Generalisation

SG occurs when another stimulus similar to the CS produces a response that is similar (but not necessarily identical) to the CR.

Operant Conditioning - Spontaneous Recovery

SR is the reappearance of an apparently extinguished response, in the absence of any consequence, or in the presence of the antecedent.

Classical Conditioning - Spontaneous Recovery

SR occurs when the CR reappears after the presentation of the CS, following the apparent extinction of the CR

Neuroplasticity

The brain's ability to change, adapt, and reorganise itself.

The somatic nervous system

The somatic nervous system consists of networks of sensory neurons that transmit sensory information from the skin, muscles and sensory organs to the CNS. The somatic nervous system also has groups of motor neurons that relay motor commands from the CNS and directly to the muscles and organs.

Organisation of the nervous system

Two main divisions 1. The central nervous system (CNS) 2. The peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Classical Conditioning - Acquisition

• Timing of CS is also important - The CS must precede the UCS in order for strong conditioning to occur (0.5-10 seconds is best) - Animals will not condition to a CS that occurs simultaneously with the UCS or after the UCS.

William James (functionalism)

Founder: William James (1842-1910) Influenced by Darwin's theory of Natural Selection To examine the purpose and functions of the mind: Functionalism "What for" (i.e. function) of mind, NOT "What is" (i.e. structures) Consciousness evolved because it has a function - adaptive purpose, struggle for survival

What is learning

"Learning is a change in an organism's behaviour or thought as a result of experience"

Gestalt psychologists

- Emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes - Interested in how we organize our perception of the world - As humans, we tend to "fill in the blanks".

Little Albert Experiment

- John B. Watson - Condition fear into a child known as 'Little Albert'. In this experiment, a loud noise which elicited a fear response, was paired with a neutral stimulus that originally did not elicit a response; however, after repeated presentations of the white rat with the loud noise at the same time, the child began to exhibit the fear response at the mere presentation of the rat. That is, the neutral stimulus had become a conditioned stimulus, through the process of classical conditioning.

Approaches to the science of Psychology

- The biological approach - The evolutionary approach - The psychodynamic approach - The behavioral approach - The cognitive approach - The humanistic approach

The history of Psychology

- Wundt and the structuralism of Titchner - Gestalt psychologists - Freud and psychoanalysis - William James and Functionalism - John B. Watson and behaviorism - Psychology today

Types of learning

- non associative - associative

Nervous system principles

1) Our nervous system is composed of a constellation of cells that are hierarchically organised from single cells that combine to form structures and brain regions which subsequently operate within neural networks, systems or circuits. 2) Each component of our nervous system is structurally built for a specific purpose and thus structure begets or brings about function. 3) The fundamental purpose of our nervous system is to allow us to gather information from our environment (input); process or make sense of this information (processing) so that we can take decisions to respond accordingly (output). These three stages represent the information processing arc. 4) Neurological disorders can be understood in terms of damage or disease affecting one or more stages of this processing resulting in corresponding cognitive deficits.

Building blocks of the nervous system

1. Neurons --> group together to make structures --> structures group together to perform functions 2. Glia Neurons are highly specialised cells of the nervous systems that can transmit and receive electrical and chemical signals. At its core, the neurons ability to communicate with each other and other cell types drives all human behaviour. However, neurons cannot function in isolation. Neurons are supported by glia, another group of specialised cells that provide essential nutrients and growth factors needed for neurogenesis, as well as neuronal repair and maintenance. They also play an information processing role that is largely complementary to neurons.

Piaget's stages of cognitive development

1. sensorimotor - The first of Piaget's stages of cognitive development, when the infant's mental activity is confined to sensory perception and motor skills. During this stage, a child forms schemas for only the things that they can see, hear or touch. As such, children in this stage do not think about things that are absent because they cannot yet form mental representations of those items. This stage is said to end when the infant forms mental representations and are aware objects exist, even when out of sight or not performing an action (i.e. object permanence). For example, a popular game which tests this phenomenon is 'peek-a-boo'; when the infant knows to pull your hands away from your face because they know you are still there, this is probably a sign of their development of object permanence! 2. preoperational This is the second stage of cognitive development, during which children begin to use symbols to represent things that are not present. This stage comprises two steps - the first step spans ages two to four years and is characterised by the use of symbols. Specifically, children in this step of the preoperational stage use symbols and images to represent things that are not present in the immediate space. Between the ages of 4 and 7, children move into the second step of the preoperational stage which is characterised by the mastering of more complex symbols. During this stage, children begin to develop the capacity to understand that even if the appearance of something changes, the object itself is still the same. This is known as conservation; the ability to recognise that the important properties of a substance remain constant despite changes in shape, length or position. 3. concrete operational The third stage of cognitive development is the concrete operational stage, during which children's thinking is no longer dominated by visual appearances. Instead, children are now able to count, measure, add and subtract. 4. formal operational The fourth and final stage in cognitive development according to Piaget, usually beginning around age 11, is when abstract thinking first appears. Early adolescents are now able to think hypothetically, or discuss situations that may or may not exist in a logical manner, which was not possible in earlier development.

Bandura

Albert Bandura developed a social cognitive theory of learning and proposed that learning occurs in a social environment and that much learning occurs by observing other people and then modelling that behaviour. Bandura's most famous experiment was the 1961 Bobo Doll study where an inflated doll was thrown into the air, kicked and beaten by an adult and Bandura recorded this interaction. The recording was shown to a group of children and Bandura was interested in whether the behaviour of those children modelled the violent behaviour that they had seen in the video. Children who had not seen the film were also given an opportunity to play with the bobo doll. The findings demonstrated that the children who saw the video were more likely to beat the doll and act aggressively toward the doll than children who had not seen the film.

Behavioural approach

An approach to psychology emphasising that human behaviour is determined mainly by what a person has learned, especially from rewards and punishments Accordingly, psychologists who take a strict behavioural approach concentrate on understanding how past experiences with rewards and punishments act on the 'raw materials' provided by genes and evolution to shape observable behaviour into what it is today.

John B. Watson and behaviourism

Behaviourism centres on observable or measurable behaviour. Founder: John B. Watson (1878-1958) Uncovering general principles of learning. The environment was everything Emphasis on objective observation of behaviour. The human mind is like a sealed black box that you can't see inside. Animal Studies Prediction and Control of behaviour Little Albert study (phobias are a result of conditioned response)

Biological psychology

Biological psychologists use high-tech scanning devices and other methods to study how biological processes in the brain affect, and are affected by, behaviour and mental processes E.g Biological psychologists studying this illusion of deja vu (French for 'already seen') suggest that it may be due to a temporary malfunction in the brain's ability to combine incoming information from the senses, creating the impression of two 'copies' of a single event (Brown, 2004)

Biological psychology

Biological psychology, by definition, is the study of physical and chemical changes involved in behaviour and mental processes. Central to this, is an understanding of the mind-body connection and how our brain and nervous system operate to enable us perceive and interact within our environment.

Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning - a procedure in which a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with a stimulus that elicits a reflex or other response until the neutral stimulus alone comes to elicit a similar response Before Conditioning: The Neutral Stimulus (NS) produces no relevant response. The unconditioned stimulus (UCS) automatically elicits the Unconditioned Response (UCR) During Conditioning: The Neutral Stimulus is repeatedly paired with the Unconditioned Stimulus to produce the Unconditioned response. After Conditioning: The Neutral Stimulus becomes a Conditioned Stimulus and automatically produces a Conditioned Response which is usually similar to the previously Unconditioned Response Results in the involuntary association between a neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response. e.g Pavlovs dog NS - Bell UCS - Food UCR - Salivation due to food CS - Bell CR - Salivation due to Bell

Clinical, counselling, community and health psychology

Clinical and counselling psychologists - psychologists who seek to assess, understand and change abnormal behaviour Community psychologists - psychologists who work with communities and individuals to prevent psychological disorders by striving for change in social systems Health psychologists - psychologists who study the effects of behaviour and mental processes on health and illness, and vice versa

Cognitive psychology

Cognitive psychologists study the mental processes underlying judgement, decision making, problem-solving, imagining and other aspects of human thought or cognition; They study mental abilities such as sensation and perception, learning and memory, thinking, consciousness, intelligence and creativity.

Biological influences on learning

Conditioned Taste Aversion People (and animals) are hard wired to form associations between tastes and illness. It is most likely due to the evolution of survival mechanisms. That is, if something makes us unwell then we unconsciously question whether it is poisonous and needs to be avoided - to reduce the risk of ill health or death. We are biologically predisposed or prepared to form associations between taste and illness, to increase our chance of personal survival and survival of our species. Conditioned taste aversion - an avoidance reaction to the taste of a food after conditioning While conditioned taste aversion can be somewhat explained by classical conditioning (i.e., a neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus until it becomes a conditioned stimulus that elicits the response), not all features can be. In particular, the US and CS: a) need only be paired once b) they can be paired even if the time between them is extensive (e.g., hours), c) the pairing is highly specific e.g., avoidance of a certain type of berry or a certain type of cheese, rather than all berries, or all cheeses. People who have developed a food aversion may attempt to gradually overcome it by cooking the particular food in a different way, or trying a different preparation of the same food.

cultural competence

Cultural competency and proficiency (arguably more of an aspiration we continuously work towards rather than necessarily achieve) refers to the constant reflection of one's behaviours and practices, and a willingness to challenge one's own cultural values and beliefs in order to develop empathy and connectedness to others from differing cultural backgrounds. The Continuum of Cultural Competence by Terry Cross (1989), states: Cultural Aversion (Destructiveness) A person is aversive if they hold beliefs/values or behave in ways that vilify or denigrate others based on their cultural difference. The indicators of cultural aversion include many of concepts such as racism, stereotyping, discrimination and prejudice. Cultural Blindness A person may be culturally blind if they ignore or do not see cultural differences. A culturally blind person, however well intentioned, does not understand the importance of culture to the everyday lived experiences of people, groups and community and may on that account contribute to circumstances that are harmful. Cultural Pre-competence This is a very common position for many professions. A person aspires to behave in a culturally competent manner but they simply do not have the knowledge or skills to support them in their efforts. This may be exacerbated if the organisation they work for does not have well-articulated processes, procedures and training to enhance cultural competence. Cultural Competence A culturally competent person has taken responsibility for undertaking a level of training and personal reflection and accepts the importance of understanding cultural issues in their personal and professional lives. Cultural Proficiency Cultural proficiency is developed and maintained by understanding the importance of continual training, reflection and skills development as a lifelong project. Attending a cultural competence training course once to 'tick the box' is completely insufficient, and it probably means the person has not authentically embraced the idea and importance of cultural competence.

Developmental psychology

Developmental psychologists describe the changes in behaviour and mental processes that occur from birth through old age and try to understand the causes and effects of those changes. Their research on the development of memory and other mental abilities, for example, is used by judges and lawyers in deciding how old a child has to be in order to serve as a reliable witness in court or to responsibly choose which divorcing parent to live with.

Educational and school psychology

Educational psychologists - psychologists who study methods by which instructors teach and students learn, and who apply their results to improving those methods School psychologists - psychologists who work with teachers and students, assist in diagnosing students' academic problems, provide counselling to students, and set up programs to improve students' achievement

Latent learning

Edward Tolman was an American Psychologist whose work falls under the umbrella of neobehaviourism. Tolman studied the behaviour of rats similar to Skinner. Tolman found that reinforcement was not essential to learning and that rats who did not receive reinforcement during his experiments still learned how to navigate the maze that they had been placed into. In other words, the rats acquired knowledge about how to make their way through a maze - even in the absence of reinforcement. How did the rats in Tolman's study learn their way around the maze without reinforcement? The rats who had been placed into the second condition in the experiment, group 2, learned how to navigate the maze even in the absence of the reward. As soon as the reward was on offer, the rats were as fast at completing the maze as the rats in the first group who had been provided constant reinforcements. Tolman and his colleague concluded that the rats had acquired knowledge of where they were within the maze and had built a cognitive map of the maze i.e., a mental picture for how the paths in the maze had been arranged. Tolman extended his theory to humans and proposed that we also develop cognitive maps of our physical environments - even if there is no reward for doing so at that time. The rats had demonstrated latent learning, that is, they had learned how to navigate the maze in the first 10 days before a reward became available - and once it was available, they were motivated to go faster.

Classical Conditioning - Extinction

Extinction occurs when the UCS is repeatedly no longer presented with the CS, a CR no longer occurs following the presentation of a CS

Schedules of reinforcement

Fixed interval - a response is rewarded after a specific period of time has passed; unaffected by your behaviour or performance Variable interval - a response is rewarded after an random or unpredictable period of time has passed; unaffected by your behaviour or performance Fixed ratio - a response is rewarded after a specific number of behaviours; unaffected by time Variable ratio - a response is rewarded after a random or unpredictable number of behaviours; unaffected by time

Freud and Psychoanalysis

Founder: Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) - Emphasizes the role of unconscious processes Theory of personality - Id - pleasure principle - Ego - reality principle - Superego - morality Freud came to believe that all behavior — from everyday slips of the tongue to severe forms of mental disorder — is motivated by psychological processes, especially by mental conflicts that occur without our awareness, at an unconscious level.

Chemical Communication via Hormones (Endocrine System)

Hormones vs NTs Sims - both are chemical messengers that bind to a receptor in order to send their signal Diffs - neurotransmitters are released in close proximity to cells with their receptors - hormones are secreted into the bloodstream and travel throughout the body, affecting any cells that contain receptors for them. - neurotransmitters' effects are localised - hormones effects are widespread. - hormones are slower to take effect, and tend to be longer lasting The endocrine system consists of a series of glands that produce chemical substances known as hormones. Hormones regulate behaviours such as aggression, mating, and parenting. The relationship between hormones and behaviour is bi-directional as behaviour can also influence hormone concentration. Hormones are involved in regulating bodily functions and are ultimately controlled through interactions between the hypothalamus (in the central nervous system) and the pituitary gland (in the endocrine system). The brain exercises control over bodily functions through the hypothalamus. The brain is also the major target of hormonal secretions and thus the communication between the body and the brain is best described as bidirectional in nature.

Wundt and the structuralism of Titchner

In 1879, Wilhelm Wundt founded a research laboratory, studying the science of mental processes (e.g., thinking, perception and consciousness) through experimentation. One of Wundt's students, Edward Titchner, developed the structuralist approach to studying psychology. As the name suggests, structuralism is concerned with the structure of the mind, focusing on the elements or building blocks of conscious experience.

Insight and learning

Insight learning is a type of learning or problem solving that happens 'all of a sudden' through understanding relationships to various parts of a problem, rather than through trial and error. There are four stages to insight learning: 1. Preparation - the problem is too difficult to be solved. Gathering data 2. Incubation - the problem is 'put on hold' but worked on unconsciously 2. Insight - suddenly a mental representation of a solution to the problem 4. Verification - the solution to the problem is checked to see if it does indeed work

Stages and type of attachment

John Bowlby's attachment theory had four stages of attachment that occur mainly within an infant's first year and a half of life, these are known as: pre-attachment, attachment in the making, true attachment and reciprocal attachment (this stage of attachment is ongoing through life). There are different types of attachment according to research by Bowlby's student Mary Ainsworth through her "strange situation" experiments. As an overview, the different types of attachment include: - secure attachment - insecure-avoidant attachment - insecure-anxious attachment - disorganised attachment.

Learning pt. 2

Learning can consist of changes in behaviour or thought. The S(stimulus)-->R(response) approach centres on how observable behaviours change. It can be thought of as the 'black box' approach to learning Where there is simply an empty space between stimulus and response.

Neuronal communication

Neuronal communication is referred to as an electrochemical event. The movement of the action potential down the length of the axon represents the first part of this communication - the electrical event. However, in order for the adjoining neuron to receive the incoming message, there also needs to be a movement of the neurotransmitter across the synaptic space. This represents the chemical portion of the process. The synapse or "gap" is the place where information is transmitted from one neuron to another. Synapses usually form between axon terminals and dendritic spines, but this is not universally true. There are also axon-to-axon, dendrite-to-dendrite, and axon-to-cell body synapses. The neuron transmitting the signal is called the presynaptic neuron, and the neuron receiving the signal is called the postsynaptic neuron.

Neural Networks & Process of Signal Transduction

Neurons typically function within a group of other neurons, known as neural networks. Communication between neurons underpins co-ordination and synchronisation within neural networks required for all human behaviour. Neurons are able to carry electrical impulses due to their polarised cell membranes. Neuronal cell membranes are impermeable to charged particles or ions and in order to enter or exit the cell these ions need to pass through protein channels that span the lipid membrane. Ion channels that change their structure in response to voltage changes are called voltage-gated ion channels. Voltage-gated ion channels regulate the relative concentrations of different ions inside and outside the cell. A neuron at rest is negatively charged: the inside of a cell is approximately 70 millivolts more negative than the outside (−70 mV, note that this number varies by neuron type and by species). This voltage is called the resting membrane potential. The Action Potential Normally the voltage gated channels along the axon are closed, but changes in the environment (i.e. neurotransmitter signal from pre-synaptic neuron) can trigger sections of the cell membrane to depolarise by causing the gates to swing open and allowing an influx of positively charged ions. When this happens, it causes a depolarization in the adjoining section of the membrane by allowing the neighbouring channels to open. In this way as the sequence continues, it creates a wave of changes in electrochemical potential that spreads down the axon. This wave of electrochemical potential is called an action potential. Once the sodium channels open, the neuron completely depolarises to a membrane potential of about +40 mV. Action potentials are considered an "all-or nothing" event, in that, once the threshold potential is reached, the neuron always completely depolarises. Once depolarisation is complete, the cell must now "reset" its membrane voltage back to the resting potential. To accomplish this, the Na+ channels close and cannot be opened. This begins the neuron's refractory period, in which it cannot produce another action potential because its sodium channels will not open.

Chemical Communication via Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters are the chemicals stored within a neuron's axon terminal in little parcels (vesicles). If an action potential is fired, these vesicles open up and the neurotransmitter is released into the synaptic cleft. Each type of neuron typically has a particular type of neurotransmitter it releases and neurons that operate within a particular neurotransmitter systems are linked to specific cognitive and behavioural functions. From its point of release in the pre-synaptic neuron, neurotransmitters reach the adjoining post-synaptic neuron and 'bind to' receptors. Neurotransmitters only bind to their own specific receptors in a lock-and-key type of fit. Each neurotransmitter can bind to several different receptor types and can have different effects depending on the type of receptor to which it binds. When a postsynaptic cell is reached by a neurotransmitter, a change called a postsynaptic potential makes the cell either more or less likely to fire again. A depolarised membrane will cause an excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) and the neuron will be likely to fire an action potential. A hyper-polarised membrane will cause an inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) and the neuron will be less likely to fire. Postsynaptic potentials alone fade as they spread across the postsynaptic neuron. It is the combined impact of the many EPSPs and IPSPs at the junction of the axon and cell body that determines whether or not an action potential will occur.

Non-associative learning

Non-associative learning is about a single stimuli and how that particular stimuli increases or decreases a response. So no punishment or reward is presented in learning. Two types of non-associative learning habituation (i.e., decrease in response over time with experience) e.g learning to not hear the train at dads old apartment sensitisation (i.e., increase in response over time with experience) e.g slowly getting more annoyed at people making noises in exams

Observational learning

Observational learning occurs when one sees the behaviour of another and models that behaviour themselves. From his research, Bandura determined that there are four factors of observational learning: Attention - the learner needs to pay attention or focus on the other person's behaviour Retention - remembering or retaining the information in one's memory about the other person's behaviour Production - producing or performing the observed behaviour Motivation - desire to reproduce the observed behaviour It seems however, that imitating others is actually hard-wired into our biological make up. Research conducted with monkeys found that there are a group of brain cells in the premotor cortex that unconsciously prepare the body to imitate others. These brain cells are known as mirror cells. Neuro-images of the monkey's brains showed that the nerve cells that were active when picking up an object were also active when the monkey observed someone else pick up the object. Hence the name 'mirror' cells.

Instinctive drift

Once a conditioned stimulus elicits a conditioned response, the organism has developed a learned association. However, organisms are biologically predisposed to form associations that are naturally adaptive. Therefore, the behaviour of animals overtime may shift back toward their natural tendencies, with the artificial learned behaviours becoming weaker over time. This phenomenon is known as instinctive drift.

Operant conditioning

Operant Conditioning refers to a form of learning where the likelihood of a particular response occurring is determined by the consequences following the response. Operant is any active and voluntary behaviour that operates on the environment to generate consequences. Terms Operant conditioning Antecedent - The environmental stimulus that precedes the relevant behaviour and indicates the consequence. Behaviour - Voluntary activity that has an effect on the environment. Consequence - The environmental event that follows the behaviour. Effect on future behaviour: Reinforcement - Increases the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated. Punishment - Decreases the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated. Reinforcers & Punishments Positive Reinforcement - Increases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated by delivering a pleasant stimulus. e.g giving money as a reward Negative Reinforcement - Increases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated by removing an Unpleasant Stimulus. e.g taking away chores for good behaviour Positive Punishment - Decreases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated by delivering an unpleasant stimulus. e.g giving chores for bad behaviour Negative Punishment - Decreases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated by removing a pleasant Stimulus. e.g taking away pocket it money for a week for bad behaviour

Organisational Psychology

Organisational psychologists conduct research on leadership, stress, competition, pay rates and other factors that affect the efficiency, productivity and satisfaction of people in the workplace. They also explore topics such as worker motivation, work team cooperation, conflict resolution procedures and employee selection methods.

Thalamus (Limbic System)

Other areas of the forebrain (which includes the lobes) are the parts located beneath the cerebral cortex, including the thalamus and the limbic system. The thalamus is a sensory relay for the brain. All of our senses, with the exception of smell, are routed through the thalamus before being directed to other areas of the brain for continued processing. The limbic system is involved in processing both emotion and memory. Interestingly, the sense of smell projects directly to the limbic system; therefore, not surprisingly, smell can evoke emotional responses in ways that other sensory modalities cannot. The limbic system is made up of a number of different structures, but three of the most important are - the hippocampus, - the amygdala - the hypothalamus The hippocampus is an essential structure for learning and memory. The amygdala is involved in our experience of emotion and in binding emotional value to our memories. The hypothalamus regulates a number of homeostatic processes, including the regulation of body temperature, appetite, and blood pressure. The hypothalamus also serves as an interface between the nervous system and the endocrine system and in the regulation of sexual motivation and behaviour.

The Brain

Our brain is a extraordinarily complex organ made up of billions of interconnected neurons and glia. The human brain is a bilateral or two-sided structure that can be separated into distinct lobes. Each lobe is associated with certain set of functions, but, ultimately, all of the areas of the brain interact with one another to provide the foundation for our thoughts and behaviours. Cerebral Hemispheres The surface of the brain, known as the cerebral cortex, is characterised by a distinctive pattern of folds or bumps, known as gyri, and grooves, known as sulci (singular sulcus). These gyri and sulci form important landmarks that allow us to separate the cerebral cortex into distinct functional centres. The most prominent sulcus, known as the longitudinal fissure, is the deep groove that separates the brain into two halves or hemispheres: the left hemisphere and the right hemisphere. There is evidence specialisation of function—referred to as lateralization—in each hemisphere. This lateralization is mainly regarding differences in language ability between cerebral hemispheres. Language comprehension and communication is localised in the left cerebral hemisphere regions for most of us. In terms of motor control, we know that left hemisphere controls the right half of the body, and the right hemisphere controls the left half of the body. The two hemispheres are connected by a thick band of neural fibres known as the corpus callosum, consisting of about 200 million axons. The corpus callosum allows the two hemispheres to communicate and exchange information.

Personality psychology

Personality psychologists study individuality - the unique features that characterise each of us. Using personality tests, some of these psychologists seek to describe how your own combination of personality traits, like your fingerprints, differs from everyone else s in terms of traits such as openness to experience, emotionality, reliability, agreeableness and sociability.

Maturation

Physical or cognitive growth that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

Positive psychology

Positive psychology is a field of research that focuses on people's positive experiences and characteristics, such as happiness, optimism, and resilience. Positive psychologists explore, for example, the factors that lead people to be happy and satisfied with their lives, to achieve at a high level, to be creative, to help others, and to develop their full potential as human beings.

Disorders of the Nervous System

Problems with neurotransmitters - Major depressive disorder - Parkinson's disease - Myasthenia gravis Problems due to structural breakdown - Multiple sclerosis - Alzheimer's disease

Psychology defined

Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes, taking into account physical attributes and the interaction with the environment. Generally, the goals of psychology are to understand, explain and predict human behaviour in different contexts.

Classical Conditioning - Stimulus Discrimination

SD Occurs when only the CS and not any other similar stimulus results in the CR being produced.

Operant Conditioning - Stimulus Discrimination

SD occurs when an organism demonstrates a learned behavior to the antecedent and not to other similar antecedents.

Operant Conditioning - Stimulus Generalisation

SG is where the learned behavior is made to another antecedent that is similar (but not identical) to the antecedent that was present when the behavior was reinforced.

Schema

Schemas are the generalisations that form as people experience the world. Schemas organise past experiences and provide a framework for understanding future experiences. Piaget saw schemas as organised patterns of action or thought that children construct as they adapt to the environment; they are the basic units of knowledge, the building blocks of intellectual development. Two related processes guide the development of schemas: assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation The process of trying out existing schemas on objects that fit those schemas, e.g. seeing a horse which has features similar to a dog (an existing schema), and categorising the horse as a dog. Accommodation The process of modifying schemas when familiar schemas do not work, e.g. realising a horse is actually different to a dog (i.e. doesn't fit into existing schema), and coming up with a new category to accommodate both of them, such as calling them both animals. Equilibrium or Equilibration Attempting to exist in harmony with the environment by striking a balance between assimilation and accommodation. Equilibrium tries to explain how children move from one stage of thinking (e.g. their previous knowledge of horses just being another type of dog; assimilation) to the next (e.g. seeing dogs and horses as different types of animals, rather than the same thing; accommodation).

Newborns

Senses Vision is the least well developed sense at birth and up until the age of ~4 weeks babies can perceive light but not much more. It isn't until ~1-3 months that babies can make eye contact with their mother and fixate and/or follow objects with their eyes. Although clarity is poor, babies can detect light even from before they were born. Babies prefer to look at objects of contrasting colours, such as a black and white spotty toy. Over the first few months of life, vision becomes sharper and behaviour will start to integrate with vision, e.g., reaching for an object at ~3-4 months old, and later crawling and walking to reach or avoid objects. A foetus's hearing ability is fairly well developed by the end of the second trimester, allowing them to hear sounds from the outside world while still residing in the womb. At birth, research suggests that babies can recognise the familiar voice of their mother, or a familiar tune if it was played repeatedly while they were in the womb. That said, whilst babies can hear at birth, their hearing may not be particularly sharp. A baby's ears at birth are full of fluid and some areas of the brain that play a role in hearing are not yet fully developed. It is advantageous to test a newborn's hearing to screen for possible hearing loss. The early detection of hearing loss and appropriate intervention (e.g., hearing aids) before the age of 6 months optimises speech and language development compared to babies whose hearing loss was detected after the age of five years. Sense of smell also begins to develop in the womb and the fetus can smell the amniotic fluid. At birth, a newborn baby can smell it's mother's breast milk and will follow the scent, pulling themselves up to be fed - this is known as a breast crawl. By two weeks of age, newborns can discriminate between the smell of their mother's breast milk and another mother's breast milk. The breast crawl is an example of an involuntary motor skill or reflex that occurs without learning.

Social psychology

Social psychologists - psychologists who study how people influence one another's behaviour and mental processes, individually and in groups Their research on persuasion has been applied to the creation of safe-sex advertising campaigns designed to stop the spread of AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) or quit smoking campaigns.

Human Diversity and Psychology

Sociocultural factors: social class, gender, ethnicity, etc. Culture: multicultural countries Collectivism (emphasises the interrelatedness of all members of society and their collective endeavours), individualism (emphasises the autonomy of the individual) Extraversion, introversion

The Central Nervous system

The CNS is made up of the - brain Interprets and store information and sends orders to muscles, glands and organs - spinal cord Pathway connecting the brain and the PNS The brain and spinal cord perform vital functions; however, as structures they are quite vulnerable to damage. They are surrounded in fluid filled cavities and encased in many layers of protective covering (i.e. blood-brain barrier, meninges, bony encasing of skulls and vertebrae) that regulate the entry and exit of molecules into the CNS.

The Peripheral Nervous system

The PNS extends its reach throughout our body and is responsible for collecting sensory information for processing in the CNS and also for enacting the motor commands received from the CNS. The PNS can be thought of as the wires that go to individual houses from the power plant. Without these 'wires', the signals produced by the CNS could not control our body and the CNS would be 'blind' to the happenings of the world around us. The PNS is broken down into two parts 1. The Somatic Nervous System 2. The Autonomic nervous system

Identifying Aboriginal

The United Nations notes that defining indigenous peoples is complex and characterised by a set of principles and understandings, rather than being prescriptive. These principles and understandings include such things as identity, self-identification, history, shared languages, practices and beliefs; specifically: - self-identification as indigenous peoples at the individual level and accepted by the community as their member - historical continuity with pre-colonial and/or pre-settler society - strong link to territories and surrounding natural resources - distinct social, economic and political systems - distinct language, culture and beliefs - form non-dominant groups of society - resolve to maintain and reproduce their ancestral environments and systems as distinctive peoples and communities. (UN Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues, 2016)

The Autonomic nervous system

The autonomic nervous system controls bodily functions without conscious control. The autonomic nervous system serves as the relay between the CNS and the internal organs. It controls the lungs, the heart, smooth muscle, and exocrine and endocrine glands. It can continuously monitor the conditions of these different systems and implement changes as needed. The autonomic nervous system has two branches: the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous system.

Neobehaviourism

The behavioural approach to learning assumes that human behaviour is not impacted on by independent thinking, and rather, that all behaviour (including learning) could be explained by the stimulus-response relationship. A body of researchers continued to explore learning based upon the principles of behaviourism, but began to also measure phenomena that could not be observed. This group of researchers are known as neobehaviourists.

Skill Learning

The complex action sequences, or skills, that people learn to perform in everyday life — tying shoelaces, opening a door, operating a computer, — develop through direct and vicarious learning processes involving imitation, instruction, reinforcement and, of course, lots of practice. The learning of skills usually involves practice and feedback The importance of practice Practice — the repeated performance of a skill is the most critical component of skill learning. For perceptual-motor skills, both physical and mental practice are beneficial. To be most effective, practice should continue past the point of correct performance until the skill can be performed automatically, with little or no need for attention. The importance of feedback Feedback about the correctness of responses is also necessary. As with any learning process, the feedback should come soon enough to be effective, but not so quickly that it interferes with the learners efforts to learn independently. Large amounts of guidance may produce very good performance during practice, but too much guidance may impair later performance.

Evolutionary Approach

The evolutionary approach to psychology assumes that the behaviour and mental processes of animals and humans today are also the result of evolution through natural selection. Psychologists who take this approach see cooperation as an adaptive survival strategy, aggression as a form of territory protection, and gender differences in mate selection preferences as reflecting different ways through which genes survive in future generations

The lobes of the brain

The four lobes of the brain are the 1. frontal 2. parietal 3. temporal 4. occipital lobes.

The frontal lobe

The frontal lobe is located in the forward part of the brain, extending back to a fissure known as the central sulcus. The frontal lobe is involved in - reasoning - motor control - emotion - language It contains the areas such as - the motor cortex, which involved in planning and coordinating movement - the primary motor cortex, which commanding all voluntary movements - the prefrontal cortex, which is responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning and a language centre known as Broca's area, which is essential for speech production The primary motor cortex has an additionally notable feature: it is highly specialised structure that localises motor control for each body part. This is to say that each part of the body has a unique portion of the primary motor cortex devoted to it.

Neurons

The human brain contains approximately 86 billion neurons. Like all cells, neurons have a cell body (known as the soma) which is surrounded by a permeable cell wall and a nucleus holding the hosts DNA. The neuron also contains organelles such as mitochondria, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus that support the daily functioning of the cell. However, unlike many other cells of the body the neuron has a set of unique structures that enable it to send and receive electrical and chemical signals. Dendrite Tree-like structures that extend away from the cell body to receive messages from other neurons at specialized junctions. Dendrites can have small protrusions called dendritic spines, which further increase surface area for possible synaptic connections. Synapse Specialized junctions where transfer of signals occur, usually between the axon of one cell and the dendrite of another. Axon Hillock Integrate signals from multiple synapses and serves as a junction between the cell body and an axon. Axon Tube-like structure that propagates the integrated signal away from the cell body and towards specialised endings called axon terminals. Myelin A fatty substance produced by specialised glial cells (i.e. oligodendrocytes) that coats the axons of some neurons. Myelin acts as an insulator to minimise dissipation of the electrical signal as it travels down the axon, greatly increasing the speed on conduction. Nodes of Ranvier Periodic gaps in the myelin sheath where the signal is "recharged" as it travels along the axon. Axon Terminals Located the end of an axon and typically synapse on other neurons, muscles or target organs. Axon terminals contain tiny parcels (vesicles) of neurotransmitters that are released in synapse. Neurotransmitter Specialised neural chemical released by neurons that are designed to cross the synaptic gap and bind onto cell receptors on another cell. Receptor Cell surface proteins located within the cell wall that receive chemical signals.

Humanistic approach

The humanistic approach is an approach to psychology that views behaviour as controlled by the decisions that people make about their lives based on their perceptions of the world. Psychologists who favour the humanistic perspective see behaviour as determined primarily by each person's capacity to choose how to think and act. They don't see these choices as driven by instincts, biological processes, or rewards and punishments but rather by each individual's unique perceptions of the world. So if you see the world as a friendly place, you are likely to be optimistic and secure. If you perceive it as full of hostile, threatening people, you will probably be defensive and fearful.

Nature vs. Nurture

The nature vs nurture debate, as it is known, focuses on whether genetics are more powerful contributors to a person's development or whether life experiences or the person's environment are more influential on human development. To clarify, nature contends that biology is supreme, while nurture considers social and emotional influences as more important.

The occipital lobe

The occipital lobe, is located at the very rear of the brain, and contains the primary visual cortex, which is responsible for interpreting incoming visual information. The occipital cortex is organised retinotopically, which means there is a close relationship between the position of an object in a person's visual field and the position of that object's representation on the cortex.

The parietal lobe

The parietal lobe, is located immediately behind the frontal lobe and is involved in processing information in relation to our sense of touch (tactile perception) and proprioception (understanding of the location of our body in relation to the world around us). It contains the somatosensory cortex, which is essential for processing sensory information from across the body, such as touch, temperature, and pain. Much alike the primary motor cortex, the somatosensory cortex is organised topographically, which means that spatial relationships that exist in the body are maintained on the surface of the somatosensory cortex. For example, the portion of the cortex that processes sensory information from the hand is adjacent to the portion that processes information from the wrist.

Prenatal

The pattern of development during the prenatal period is driven largely by biology, but human development can be influenced by environmental or surrounding factors, even before birth. The placenta (which supplies oxygen and nutrients to the foetus via the umbilical cord) for example, may not be functioning optimally due to poor blood flow from the mother to the baby and this can impact on the health and size of the developing foetus. It is useful to note that placenta-related issues may be present for pregnancies where a single foetus is developing, but the risk is even greater when multiple babies are developing. In particular, when identical twins are forming, because they share a single placenta, there is a chance that one baby will receive greater nutrients than the other (an extreme case of this is Twin-to-Twin Transfusion Syndrome, or TTTS).

Major Endocrine Glands

The pituitary gland descends from the hypothalamus, which is located at the base of the brain. The pituitary is referred to as the "master gland" because its messenger hormones control all the other glands in the endocrine system. One of main roles of the pituitary gland is to carry out instructions from the hypothalamus. In addition to messenger hormones, the pituitary also secretes growth hormone, endorphins for pain relief, and a number of key hormones that regulate fluid levels in the body. Located in the neck, the thyroid gland releases hormones that regulate growth, metabolism, and appetite. The adrenal glands sit atop our kidneys and secrete hormones involved in the stress response, such as epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline). The pancreas is an internal organ that secretes hormones that regulate blood sugar levels: insulin and glucagon. These pancreatic hormones are essential for maintaining stable levels of blood sugar throughout the day by lowering blood glucose levels (insulin) or raising them (glucagon). The gonads secrete sexual hormones, which are important in reproduction, and mediate both sexual motivation and behaviour. The female gonads (ovaries) secrete estrogen's and progesterone, and the male gonads (testes) secrete androgens, such as testosterone.

Psychodynamic approach

The psychodynamic approach is a view developed by Freud that emphasises the interplay of unconscious mental processes in determining human thought, feelings and behaviour This approach assumes that our behaviour and mental processes reflect constant and mostly unconscious psychological struggles within us. Usually, these struggles involve conflict between the impulse to satisfy instincts (such as for food, sex or aggression) and the need to follow the rules of civilised society. So psychologists taking the psychodynamic approach might see aggression, for example, as a case of primitive urges overcoming a person's defences against expressing those urges. They would see anxiety, depression or other disorders as overt signs of inner turmoil.

The spinal cord

The spinal cord is like a relay station in that all messages to and from the brain need to pass through the spinal cord. However, unlike a regular relay station, it not only routes messages to and from the brain, but also has its own system of automatic processes, called reflexes. The spinal cord is functionally organised in 30 segments, corresponding with the spina; vertebrae. Each segment is connected to a specific part of the body through the peripheral nervous system. Nerves branch out from the spine at each vertebra. Sensory nerves bring messages in; motor nerves send messages out to the muscles and organs. Messages travel to and from the brain through every segment. The top of the spinal cord merges with the brain stem where the basic processes of life (i.e. breathing and digestion) are controlled, and the base of the spinal cord ends just below the ribs. Some sensory message are immediately acted on by the spinal cord without any input from the brain (and automatic reflex). For example withdrawal from heat and the knee jerk. These reflexes occur when a basic response is need for an immediate reaction. The signal passes from the sensory nerve to a simple processing centre, which initiates a motor command within milliseconds. Although the spinal cord is protected by bony vertebrae and cushioned in cerebrospinal fluid, injuries can still occur. When the spinal cord is damaged in a particular segment, all lower segments are cut off from the brain, causing paralysis. Therefore, the lower on the spine damage is, the fewer functions an injured individual loses.

Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS)

The sympathetic nervous system is responsible for the "fight or flight" response that occurs when an animal encounters a dangerous situation. In such a situation the sympathetic nervous system dilates the pupils, increases the heart rate and blood pressure, relaxes the bladder, signals the liver and adrenal glands to release more glucose and adrenaline (respectively) into the bloodstream. These physiological reactions in the body are designed to improve our body's energy reserves and heighten our sensory capacity so that we can flee from danger or fend off a predator as required for our survival. The strength and speed of the sympathetic response helps an organism avoid danger, and scientists have found evidence that it may also increase long term potentiation —allowing the animal to remember the dangerous situation and avoid it in the future. However on the flip-side, this kind of response isn't always adaptive in the modern world; in fact, we can suffer negative health consequences (e.g. heart disease, impaired immune system functioning) when faced constantly with psychological threats that we can neither fight nor flee.

The temporal lobe

The temporal lobe is located on the side of the head (temporal means "near the temples"), and is associated with hearing, memory, emotion, and some aspects of language. The auditory cortex, the main area responsible for processing information in relation to our sense of hearing, is located within the temporal lobe. Wernicke's area, a region important for speech comprehension, is also located here.

Cognitive Approach

This cognitive approach focuses on how we take in, mentally represent and store information; how we perceive and process that information; and how all these cognitive processes affect our behaviour. Psychologists who take the cognitive approach study the rapid series of mental events — including those outside of awareness — that accompany observable behaviour. So in analysing, say, an aggressive incident in a cinema ticket queue, these psychologists would describe the following series of information-processing events: first, the aggressive person (1) perceived that someone has cut into the ticket queue, then (2) recalled information stored in memory about appropriate social behaviour, (3) decided that the other persons action was inappropriate, (4) labelled the person as rude and inconsiderate, (5) considered possible responses and their likely consequences, (6) decided that shoving the person is the best response, and (7) executed that response.

Neuromuscular junction

Unlike neurons within the central nervous system, neurons in the peripheral nervous system can synapse onto muscles or organs to trigger a direct action. When a neuron synapses onto a muscle, a neurotransmitter (typically acetylcholine) is released and binds onto corresponding receptors in the muscle tissue. The synapse between the neuron and muscle cell where the neurotransmitter is released is known as the neuromuscular junction. The binding of acetylcholine to the receptor can depolarise the muscle fibre, causing a cascade that eventually results in muscle contraction. The most rapid acting neurotoxins such as nerve gas and venom in poisonous snakes can act by inhibiting the functioning of the acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction. This can result in paralysis and respiratory arrest.

Skinners Box

When a hungry rat was placed in the box, it scurried around it and randomly touched parts of the door and walls. Eventually, the rat accidentally pressed a lever mounted on one wall. Immediately, a pellet of rat food dropped into the food dish and the rat ate it. The rat continued its random movements and eventually pressed the lever again. Another pellet dropped immediately and was eaten. With additional repetitions of lever-pressing followed by food, the rat's random movements began to disappear and were replaced by more consistent lever-pressing. Eventually, the rat was pressing the lever as fast as it could eat each pellet. The pellet was a reward for making the correct response.

Parapsympathetic Nervous System

While the sympathetic nervous system is activated in stressful situations, the parasympathetic nervous system allows someone to "rest and digest." This is to say that the parasympathetic nervous system is associated with returning the body to routine, day-to-day operations. The two systems have complementary functions, operating in tandem to maintain the body's homeostasis. Homeostasis is a state of equilibrium, in which biological conditions (such as body temperature) are maintained at optimal levels. For instance, the parasympathetic nervous system resets organ function after the sympathetic nervous system is activated (the common adrenaline dump you feel after a 'fight-or-flight' event).

Biological Approach

the biological approach to psychology assumes that behaviour and mental processes are largely shaped by biological processes. Psychologists who take this approach study the psychological effects of hormones, genes and the activity of the nervous system, especially the brain.