Psychology

q13

**Need to know these population pyramids** Population pyramids, which display the relative number of males and females in each age cohort in a given population, have three general shapes: 1) Expanding pyramids have broad bases (lots of younger people) and narrow tops (few older people) and are characteristic of developing countries with high birth/death rates and an increasing population size. 2) Stationary pyramids have broad bases and broad tops and are characteristic of developed countries with low birth/death rates and a stable population size. 3) Contracting pyramids have narrower bases than middles and are characteristic of developed countries with very low birth rates and a gradually declining population size. concept: A population pyramid is a type of bar graph that depicts the number or percentage of men and women in certain age cohorts in a given population. Expanding pyramids reflect growing populations with more young than old individuals; stationary pyramids reflect stable populations; and contracting pyramids reflect gradually declining populations.

What are the 4 different types of stressors?

1. Daily hassles are common, everyday occurrences that affect few people and are irritating but are not major stressors (eg, driving in traffic). 2. Personal life event is a major life transition that affects few people but is very stressful. Personal life events can be positive (eg, baby) or negative (eg, death in the family). 3. Environmental (or ambient) stressors are large-scale (affecting many people), minor but persistent irritations (eg, traffic noise). 4. Catastrophes are large-scale major events that affect many people (eg, natural disasters).

q11

A meritocracy is a system in which individuals with the most merit (eg, talent, ability, effort) progress and earn rewards. In other words, factors such as prestige or social connections do not count in a meritocracy.

q42

A self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when a belief about oneself (eg, "I'm a terrible test taker") causes behavior that makes the belief come true (eg, belief causes test anxiety, resulting in actual poor performance). In other words, the belief itself, regardless of if the belief is true or justified, directly or indirectly initiates a chain of events that prove the belief true. concept: When attempting to understand behavior, people often make attributional biases. The just world phenomenon occurs when one believes that bad things happen only to bad people. The fundamental attribution error occurs when people attribute the behavior of others to their personality rather than external factors. The self-serving bias occurs when one attributes one's own success to internal (instead of external) factors.

Question 39

A. Depression is characterized by feelings of sadness, hopelessness, or emptiness; lack of interest in previously enjoyed activities; changes in appetite; changes in sleep; fatigue; low self-worth or guilt; cognitive difficulties; and/or thoughts about death or suicidal ideation. Difficulty sleeping, fatigue, low appetite, and loss of interest in previously enjoyed activities are most consistent with a diagnosis of depression B. Panic disorder is an anxiety disorder characterized by repeated, uncontrollable, and unpredictable panic attacks, which are overwhelming surges of anxiety that peak within minutes. Repeated surges of overwhelming anxiety with racing heart, difficulty breathing, sweating, and a fear of losing one's mind are most consistent with a diagnosis of panic disorder C. Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can arise after exposure to trauma (ie, an event that resulted or almost resulted in death, sexual violence, or serious injury). Hyperarousal (eg, exaggerated startle response), intrusive symptoms (eg, nightmares), avoidance of reminders of the trauma (eg, certain situations), and negative thoughts and moods are most consistent with a diagnosis of PTSD D. GAD

Question 32

A. This choice is humanistic therapy where the focus is self actualization aka individual growth B. This one is CBT C. Psychodynamic (Psychoanalytic approach) D. biomedical approach - views physiological causes (eg, abnormal brain chemistry) as the basis for psychological symptoms, emphasizing treatment with medical interventions (eg, medication).

q27

A: A counterculture opposes and rejects the norms/values of the dominant culture (eg, much of the antiwar movement of the 1960s). B: Utilitarian organizations compensate members for their involvement (eg, money, certification/diploma). C: An aggregate is a collection of individuals who share a common location but do not identify as a group (eg, all the people at a given store at 11:00 AM). Concept: A subculture is distinct from the dominant culture but is still aligned with the general norms and values of the dominant culture.

q45

According to the first paragraph, industrialization resulted in increased occupational specialization (an increase in the division of labor). Concept: The division of labor refers to the specialization of employment into interdependent jobs. The division of labor has positive consequences (eg, increased specialization, efficiency, reduced costs) and negative consequences (eg, labor exploitation, increased boredom, reduced quality).

q32

As medicalization increases in a society, individuals will increasingly rely on medical professionals, rather than clergy, as legitimate sources of guidance on lifestyle behaviors. Therefore, medical professionals will have more power (ie, influence on people) and authority, as that power will be seen as legitimate. concept: In sociology, power refers to the ability to influence and control others. Authority refers to whether others perceive that power as legitimate.

Question 17

B is right because trait theorists are able to accurately predict an individual's average behavior over time. But they are not good at predicting specific behaviors because they don't account for the impact of situation factors on behavior. So, for this question, they would argue that personality traits are unlikely to change in a short time frame

q55

Borderline personality disorder is characterized by instability in mood, sense of self, and relationships. Symptoms may include extreme mood reactivity, fear of abandonment, impulsive or reckless behavior (eg, drug use, unsafe sex), and suicidal or self-harming behavior. Lack of interest in activities previously enjoyed is a symptom that may be present in BD and depressive disorder, but is not characteristic of borderline personality disorder; therefore, if present, this symptom would help a clinician diagnose BD rather than borderline personality disorder. Concept: Bipolar disorder is characterized by mania: An elevated or irritable mood, feelings of grandiosity, reduced need for sleep, flight of ideas (rapid thoughts), and risky behaviors. Most people with bipolar disorder also experience depressive episodes: Feelings of sadness/hopelessness, lack of interest in activities, sleep disturbances, and thoughts of death or suicide.

Question 43

Buying new clothes is a secondary reinforcer and it does not address the reduction of a drive. This is more closely related to incentive theory Drive-reduction theory proposes that motivation is a result of a disruption of homeostasis, which produces a physiological need (ex: hunger) which leads to a drive (ex: desire to eat). Homeostasis is reestablished once the drive is reduced

What are the three types of psychotherapeutic approaches

CBT uses principles from classical and operant conditioning, observational learning and cognitive therapy

q4

Class consciousness involves the recognition of class structure and an identification with one's own social class such that individuals understand that people from other classes have needs and interests different from their own. False consciousness results when individuals from lower classes adopt the misleading views of the upper class and accept the status quo (ie, injustice, exploitation). concept: Class consciousness is the recognition of class structure and identification with one's own social status. False consciousness refers to individuals from lower classes adopting misleading messages from the upper class.

q35

Concept: Social stratification refers to a system of inequality whereby individuals are hierarchically ranked into groups that have differing access to resources, opportunities, and life outcomes. In caste systems, social status is ascribed and caste boundaries are rigid, making social mobility difficult. In class systems, social status is at least partially achieved and class boundaries are less defined, making social mobility possible.

q30

Correlations can only be done in observational studies!!! Religiosity refers to the extent to which a religious doctrine is internalized and incorporated into an individual's life (eg, behaviors, beliefs). Religious affiliation describes the specific religious group to which an individual identifies, which is not synonymous with living one's life according to the principles, behaviors, or customs of that religion. concept: Religious affiliation describes an individual identifying with a specific religious group, whereas religiosity (or religiousness) is the degree to which an individual internalizes and incorporates that religion into their lives, as demonstrated by the individual's behaviors and beliefs.

What is somatic symptom disorder and the related disorders

Diagnostic criteria: 1. 1 or more somatic (bodily) symptoms that cause distress or significantly disrupt daily life 2. Excessive thought and emotions related to somatic symptoms (worry, anxiety) 3. Excessive behaviors related to somatic symptoms (researching symptoms, going to the doctor)

q10

Don't get confused btw relative poverty and absolute poverty. Relative poverty is in comparison to the economic conditions of others while absolute poverty is when someone is unable to secure basic needs In the passage they are talking about relative poverty not absolute poverty and thats why B is right concept: Absolute poverty is the inability to secure basic life necessities (eg, food, shelter). Relative poverty, defined in comparison to the economic conditions of others, is the inability to meet the standards of the society in which one lives (eg, inability to afford a car if most others in society have a car).

q8

Educational stratification refers to the mechanisms that produce inequality in educational access (eg, schools available to students) and outcomes (eg, graduation rates, college matriculation) in society. The experts' suggestion in the final paragraph that the education system perpetuates income disparities through the unequal distribution of resources (ie, funding, quality teachers) draws most directly from the concept of educational stratification.

q1

Ethnography is a qualitative method for the scientific study of human social phenomena. Using observation and interviews, ethnographies study people in their natural environments (within their own communities) and provide descriptive information about the cultures, behaviors, norms, and values in a given geographic location. concept: Ethnography scientifically studies individuals in their own communities to learn about culture, norms, and values within an area. Qualitative methods (eg, observation, interviews) are best for studying human social phenomena.

What is false positive and false negative

False positive = type I error where a true null hypothesis leads to the incorrect conclusion that there is a difference between groups False negative = type II error where you falsely conclude that there is no difference when there is a difference

q47

Figure 1 demonstrates that the discrepancy between male's and female's income (the gender pay gap) increases across the adult life span, and only shows a slight narrowing at age 65+. The final paragraph of the passage states that mothers earn less than men and women who are not mothers (the "motherhood penalty"), which suggests that changes in fertility patterns in the U.S. may also impact the gender pay gap. The fertility rate is a measure of the number of people being added to a given population through birth, as opposed to immigration. Of the multiple ways to express fertility rates, the age-specific fertility rate (ASFR) describes the number of live births per year per 1,000 women in a certain age group in a population. In the U.S., the ASFR for women age 25-29 is about 100 whereas the ASFR for women age 40-44 is about 10. If the ASFR for females age 25-29 increases, then more women in this age cohort will become mothers, which would likely cause the gender pay gap for females age 25-29 to increase. concept: Fertility rates measure of the number of people being added to a population through birth. The age-specific fertility rate (ASFR) describes the number of live births per year per 1,000 women in a certain age group in a population.

q34

Gentrification is the redevelopment of lower-income urban (city) neighborhoods that occurs in conjunction with an influx of higher-income individuals, resulting in the displacement of lower-income residents. higher income ppl move into lower income areas --> redevelops the area (gentrifies it) --> low income ppl forced to move out bc they can't afford it concept: Gentrification is a process of urban redevelopment of lower-income neighborhoods that occurs with an influx of higher-income residents. Gentrification causes an increase in housing prices, which forces lower-income residents to move (displacement).

Question 37

Got the question wrong AGAIN bc I missed the question saying EXCEPT -_-

q12

I picked the opposite of what the demographic transition model says. The model starts off with high birth rate and death rate and then decreases while population size starts low and gradually increases concept: According to the demographic transition model, societies progress through stages marked by characteristic changes in birth/death rates and population size: high birth/death rates, small population (Stage 1); declining death rate, increasing population (Stage 2); declining birth rate, slower population growth (Stage 3); low birth/death rates, stable population (Stage 4); and very low birth rate, declining population (Stage 5).

q51

In normative organizations, people voluntarily unite based on shared values and/or goals (eg, church congregations, sororities). In utilitarian organizations, members are compensated for their involvement, typically through money (eg, paid employment) or certification/diploma (eg, university students). In coercive organizations, membership is not freely chosen (eg, prisoners) and/or maintained (eg, military service members must be discharged). Concept: Organizations are social structures composed of individuals linked by specific purposes, tasks, and/or common goals. In normative organizations, people come together based on shared values/goals, whereas utilitarian organizations compensate members for their involvement. In coercive organizations, membership is not freely chosen and/or maintained.

q25

In the physician's role as a doctor, he is expected to help his patient with her symptoms, and he must also consider the potential negative consequences of any drug he prescribes. The stress caused by these competing expectations for one role best illustrates role strain. Role taking - also known as social perspective taking happen when individuals act out or take on the roles of others. This practice allows one to understand situations from a different perspective and is an important part of social learning and communication. Think about seeing from a different perspective concept: Role strain occurs when different expectations for a single social role compete in a way that causes tension. Role strain is distinct from role conflict, which occurs when expectations from multiple different roles compete with one another.

q7

In the psg, the results of the longitudinal study claims that social reproduction of poverty occurs because lower-income parents lack economic resources (ie, economic capital), social connections (ie, social capital), and knowledge about the education system (ie, cultural capital). This can be supported if a follow up study shows a pos correlation btw children's educational attainment and parent cultural capital concept: Social reproduction occurs when social class remains unchanged from one generation to the next (eg, children born into a lower social class tend to occupy a lower social class as adults).

q21

In this example, an individual who identifies as Hispanic may view other Hispanic individuals (eg, the Hispanic physician) as trustworthy in-group members and non-Hispanic individuals (eg, the non-Hispanic physician) as untrustworthy out-group members. concept: In-groups are groups to which an individual identifies and belongs, whereas out-groups are groups to which an individual does not identify or belong. Individuals are more likely to distrust out-group members or view them unfavorably.

Difference between internal and external validity

Internal validity refers to the extent to which an experiment or measure is accurate (produces a true result) External validity is known as generalizability which is the extent to which study results can be applied outside the laboratory to real life situations

q3

Intersectionality describes how individuals hold multiple, interconnected, marginalized social identities (eg, gender, race, age) that impact their lives, perspectives, and treatment in society. Racialization is the process by which one group designates another group with a racial identity, often based on shared group qualities, such as physical attributes (eg, skin pigmentation) or behaviors (eg, religious practices). Concept: Intersectionality describes how multiple, interconnected, marginalized social identities simultaneously impact individual's lives, perspectives, and treatment in society. Racialization is the process by which one group (the dominant group) designates another (a subordinate group) with a racial identity.

q46

Intersectionality has to do with age, class, race/ethnicity and sex/gender The gender pay gap (or gender wage gap) depicted in Figure 1 illustrates how the inequality in pay between female and male workers is related to both gender and age, which is an example of intersectionality. concept: Intersectionality suggests that for each individual, multiple social identities (eg, gender, age, race, class) intersect to impact one's life, perspective, and treatment by others in society.

q33

Intragenerational social mobility occurs within a single generation (ie, within a lifetime). Intergenerational social mobility occurs over multiple generations (ie, across several lifetimes). horizontal (ie, same social status) vertical (ie, up or down in social status) concept: Social mobility refers to the change in social status experienced by a group or individual. It may be vertical (upward or downward) or horizontal (no change in status) and may be intragenerational (occurring over a relatively short time among members of the same generation) or intergenerational (occurring over a relatively long time among members of different generations).

q15

Know the different major sociological approached to aging concept: The life course approach to aging is holistic, taking into account psychological, social, biological, and cultural factors across a lifetime. Other aging theories focus on the extent to which older adults remain active (activity theory), continue their regular habits and relationships (continuity theory), or withdraw from society (disengagement theory).

q29

Major types of social change can affect a society's emphasis on religion: Modernization refers to the social progress and transition of a society brought about by industrialization. This process results in a society becoming less traditional and more bureaucratized, with a reduction in the importance of religion. As religious involvement declines, secularization of a society occurs as religious institutions lose social and political influence. A reaction to secularization, fundamentalism refers to the renewed adherence to strict, traditional religious beliefs and practices by some individuals. concept: Modernization, the transition of a society due to industrialization, results in religion losing importance in society. Secularization refers to the diminishing social/political influence of religion in society. A reaction to secularization, fundamentalism refers to renewed adherence to strict, traditional religious beliefs/practices by some individuals.

q31

Manifest = Real meaning Latent = hidden meaning (think about Freud's dream theory) concept: Structural functionalism is a macro-level sociological perspective proposing that social institutions work together to maintain societal balance (dynamic equilibrium). Social institutions have manifest (intended) functions and latent (unintended) functions.

q23

McDonaldization (a social process, not a physical environment factor) describes when rationalization, the replacement of traditional practices with predictable, logical rules, is valued as the main tenet of society Ambient stressors include anything in the environment that causes a physiologically or psychologically negative reaction such as noise, pollution, bad smells, and flashing lights. Ambient stressors can promote chronically elevated cortisol levels, which have been correlated to poorer health Environmental injustice occurs when lower-income areas are subjected to more environmental risk factors (eg, increased pollution, toxic waste, high-voltage power lines) that negatively impact health Residential segregation occurs when social groups are separated into different neighborhoods, often along racial and ethnic lines. Racial/ethnic residential segregation can impact health outcomes through a geographically unequal distribution of health-compromising factors such as ambient stressors and other environmental risks concept: Physical environment factors contributing to health disparities include anything individuals come into contact with that can negatively impact their health, such as ambient stressors (eg, pollution). Environmental injustice and residential segregation both help explain why lower-income groups are disproportionately exposed to environmental health risks.

Q2

McDonaldization describes the process by which extreme efficiency and rationalization produce negative consequences. McDonaldization describes when the following happens in society: 1) Efficiency produces optimization at the cost of individuality. 2) Calculability produces high quantities at the expense of quality. 3) Predictability produces standardization at the expense of uniqueness. 4) Control increases automation, reducing the need for a skilled workforce

q38

Memorize the types of kinship concept: Kinship describes how individuals in society are related. Consanguineal kin are related by blood, affinal kin are related by marriage, and fictive kin are related by other means (adoption, religion). The nuclear family (two married adults and their offspring) is the basic social unit composed of primary kin. Secondary kin are one degree removed from the nuclear family (eg, uncle) and tertiary kin are two degrees removed (eg, uncle's wife).

q48

My choice is wrong bc feminist theory would not suggest that females in different occupational fields, which require different skill sets and qualifications, should be paid at the same rate. Instead, feminist theory would focus on how men and women within the same occupational field should be compensated equivalently. concept: Feminist theory explains differences in power between males/masculinity and females/femininity (gender inequality). Feminist theory examines both macro-level impacts of social structures as well as micro-level factors such as individual prejudice and discrimination.

q14

Need to know what formal vs hidden curriculum is (what is sounds like) Choice A: Teacher expectancy occurs when a teacher's beliefs about a student (eg, "she is smart," "he is lazy") result in the student meeting those expectations (eg, excelling or performing poorly). This is thought to occur as a result of the teacher's behavior toward the student. concept: The education system's hidden curriculum includes implied, informal mechanisms by which certain values and behaviors are reinforced, whereas the formal curriculum includes explicit, official content taught to students.

q19

Needed to use figure 1 but did not use it In Figure 1, the 2000 population pyramid resembles a cross between stationary (bottom half) and expanding (top half), whereas the 2030 projected population pyramid is stationary. The large number of people in their 30s and 40s in 2000 are not being replaced, so it appears the population size will decrease by 2030. concept: A population pyramid is a type of bar graph that depicts the number or percentage of men and women in certain age brackets in a given population. Expanding pyramids show more young than old, stationary pyramids show stable populations, and contracting pyramids reflect gradually declining populations.

q53

No data in the passage involve efficacy of a treatment/intervention or a causal relationship, so the data were least likely to have been obtained from randomized controlled trials concept: The health sciences use three main study designs: Reviews, experimental studies (causality can be inferred), and observational studies (causality cannot be inferred). Randomized controlled trials determine treatment efficacy by comparing randomly assigned groups. Cross-sectional studies can determine disease prevalence. Cohort studies observe changes in a group over time. Case studies provide an in-depth analysis of one or a few individuals.

q16

Older adults and children are considered to be dependents concept: The dependency ratio is the ratio of the number of dependents (people age 0-14 and 65+) to the number of productive members in a society, given as a rough estimate. The higher the dependency ratio, the more pressure there is on working-age members of society to support dependents.

Personality disorder and the three clusters

Personality disorders are characterized by inflexible and enduring patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors differing markedly from social norms. Personality disorders are stable over time and across environments and cause significant distress or impairment of functioning

q24

Random sampling is intended to ensure that anyone in the population is equally likely to be included in the study. A sample that differs from the population of interest will result in conclusions that may not be relevant to the population. concept: Sampling bias occurs when certain individuals in a population have a greater chance of being selected for a study than other individuals, producing a sample that inaccurately reflects the population from which it was drawn. Random sampling of study subjects helps reduce sampling bias.

q49

Redefining severe premenstrual symptoms as an official psychiatric diagnosis reflects experts' consensus that a particular set of symptoms should be treated as a psychiatric disorder, thereby demonstrating an agreed-on, shared meaning (ie, the social constructionism perspective). Concept: Social constructionism is a sociological theory suggesting that "reality" is created through interactions, resulting in agreed-on, shared meanings (social constructs). Social constructs (eg, gender) are defined and maintained through the process of social interaction.

What is reliability

Reliability refers to the ability of an experiment or measure to produce similar results every time (eg, two IQ tests taken months apart by the same person should yield a similar result)

Q3

Research suggesting that lifetime exposure to biological (eg, respiratory infections), sociocultural (eg, low socioeconomic status), and behavioral (eg, smoking) risk factors increases the likelihood of developing chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is most reflective of the life course approach to illness. The illness experience is a symbolic interactionist approach to understanding how people incorporate and make sense of illness as part of their self-identity and daily routines. The illness experience is not best reflected by evidence that biological and sociocultural factors impact health/illness across a lifetime.

q6

Social exclusion occurs when individuals are marginalized to the point of being unable to participate in society economically (eg, earning money, purchasing goods/services), socially (eg, interacting with others), and civically (eg, voting). Social control is the exertion of influence by a group (eg, family, society as a whole) to ensure that the behavior of individuals conforms to that of the group. Think about someone controlling your behavior concept: Social exclusion is the marginalization of individuals so that they are unable to participate in society economically (through earning or spending money), socially (through interaction with others), or civically (through political or other community engagement).

q9

Social stratification is the hierarchical organization of individuals in society based on social class, social status, and power: 1) Social class is largely determined by economic resources (eg, income, property). Wealthy individuals are at the top of the social hierarchy, whereas those in the working and lower classes are at the bottom. 2) Social status refers to one's prestige (reputation). Certain careers (eg, physician), personal characteristics (eg, attractiveness), and achievements (eg, winning an Olympic gold medal) confer status that is not necessarily tied to wealth (although it can be). 3) Power is the ability to control others. Certain careers (eg, politician) and accomplishments (eg, a large social media following) increase one's power.

q39

Spatial inequality results from the uneven distribution of wealth and resources across a geographic area. The physical separation of groups by social characteristics such as race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status is known as residential segregation. Segregated neighborhoods experience different degrees of environmental benefits (access to safe parks and good schools) and environmental burdens (crime, pollution); this is known as environmental injustice. Spatial inequality results in the worst health outcomes for residents in the poorest neighborhoods because of increased exposure to violence and environmental risks. Concept: Spatial inequality is the unfair distribution of wealth and resources across a geographic area. Spatial inequality includes residential segregation, the physical separation of groups by race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status, and environmental injustice, increased crime and pollution in lower-income neighborhoods. Spatial inequality results in poor health outcomes for lower-income individuals.

Stress and brain structures

The 2 areas of the brain with the most glucocorticoid receptors (released in response to stress) are the hippocampus and the frontal cortex The hippocampus, amygdala, and prefrontal cortex demonstrate structural changes in response to chronic stress. Atrophy of the hippocampus inhibits learning and changes emotional responses. Changes in the dendrites of the amygdala are associated with increased anger, fear, and anxiety. Hypervigilance and poor coping skills are linked to changes in the dendritic branching of the prefrontal cortex

q36

The analysis and coding of social media text is an example of a content analysis, which involves the systematic coding and interpretation of human communication (eg, website content, organizational literature, oral transcripts) for research. concept: Content analysis involves systematic coding and interpretation of human communication (eg, online media). Social movements are organized collective actions that are sustained (lasting weeks to years) and meant to produce social change.

q57

The availability heuristic is the tendency to make decisions or base judgments on how easily something is recalled from memory. In other words, things that are readily available in memory are thought to be more common. The physician's quote describing heightened exposure to the symptoms of BD leading to a propensity to overdiagnose is an example of the availability heuristic influencing a decision-making process. The representativeness heuristic is the tendency to compare things (eg, people, events) to existing mental prototypes when making judgments. Mental representations (eg, nurses tend to be women) may cause one to draw a conclusion that is inaccurate, such as assuming that a woman in scrubs is a nurse instead of a doctor (Choice D).

q56

The biomedical approach to mental illness suggests that physiological causes (abnormal brain chemistry) result in psychological symptoms, and therefore medical treatment is advised to fix the underlying problem. This approach is best demonstrated by pharmaceutical companies raising BD symptom awareness while offering new drug therapies. concept: The biomedical approach to mental illness emphasizes the diagnosis of physiological causes (abnormal brain chemistry) by physicians and the treatment of symptoms using drugs. This approach has helped many, but it has not been effective for everyone: Its narrow focus ignores other factors related to illness, and drug treatment can produce harmful side effects.

q18

The first paragraph most aligns with the demographic transition model as it describes declining death rates, increased population size, and declining birth rates as the United States transitioned from a pre-industrial society to a modern one. Choice A: social exchange theory describes human interaction as resulting from people's perceptions of what they invest in a relationship and what they get out of it Choice B: Optimum population is a demographic theory regarding the ideal population size, which is the number of people yielding the highest per capita income given the country's level of wealth, knowledge, and technical resources. Choice C: Malthusian theory maintains that population growth is exponential but resource growth is linear. When populations outgrow available resources, preventive checks decrease the birth rate and positive checks increase the death rate; Malthusian catastrophes are large-scale positive checks (war, disease epidemics). concept: According to demographic transition theory, societies progress through stages marked by characteristic changes in birth rate, death rate, and population size. Stage 1 has high birth/death rates and small population size; stage 2 has a declining death rate and increasing population size; stage 3 has declining birth rates; stage 4 has low birth/death rates; and stage 5 has a declining population size.

q50

The frustration-aggression theory, contends that individuals exhibit violence as a result of having a goal or effort blocked or defeated (ie, frustration). Concept: Abuse within families can take many forms, including physical violence, emotional harm, neglect, and/or isolation. The frustration-aggression theory proposes that individuals exhibit aggression as a result of frustration (ie, having a goal or effort blocked or defeated).

q58

The illness experience is a symbolic interactionist perspective that examines how individuals understand and cope with serious or chronic illnesses that impact daily life and self-identity. Patient 3's quote discusses the emotional and practical impact of BD in terms of acknowledging one's illness and managing it through medication as well as the effect this acknowledgment has on the patient's sense of identity, all of which reflect the illness experience. concept: The illness experience discusses how chronically ill individuals make sense of and manage their illness in daily life and what effect illness has on their sense of self-identity. Chronically ill individuals employ strategies that involve illness work (eg, taking medications), everyday work (eg, maintaining a household), and biographical work (eg, explaining the illness to others) to cope with and make sense of their illness.

q37

The investigators would most likely conclude that resilience is positively correlated with social class in adulthood because despite similar circumstances, Michael (high resilience) advanced to a middle-class lifestyle whereas Jake (low resilience) remained in the lower class. When variables are positively correlated, increases in one variable (resilience) are associated with increases in the other (social class). concept: There are three generally recognized social classes (categories of people based on wealth, occupation, and status) in the United States—the upper, middle, and lower classes. Those in the upper class tend to have the most power and prestige in society. This hierarchical categorization is known as social stratification.

q44

The passage describes the unintended consequence of industrialization producing "masculine" and "feminine" jobs and the knowledge economy producing a decline in blue-collar jobs and an increase in pink-collar jobs. Both of these are latent functions from the functionalism perspective. Concept: Structural functionalism is a macro-level sociological perspective proposing that social institutions work together to maintain societal balance (dynamic equilibrium). Social institutions have manifest (intended) functions and latent (unintended) functions.

q20

The passage provides specific data for total fertility rate only because it mentions the number of births per woman is about two. concept: The crude birth rate refers to the number of live births per year for every 1,000 people in a population; the general fertility rate refers to the total number of live births per year for every 1,000 women of childbearing age; the total fertility rate refers to the average number of children born per woman during her lifetime. The age-specific fertility rate refers to the number of live births per year for every 1,000 women of a certain age group.

q54

The passage states that the underdiagnosis of BD might be partially attributed to individuals with BD who may not realize that their manic episodes are problematic and/or seek treatment for them (Paragraph 3). Therefore, a potential explanation for the underdiagnosis of BD, based on the information in the passage and sick role theory, is that individuals with BD fail to meet the obligations of illness (ie, seeking medical help). concept: According to sick role theory, a sick person has the right to be excused from normal responsibilities and to be held blameless for the illness. A sick person has the obligation to attempt to get well as soon as possible, and to seek and comply with the advice of medical professionals.

q26

The socioeconomic gradient in health is the positive correlation between socioeconomic status (SES) and health outcomes: Individuals with lower SES tend to have worse health outcomes than those with higher SES, on average. Disparities related to SES, including lower income, poorer education, unsafe living environments, increased drug use, unemployment, lack of exercise, and limited access to nutritious food, are thought to contribute to this gradient. Sick role theory - expectation in society that allows you to take a break from responsibilities. But if you don't get better or return, you're viewed as deviant and harmful to society. Illness experience - process of being ill and how people cope with illness concept: The socioeconomic gradient in health is a positive correlation between socioeconomic status (SES) and health outcomes. On average, individuals with lower SES tend to have worse health outcomes than those with higher SES.

q5

The statement that individuals from low-income neighborhoods drop out of school due to environmental stressors is a situational attribution (ie, based on an external factor) consistent with the concentration of poverty in certain neighborhoods (Paragraph 2) and the association between poverty and lower graduation rates (Paragraph 4). concept: Residentially segregated, low-income neighborhoods have more crime, violence, pollution, and other environmental health risk factors (spatial inequality). Attributions are explanations for behavior and can be dispositional/personal (ie, based on internal characteristics) or situational/environmental (ie, based on external factors).

q40

The study's primary finding is that high-resilience men had received more social support outside their immediate families while growing up than did low-resilience men. The fact that Michael has experienced fewer health problems than Jake can be best explained by his close relationship with his pastor, who helped him handle stress productively while he was growing up. Concept: Social support refers to the social network of relationships that provide assistance, resources, and intimacy. Social support fulfills emotional, esteem, tangible, informational, and companionship needs. People with strong social support networks tend to experience better health than those with weak social support.

q52

The teacher expectancy effect refers to a teacher's preconceived ideas about a student resulting in student performance that meets the teacher's expectations. Independent variables are manipulated/controlled by the researcher to examine the impact on the dependent variable.

q2

This graph displays the number of immigrants and the percentage of the total US population composed of immigrants from 1850 to 2010. From 1910 to 1930, the number of immigrants (graph bars) increased, whereas the percentage of immigrants in the overall US population (graph line) decreased, which would occur only if the native-born population increased faster than the foreign-born (immigrant) population. A fertility rate exceeding the immigration rate would produce this outcome. concept: Migration patterns track the movement of people from one country to another. People tend to emigrate from (leave) poorer countries and immigrate (relocate) to wealthier countries. Push factors (eg, war) drive emigration, whereas pull factors (eg, economic opportunity) drive immigration. Migration, fertility (birth) rate, and mortality (death) rate impact the size and demographics of a population.

q41

This study defines resilience as the ability to prevail despite threats to adequate psychosocial development. Therefore, this study appears to be basing human development on Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory. (Choice A) Cognitive theories of human development attempt to describe how learning and mental processes progress. Piaget's theory contends that children progress through four universal stages that reflect the acquisition of predictable mental skills. (Choice B) Freud's theory proposes that progression through psychosexual stages as a child determines adult personality. This study assessed the ability to prevail in the face of threats to adequate psychosocial (not psychosexual) development. (Choice D) Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral development proposes that humans progress through stages of moral and ethical reasoning throughout their lifetime, starting with basic moral reasoning during childhood and progressing to more abstract reasoning in adulthood. Moral reasoning development is not assessed in this study. Concept: Theories of human development focus on personality, cognition, and morality. Psychoanalytic theories describe personality development in terms of childhood conflicts (Freud) or a series of lifetime crises (Erikson). Cognitive theories attempt to describe the importance of nurture (Vygotsky) versus nature (Piaget) in the development of thinking. Moral development theories (Kohlberg) attempt to define the progression of moral reasoning throughout a lifetime.

What is dissociative disorder?

characterized by disruptions in memory and identity. Individuals may experience social dysfunction (eg, through inconsistent interactions with loved ones) because of disruptions in memory and identity Two types: 1. Dissociative identity disorder: presence of 2 or more distinct personalities; amnesia 2. Dissociative amnesia: inability to recall important autobiographical information

q17

conflict always has to do with some sort of economic conflicts: Key words to look out for are competition, conflict, fighting etc According to conflict theory, conflict arises when resources, such as wealth and power, are unequally distributed throughout a society. Conflict theory predicts that class conflict results from members of the highest social classes possessing most of the resources compared to members of the lower classes. Concept: Social significance of aging describes how age is treated and defined in society, and expectations associated with age. Conflict theory is a macro-sociological perspective focusing on how the unequal distribution of resources in society leads to conflict between groups.

What is the function of the basal ganglia

contains a high concentration of dopamine producing neurons and the function of it is to produce smooth, purposeful movements and inhibit excessive movement Loss of dopamine producing neurons in the substantial nigra of the basal ganglia results in Parkinson's disease

Question 28

got the question wrong because forgot it was asking about the LEAST smh read correctly bro

Q1

had to know the world systems theory and what nations export goods and use resources etc concept: Globalization is the process by which tangible products and intangible ideas/values spread across the world as a result of advances in technology and communication. An economic theory of globalization, world systems theory suggests the global economy is led by core nations that benefit at the expense of periphery nations.

q22

passage based q. Study 1 included everything else except meritocracy concept: Many factors contribute to health care disparities, including relative poverty, accessibility issues (eg, difficulty communicating, lack of transportation), and institutional discrimination (unjust treatment of a social group).

What is the expectancy theory of motivation

proposes that motivation results from expectancy (believing one is capable of achieving an outcome), instrumentality (believing one has control over the outcome), and valence (believing the outcome is desirable)

The id, ego and superego theory by Sigmund freud is formally known as what theory

psychoanalytic theory

What is the Thomas theorem?

says that an individual's response or reaction to a situation is a result of their interpretation of the situation. Aka our actions are based on our perception of reality

What is the Yerkes-dodson law?

says that there is an optimal level of physiological or mental arousal at which performance is maximized and it declines if there's too little or too much arousal

q28

symbolic interactionalism is all about interpersonal interactions and that most aligned with choice C concept: Symbolic interactionism is a micro-sociological perspective that suggests that people develop subjective meanings for things (eg, objects, behaviors) through social interaction.

q43

the psg mentioned everything except for social loafing concept: Sex/gender segregation describes the separation of males and females by formal (ie, laws) or informal (ie, social norms) means.

Why is counterbalancing used in research?

used to control for the potential effects that the order of intervention administration may have on the results