Psychology 447 Kalat exam 1
Sympathetic nervous system:
"Fight or Flight" system (prepares body for action by increasing heart rate, blood pressure, etc.).
Presynaptic Terminals
(End bulb) swelling at the tip of the axon. Part that releases chemicals that cross the junction between one neuron and the next
Precentral Gyrus
(also known as the primary motor cortex): Located just anterior to the central sulcus. Specialized for the control of fine motor movements, primarily on the contralateral side of the body.
sodium potassium pump
*protein complex found along the neuron membrane which transports three sodium ions outside of the cell while also drawing two potassium ions into the cell; causes sodium ions to be more than 10 times more concentrated outside than inside*
Basal Ganglia:
A group of subcortical structures including the caudate, putamen, and globus pallidus. Deterioration of the basal ganglia is prominent in Parkinson's disease and Huntington's disease.
Hippocampus
A large structure between the thalamus and the cerebral cortex, mostly toward the posterior of the forebrain. This structure is important for new memory storage.
fissure
A long, deep sulcus
Autonomic nervous system
A set of neurons that control the heart, the intestines, and other organs.
Astrocytes
Absorbs chemicals released by axons and later returns it to axon to synchronize neuron activity.
Protein channel
Allows a few charged ions to cross the membrane however most are unable to do so
Glucose
Almost all neurons depend on this type of sugar for nutrition; it is the only nutrient that crosses the blood brain barrier
Area postrema
Area not protected by the blood brain barrier and monitors blood chemicals that could not enter other parts of the brain *This area triggers nausea and vomiting*
Star shaped glial cell that removes waste, particularly after neurons die.
Astrocyte
Small neurons may lack:
Axons and well defined dendrites
Altruistic behavior
Behaviors that benefit others rather than the individual committing the behavior.
Pons (Latin for "bridge"):
Brain structure that lies anterior and ventral to the medulla. Axons in the pons cross from one side of the brain to the other.
Dendrites
Branching fibers which extend from the cell body and get narrower at their end
Artificial-selection:
Breeding animals for desirable individual characteristics (this causes changes in various genetic frequencies in a population).
Afferent axons
Brings information INTO structure
Neurons
Cells which receive and transmit information
Membrane (plasma membrane)
Composed of two layers of fat molecules; allows some small uncharged chemicals to pass in and out of the cell.
Limbic System:
Comprised of the olfactory bulb, hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, and cingulate gyrus. This system is involved in motivational and emotional behaviors.
Tectum (Latin for roof):
Comprised of the superior colliculus and inferior colliculus; both are involved in processing sensory information.
Motor neuron
Conducts impulses to muscles from spinal cord
Brainstem
Consists of the medulla, pons, midbrain, and certain central structures of the forebrain.
Somatic nervous system
Consists of the nerves that convey messages from the sense organs to the CNS and from the CNS to the muscles and glands.
Nucleus
Contains chromosomes
Cell body (soma)
Contains nucleus, ribosomes, mitochondria, and other structures found in most cells
Medulla (medulla oblongata):
Controls breathing, heart rate, vomiting, coughing, and other vital reflexes through the cranial nerves, a set of twelve nerves that carry sensory and motor information to the head.
Korsakoff Syndrome
Deficiency of thiamine, vitamin B1, that causes severe memory impairment and damage to weirnike's area
Thiamine (Vitamin B1)
Deficiency of this vitamin leads to an inability to use glucose, which leads to neuron death and Korsakoff syndrome
What are the four major components of a neuron?
Dendrites, Body, Axons, and Presynaptic Terminal
Ontogenetic explanations:
Describes the development of a structure or a behavior. Looks at the influence of genes, nutrition, experience and the interaction among these influences on behavior.
Functional explanations:
Describes why a structure or behavior evolved as it did. Looks for the benefit or advantage for having certain behaviors.
Electrical gradient
Difference in electrical charge between the inside and outside of the cell
Glia
Do not transmit information however have many functions
Bell-Magendie law:
Dorsal roots enter the spinal cord carrying information from sensory organs (e.g., skin); ventral roots exit the spinal cord carrying motor information to muscles and glands.
Pituitary Gland:
Endocrine (hormone-producing) gland attached to the base of the hypothalamus.
Evolutionary explanation
Examines a structure or a behavior in terms of evolutionary history. Examines the continuity (unbroken course) of a behavior from past ancestors to the present.
Efferent axons
Exit: sends information out/away from structure
Central Canal
Fluid-filled channel in the center of the spinal cord.
Ventricles
Four fluid-filled cavities within the brain
Sex-limited
Genes present in both sexes but mainly or exclusively has effects in one sex. The differential effect is because these genes must be activated by sex hormones.Sex-limited genes present in both sexes but effect is limited or almost limited to one sex (i.e. chest hair, breast size)
prefrontal cortex
Important for working memory; the ability to remember recent stimuli and events
Myelin sheath
Insulating covering found on some vertebrate axons
Parietal Lobe
Lies between the occipital lobe and the central sulcus (one of the deepest grooves in the surface of the cortex).
Synaptic receptors
Lines the dendrites surface; allows dendrite to receive information from other neurons
Frontal Lobe
Located at the most anterior area of the cerebral cortex and extends to the central sulcus. Contains the primary motor cortex and prefrontal cortex.
Temporal Lobe
Located laterally in each hemisphere, near the temples; it is the primary target for auditory information.
Axon
Long thin fiber which is the information sending part of the neuron. Sends electrical impulse towards other neurons, glands, or muscles.
Polarization
Maintained during absence of any outside disturbance; at rest
Blood brain barrier
Mechanism that keeps most chemicals out of the vertebral brain
Substantia Nigra
Midbrain structure that contains dopamine neurons which degenerate in Parkinson's Disease. Only part of brain with melatonin
Midbrain
Middle of the brain
Forebrain
Most anterior portion and prominent part of the human brain. Consists of cerebral cortex (outer region of the brain) and several subcortical areas:
Primary Visual Cortex (Striate cortex):
Most posterior region of the occipital lobe. Destruction of any part of the striate cortex causes cortical blindness.
Endoplasmic reticulum
Network of thin tubes that transports newly synthesized proteins to other locations. Ribosomes may be attached.
____ in the brain and spinal cord and ____ in the periphery are specialized types of glia that build the myelin sheaths that surround neurons. a. Oligodendrocytes; Schwann cells b. Schwann cells; oligodendrocytes c. Microglia; oligodendrocytes d. Radial glia; Schwann cells
Oligodendrocytes; Schwann cells
Cerebellum
Organizes sensory information which guides movement.
The Easy problems:
Pertains to the phenomena to which we apply the term consciousness, such as the difference between wakefulness and sleep, and the mechanisms that enable us to focus our attention.
Occipital Lobe
Posterior (caudal) portion of the cerebral cortex; part of the visual pathway system
Hindbrain
Posterior part of the brain (medulla, pons, and cerebellum.)
Active transport system
Protein mediated (energy using) system that exists to pump necessary chemicals, such as glucose, through the blood brain barrier
Mitochondria
Provides cell with energy; requires oxygen and fuel
Physiological explanations:
Relates behavior to the activity of the brain and other organs. Deals with the machinery of the body
Sensory neuron (receptor neuron)
Sensitive to certain kinds of stimulation (light, touch, etc)
Dendritic spines
Short outgrowths found on some dendritic branches
Ribosomes
Site of protein synthesis. May be attached to E.R.
Microglia
Small glial cells that remove waste materials and viruses, fungi, and other microorganisms
Hypothalamus
Small structure containing many distinct nuclei. Sends messages to the pituitary gland altering its release of hormone. Important for motivated behavior (i.e., eating, drinking, etc.).
What is allowed through the blood brain barrier?
Small uncharged molecules such as oxygen and carbon dioxide and molecules that are fat soluble
The Peripheral Nervous System has two divisions, which are:
Somatic and autonomic nervous systems
Basal Forebrain
Structures in the dorsal surface of the forebrain including the nucleus basalis, a key part of the brain's arousal system.
Monism
The belief that the universe consists of only one kind of existence.
Santiago Ramon y Cajal
The brain is like the rest of the body;individual cells
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF):
The clear fluid found in the ventricles and central canal; formed by the choroid plexus (cells found inside the four ventricles).
Prefrontal Cortex:
The most anterior portion of the frontal lobe. Forms a large portion of the brain in large-brained species. Receives information from all of our senses.
Neurons and glia
The nervous system is made up of these two types of cells:
Solipsism
The philosophical position that "I" alone exist, or "I" alone am conscious.
The Binding Problem (or large-scale integration problem)
The question of how the visual, auditory, and other areas of your brain influence one another to produce a combined perception of a single object.
Meninges
Thin membranes which surround the brain and spinal cord. CSF flows through the spaces between the brain and the meninges.
Thalamus:
This part and the hypothalamus form the diencephal on. The rest of the forebrain makes up the telencephalon
Dorsal
Towards the back
Ventral
Towards the stomach
corpus callosum and anterior commissure
Two bundles of axons that allow the two brain hemispheres to communicate with one another.
Radial glia
Type of Astrocyte; guides the migration of neurons and the growth of axons and dendrites during embryonic development
Schwann cells
Type of glial cells that build myelin sheaths around certain neurons in the periphery of the body
Lamarckian evolution
Use or disuse of some structure or behavior causes an evolutionary increase or decrease in that feature.
Parasympathetic nervous system
Vegetative non emergency system (parasympathetic activities are generally opposite of sympathetic activities).
sulcus
a fold or groove that separates one gyrus form another
gyrus
a protuberance on the surface of the brain
Lamina
a row or layer of cell bodies separated from other cell bodies by a layer of axons and dendrites
nerve
a set of axons in the periphery, either from the CNS to a muscle or gland or from a sensory organ to the CNS
tract
a set of axons within the CNS, also know as a projection.
column
a set of cells perpendicular to the surface of the cortex, with similar properties
superior
above another part
Crossing over
an exception to the linkage of inheritance of genes on the same chromosome where chromosome pairs will break apart and reconnect to each other during reproduction.
The primary difference between biological psychologists and neuroscientists is that neuroscientists place greater emphasis on studying: a. chemistry. b. psychology. c. biology. d. behavior.
behavior.
inferior
below another part
local anesthetics (Novacain, Xylocaine)
blocks the occurence of action potentials by blocking voltage-activated sodium gates (Prevents sodium from entering membrane)
Central nervous system (CNS) consists of:
brain and spinal cord.
A fundamental property is one that ____. a. answers all questions b. occurs only in certain parts of the nervous system c. cannot be reduced to something else d. cannot be explained
cannot be reduced to something else
general anesthetics
causes potassium gates to open wider, allowing potassium to flow outside a neuron very quickly
ganglion
cluster of neuron cell bodies, usually outside the CNS
Dorsal root ganglia
clusters of sensory neuron cell bodies located outside the spinal cord.
The parasympathetic nervous system is also known as the _________because it consists of cranial nerves and nerves from the sacral spinal cord.
craniosacral system
Biological psychologists are primarily interested in the study of the physiological, evolutionary, and ____. a. social influence on attitudes b. developmental mechanisms of behavior and experience c. use of reinforcement to change behavior d. mental well-being of plants
developmental mechanisms of behavior and experience
concentration gradient
difference in distribution of ions between the inside and outside of the membrane
Mapping out the relationship between shared bone structures across different species suggests there is a(n) ____ explanation. a. ontogenetic b. evolutionary c. behavioral d. physiological
evolutionary
A(n) ____ explanation describes why a structure or behavior evolved as it did. a. functional b. ontogenetic c. physiological d. evolutionary
functional
According to David Chalmers, consciousness is: a. a fundamental property of matter. b. not necessary for brain functioning. c. easy to observe. d. independent of the brain.
fundamental property of matter
Nodes of Ranvier
gaps in the myelin of axons.
Units of heredity that maintain their structural identity from one generation to another are: a. enzymes. b. mutations. c. nucleic acids. d. genes.
genes.
Tegmentum
includes III and IV cranial nerve nuclei, part of the reticular formation, and many important pathways.
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS
is a set of neurons that receives information and sends commands to the heart, intestines, and other organs.
cerebral cortex
is the cellular layers on the outer surface of the cerebral hemispheres.
proximal
located close to the point of origin or attachment
distal
located more distant from the point of origin or attachment
The question "Given this universe composed of matter and energy, why is there such a thing as consciousness?" is called the ____. a. cosmic force question b. mind-body problem c. universal question d. biological problem
mind-body problem
Sodium is (More/Less) concentrated (inside/outside) of the membrane which causes it to be more likely to enter than leave it.
more/inside
At the microscopic level, we find two kinds of cells: ____. a. molecules and mitochondria b. mitochondria and glia c. neurons and glia d. neurons and molecules
neurons and glia
An autosomal gene is a gene: a. on the X chromosome. b. on the Y chromosome. c. on any chromosome other than the X or Y chromosome. d. that shows no evidence of crossing over.
on any chromosome other than the X or Y chromosome.
contralateral
on the opposite side of the body
ipsilateral
on the same side of the body
A(n) ____ describes how a structure or behavior develops, including the influences of genes, nutrition, experiences, and their interactions. a. functional b. ontogenetic c. physiological d. evolutionary
ontogenetic
Understanding differences in intelligence as a function of early learning experiences is an example of a(n) ____ explanation. a. ontogenetic b. physiological c. functional d. evolutionary
ontogenetic
Which type of explanation describes how a structure or behavior develops? a. Physiological b. Ontogenetic c. Evolutionary d. Functional
ontogenetic
This lobe monitors all the information about eye, head, and body positions and passes it on to brain areas that control movement.
pariental
List the four biological explanations of behavior.
physiological, ontogenetic, evolutionary, and functional
Horizontal plane
plane that shoes brain structures as seen form above
Coronal plane
plane that shows the brain structures as seen from the front
Saggital plane
plane that shows the brain structures as seen from the side
Postcentral Gyrus or Primary Somatosensory Cortex: Lies
posterior to the central sulcus; the primary target for touch sensations and information from muscle-stretch receptors and joint receptors.
Interruption of the production of RNA would directly affect which of the following? a. protein synthesis b. carbohydrate production c. sex hormone release d. production of DNA
protein synthesis
Sex-linked
recessive genes have their effects only in the absence of the dominant gene.
In humans the left hemisphere of this lobe is involved in comprehension of spoken language and contributes to complex aspects of vision, including perception of movement and recognition of faces.
temporal
Saltatory conduction
the "jumping" of the action potential from node to node
Peripheral Nervous Systen (PNS) consists of:
the nerves outside the brain and the spinal cord.
posterior
towards the back
Anterior
towards the front
medial
towards the midline; away from the midline
lateral
towards the side;away from the midline
Propagation of the action potential
transmission (movement) of an action potential down an axon. The action potential moves down the axon by regenerating itself at successive points on the axon
Oligodendrocytes
type of glial cell that builds myelin sheaths around certain neurons in the brain and spinal cord
The view of the brain from below is called the ____ view. a. anterior b. linear c. ventral d. dorsal
ventral
Chalmers' fundamental "hard problem" is: a. knowing why we sleep. b. understanding how neurotransmitters are created. c. wondering how someone could be a dualist. d. why and how brain activity is associated with consciousness.
why and how brain activity is associated with consciousness.