Psychology 447 Kalat exam 1

Sympathetic nervous system:

"Fight or Flight" system (prepares body for action by increasing heart rate, blood pressure, etc.).

Presynaptic Terminals

(End bulb) swelling at the tip of the axon. Part that releases chemicals that cross the junction between one neuron and the next

Precentral Gyrus

(also known as the primary motor cortex): Located just anterior to the central sulcus. Specialized for the control of fine motor movements, primarily on the contralateral side of the body.

sodium potassium pump

*protein complex found along the neuron membrane which transports three sodium ions outside of the cell while also drawing two potassium ions into the cell; causes sodium ions to be more than 10 times more concentrated outside than inside*

Basal Ganglia:

A group of subcortical structures including the caudate, putamen, and globus pallidus. Deterioration of the basal ganglia is prominent in Parkinson's disease and Huntington's disease.

Hippocampus

A large structure between the thalamus and the cerebral cortex, mostly toward the posterior of the forebrain. This structure is important for new memory storage.

fissure

A long, deep sulcus

Autonomic nervous system

A set of neurons that control the heart, the intestines, and other organs.

Astrocytes

Absorbs chemicals released by axons and later returns it to axon to synchronize neuron activity.

Protein channel

Allows a few charged ions to cross the membrane however most are unable to do so

Glucose

Almost all neurons depend on this type of sugar for nutrition; it is the only nutrient that crosses the blood brain barrier

Area postrema

Area not protected by the blood brain barrier and monitors blood chemicals that could not enter other parts of the brain *This area triggers nausea and vomiting*

Star shaped glial cell that removes waste, particularly after neurons die.

Astrocyte

Small neurons may lack:

Axons and well defined dendrites

Altruistic behavior

Behaviors that benefit others rather than the individual committing the behavior.

Pons (Latin for "bridge"):

Brain structure that lies anterior and ventral to the medulla. Axons in the pons cross from one side of the brain to the other.

Dendrites

Branching fibers which extend from the cell body and get narrower at their end

Artificial-selection:

Breeding animals for desirable individual characteristics (this causes changes in various genetic frequencies in a population).

Afferent axons

Brings information INTO structure

Neurons

Cells which receive and transmit information

Membrane (plasma membrane)

Composed of two layers of fat molecules; allows some small uncharged chemicals to pass in and out of the cell.

Limbic System:

Comprised of the olfactory bulb, hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, and cingulate gyrus. This system is involved in motivational and emotional behaviors.

Tectum (Latin for roof):

Comprised of the superior colliculus and inferior colliculus; both are involved in processing sensory information.

Motor neuron

Conducts impulses to muscles from spinal cord

Brainstem

Consists of the medulla, pons, midbrain, and certain central structures of the forebrain.

Somatic nervous system

Consists of the nerves that convey messages from the sense organs to the CNS and from the CNS to the muscles and glands.

Nucleus

Contains chromosomes

Cell body (soma)

Contains nucleus, ribosomes, mitochondria, and other structures found in most cells

Medulla (medulla oblongata):

Controls breathing, heart rate, vomiting, coughing, and other vital reflexes through the cranial nerves, a set of twelve nerves that carry sensory and motor information to the head.

Korsakoff Syndrome

Deficiency of thiamine, vitamin B1, that causes severe memory impairment and damage to weirnike's area

Thiamine (Vitamin B1)

Deficiency of this vitamin leads to an inability to use glucose, which leads to neuron death and Korsakoff syndrome

What are the four major components of a neuron?

Dendrites, Body, Axons, and Presynaptic Terminal

Ontogenetic explanations:

Describes the development of a structure or a behavior. Looks at the influence of genes, nutrition, experience and the interaction among these influences on behavior.

Functional explanations:

Describes why a structure or behavior evolved as it did. Looks for the benefit or advantage for having certain behaviors.

Electrical gradient

Difference in electrical charge between the inside and outside of the cell

Glia

Do not transmit information however have many functions

Bell-Magendie law:

Dorsal roots enter the spinal cord carrying information from sensory organs (e.g., skin); ventral roots exit the spinal cord carrying motor information to muscles and glands.

Pituitary Gland:

Endocrine (hormone-producing) gland attached to the base of the hypothalamus.

Evolutionary explanation

Examines a structure or a behavior in terms of evolutionary history. Examines the continuity (unbroken course) of a behavior from past ancestors to the present.

Efferent axons

Exit: sends information out/away from structure

Central Canal

Fluid-filled channel in the center of the spinal cord.

Ventricles

Four fluid-filled cavities within the brain

Sex-limited

Genes present in both sexes but mainly or exclusively has effects in one sex. The differential effect is because these genes must be activated by sex hormones.Sex-limited genes present in both sexes but effect is limited or almost limited to one sex (i.e. chest hair, breast size)

prefrontal cortex

Important for working memory; the ability to remember recent stimuli and events

Myelin sheath

Insulating covering found on some vertebrate axons

Parietal Lobe

Lies between the occipital lobe and the central sulcus (one of the deepest grooves in the surface of the cortex).

Synaptic receptors

Lines the dendrites surface; allows dendrite to receive information from other neurons

Frontal Lobe

Located at the most anterior area of the cerebral cortex and extends to the central sulcus. Contains the primary motor cortex and prefrontal cortex.

Temporal Lobe

Located laterally in each hemisphere, near the temples; it is the primary target for auditory information.

Axon

Long thin fiber which is the information sending part of the neuron. Sends electrical impulse towards other neurons, glands, or muscles.

Polarization

Maintained during absence of any outside disturbance; at rest

Blood brain barrier

Mechanism that keeps most chemicals out of the vertebral brain

Substantia Nigra

Midbrain structure that contains dopamine neurons which degenerate in Parkinson's Disease. Only part of brain with melatonin

Midbrain

Middle of the brain

Forebrain

Most anterior portion and prominent part of the human brain. Consists of cerebral cortex (outer region of the brain) and several subcortical areas:

Primary Visual Cortex (Striate cortex):

Most posterior region of the occipital lobe. Destruction of any part of the striate cortex causes cortical blindness.

Endoplasmic reticulum

Network of thin tubes that transports newly synthesized proteins to other locations. Ribosomes may be attached.

____ in the brain and spinal cord and ____ in the periphery are specialized types of glia that build the myelin sheaths that surround neurons. a. Oligodendrocytes; Schwann cells b. Schwann cells; oligodendrocytes c. Microglia; oligodendrocytes d. Radial glia; Schwann cells

Oligodendrocytes; Schwann cells

Cerebellum

Organizes sensory information which guides movement.

The Easy problems:

Pertains to the phenomena to which we apply the term consciousness, such as the difference between wakefulness and sleep, and the mechanisms that enable us to focus our attention.

Occipital Lobe

Posterior (caudal) portion of the cerebral cortex; part of the visual pathway system

Hindbrain

Posterior part of the brain (medulla, pons, and cerebellum.)

Active transport system

Protein mediated (energy using) system that exists to pump necessary chemicals, such as glucose, through the blood brain barrier

Mitochondria

Provides cell with energy; requires oxygen and fuel

Physiological explanations:

Relates behavior to the activity of the brain and other organs. Deals with the machinery of the body

Sensory neuron (receptor neuron)

Sensitive to certain kinds of stimulation (light, touch, etc)

Dendritic spines

Short outgrowths found on some dendritic branches

Ribosomes

Site of protein synthesis. May be attached to E.R.

Microglia

Small glial cells that remove waste materials and viruses, fungi, and other microorganisms

Hypothalamus

Small structure containing many distinct nuclei. Sends messages to the pituitary gland altering its release of hormone. Important for motivated behavior (i.e., eating, drinking, etc.).

What is allowed through the blood brain barrier?

Small uncharged molecules such as oxygen and carbon dioxide and molecules that are fat soluble

The Peripheral Nervous System has two divisions, which are:

Somatic and autonomic nervous systems

Basal Forebrain

Structures in the dorsal surface of the forebrain including the nucleus basalis, a key part of the brain's arousal system.

Monism

The belief that the universe consists of only one kind of existence.

Santiago Ramon y Cajal

The brain is like the rest of the body;individual cells

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF):

The clear fluid found in the ventricles and central canal; formed by the choroid plexus (cells found inside the four ventricles).

Prefrontal Cortex:

The most anterior portion of the frontal lobe. Forms a large portion of the brain in large-brained species. Receives information from all of our senses.

Neurons and glia

The nervous system is made up of these two types of cells:

Solipsism

The philosophical position that "I" alone exist, or "I" alone am conscious.

The Binding Problem (or large-scale integration problem)

The question of how the visual, auditory, and other areas of your brain influence one another to produce a combined perception of a single object.

Meninges

Thin membranes which surround the brain and spinal cord. CSF flows through the spaces between the brain and the meninges.

Thalamus:

This part and the hypothalamus form the diencephal on. The rest of the forebrain makes up the telencephalon

Dorsal

Towards the back

Ventral

Towards the stomach

corpus callosum and anterior commissure

Two bundles of axons that allow the two brain hemispheres to communicate with one another.

Radial glia

Type of Astrocyte; guides the migration of neurons and the growth of axons and dendrites during embryonic development

Schwann cells

Type of glial cells that build myelin sheaths around certain neurons in the periphery of the body

Lamarckian evolution

Use or disuse of some structure or behavior causes an evolutionary increase or decrease in that feature.

Parasympathetic nervous system

Vegetative non emergency system (parasympathetic activities are generally opposite of sympathetic activities).

sulcus

a fold or groove that separates one gyrus form another

gyrus

a protuberance on the surface of the brain

Lamina

a row or layer of cell bodies separated from other cell bodies by a layer of axons and dendrites

nerve

a set of axons in the periphery, either from the CNS to a muscle or gland or from a sensory organ to the CNS

tract

a set of axons within the CNS, also know as a projection.

column

a set of cells perpendicular to the surface of the cortex, with similar properties

superior

above another part

Crossing over

an exception to the linkage of inheritance of genes on the same chromosome where chromosome pairs will break apart and reconnect to each other during reproduction.

The primary difference between biological psychologists and neuroscientists is that neuroscientists place greater emphasis on studying: a. chemistry. b. psychology. c. biology. d. behavior.

behavior.

inferior

below another part

local anesthetics (Novacain, Xylocaine)

blocks the occurence of action potentials by blocking voltage-activated sodium gates (Prevents sodium from entering membrane)

Central nervous system (CNS) consists of:

brain and spinal cord.

A fundamental property is one that ____. a. answers all questions b. occurs only in certain parts of the nervous system c. cannot be reduced to something else d. cannot be explained

cannot be reduced to something else

general anesthetics

causes potassium gates to open wider, allowing potassium to flow outside a neuron very quickly

ganglion

cluster of neuron cell bodies, usually outside the CNS

Dorsal root ganglia

clusters of sensory neuron cell bodies located outside the spinal cord.

The parasympathetic nervous system is also known as the _________because it consists of cranial nerves and nerves from the sacral spinal cord.

craniosacral system

Biological psychologists are primarily interested in the study of the physiological, evolutionary, and ____. a. social influence on attitudes b. developmental mechanisms of behavior and experience c. use of reinforcement to change behavior d. mental well-being of plants

developmental mechanisms of behavior and experience

concentration gradient

difference in distribution of ions between the inside and outside of the membrane

Mapping out the relationship between shared bone structures across different species suggests there is a(n) ____ explanation. a. ontogenetic b. evolutionary c. behavioral d. physiological

evolutionary

A(n) ____ explanation describes why a structure or behavior evolved as it did. a. functional b. ontogenetic c. physiological d. evolutionary

functional

According to David Chalmers, consciousness is: a. a fundamental property of matter. b. not necessary for brain functioning. c. easy to observe. d. independent of the brain.

fundamental property of matter

Nodes of Ranvier

gaps in the myelin of axons.

Units of heredity that maintain their structural identity from one generation to another are: a. enzymes. b. mutations. c. nucleic acids. d. genes.

genes.

Tegmentum

includes III and IV cranial nerve nuclei, part of the reticular formation, and many important pathways.

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS

is a set of neurons that receives information and sends commands to the heart, intestines, and other organs.

cerebral cortex

is the cellular layers on the outer surface of the cerebral hemispheres.

proximal

located close to the point of origin or attachment

distal

located more distant from the point of origin or attachment

The question "Given this universe composed of matter and energy, why is there such a thing as consciousness?" is called the ____. a. cosmic force question b. mind-body problem c. universal question d. biological problem

mind-body problem

Sodium is (More/Less) concentrated (inside/outside) of the membrane which causes it to be more likely to enter than leave it.

more/inside

At the microscopic level, we find two kinds of cells: ____. a. molecules and mitochondria b. mitochondria and glia c. neurons and glia d. neurons and molecules

neurons and glia

An autosomal gene is a gene: a. on the X chromosome. b. on the Y chromosome. c. on any chromosome other than the X or Y chromosome. d. that shows no evidence of crossing over.

on any chromosome other than the X or Y chromosome.

contralateral

on the opposite side of the body

ipsilateral

on the same side of the body

A(n) ____ describes how a structure or behavior develops, including the influences of genes, nutrition, experiences, and their interactions. a. functional b. ontogenetic c. physiological d. evolutionary

ontogenetic

Understanding differences in intelligence as a function of early learning experiences is an example of a(n) ____ explanation. a. ontogenetic b. physiological c. functional d. evolutionary

ontogenetic

Which type of explanation describes how a structure or behavior develops? a. Physiological b. Ontogenetic c. Evolutionary d. Functional

ontogenetic

This lobe monitors all the information about eye, head, and body positions and passes it on to brain areas that control movement.

pariental

List the four biological explanations of behavior.

physiological, ontogenetic, evolutionary, and functional

Horizontal plane

plane that shoes brain structures as seen form above

Coronal plane

plane that shows the brain structures as seen from the front

Saggital plane

plane that shows the brain structures as seen from the side

Postcentral Gyrus or Primary Somatosensory Cortex: Lies

posterior to the central sulcus; the primary target for touch sensations and information from muscle-stretch receptors and joint receptors.

Interruption of the production of RNA would directly affect which of the following? a. protein synthesis b. carbohydrate production c. sex hormone release d. production of DNA

protein synthesis

Sex-linked

recessive genes have their effects only in the absence of the dominant gene.

In humans the left hemisphere of this lobe is involved in comprehension of spoken language and contributes to complex aspects of vision, including perception of movement and recognition of faces.

temporal

Saltatory conduction

the "jumping" of the action potential from node to node

Peripheral Nervous Systen (PNS) consists of:

the nerves outside the brain and the spinal cord.

posterior

towards the back

Anterior

towards the front

medial

towards the midline; away from the midline

lateral

towards the side;away from the midline

Propagation of the action potential

transmission (movement) of an action potential down an axon. The action potential moves down the axon by regenerating itself at successive points on the axon

Oligodendrocytes

type of glial cell that builds myelin sheaths around certain neurons in the brain and spinal cord

The view of the brain from below is called the ____ view. a. anterior b. linear c. ventral d. dorsal

ventral

Chalmers' fundamental "hard problem" is: a. knowing why we sleep. b. understanding how neurotransmitters are created. c. wondering how someone could be a dualist. d. why and how brain activity is associated with consciousness.

why and how brain activity is associated with consciousness.