Psychology (& some sociology)
preconventional stage of moral development
1. obedience vs. punishment - obeying rules as a means to avoid punishment 2. individualism and exchange or self-interest - do what is right for personal gain. emphasis on rewards age: children
2 main somatosensory pathways
1. position sense, vibration sense, fine touch 2. pain, temperature, gross (less precise) touch
low levels of dopamine are associated with?
Parkinson's disease
formal operational stage
Piaget's stages of cognitive development •12+ yrs old •development of abstract consequences, hypothetical situations and moral reasoning to solve novel problems •can think logically
depression causes
BIOLOGICAL FACTORS •genetic component: 5-HTTLPR gene associated with depression IF person is in stressful environment PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS •behavioral theory - "learned helplessness" •cognitive theory - cognitive distortions - getting trapped in negative thought pattern •cognitive theory - attribution - pessimistic/negative attributional style which makes people vulnerable to depression. negative experiences linked to internal causes SOCIOCULTURAL/ENVIRONMENT FACTORS •co-rumination/empathy - having someone close to you with depression increases likelihood of you getting depression. may be due to you empathizing with them •low socioeconomic status •social isolation/child abuse •internalization of a prejudice
Mead vs. Cooley
Cooley thought every person you interact with in a lifetime influences your identity, while Mead thought this was more restricted - only certain people can have influence in certain periods in life
anterior pituitary secretes?
FSH, LH, ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormones), TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone), prolactin, endorphines, GH (growth hormone)
gustducin
G protein associated with sweet, umami, and bitter tastes. tastants will bind gustducin, triggering ion channel opening --> depolarization of cell/AP firing --> axon travels to brain
who proposed that extroversion level is based on differences in the reticular formation; introverts are more aroused than extroverts, so they seek lower levels of stimulation?
Hans Eysenck
examples of hallucinogens/psychdelics
LSD PCP psilocybin mescaline peyote
order of sleep stages
N1 --> N2 --> N3 --> N2 --> REM --> N1 duration of each stage depends on how long you've been asleep and your age (babies = more REM)
when sleepwalking/sleep talking occur?
N3
example of universalist view of language
New Guinea people have only 2 words for color- "mola" meaning dark and "mili" meaning light. therefore, they only think about dark and light. if they had other thoughts about color, they would have developed words for them
schizophrenia symptoms
POSITIVE SYMPTOMS •hallucinations - sensory perceptions without stimuli, esp. auditory hallucinations •delusions - false fixed beliefs not explainable by person's culture. an idea that is held when there is obvious evidence that it's not true. ex. delusions of persecution (ppl out to get you), delusions of reference (neutral event is believed to have special meaning), delusions of grandeur (belief that you're famous), delusions of control (belief that one's thoughts or actions are being controlled by outside forces) NEGATIVE SYMPTOMS •blunted emotions, loss of enjoyment •lack of emotional expression: affective flattening, or the reduction in the range and intensity of emotional expression (facial, voice, eye contact, lack of body language) •lack of interest or enthusiasm. problems with motivation, lack of self-care •avolition - reduction, difficulty, or inability to initiate and persist in goal-direct behavior •lack of interest in the world •speech difficulties and abnormalities. alogia - poverty of speech, lessening of speech fluency and productivity COGNITIVE SYMPTOMS •abnormalities of attention, organization, concentration, poor memory, difficulty expressing/integrating thoughts, slow thinking, difficulty understanding
sensorimotor stage
Piaget's stages of cognitive development •0-2 yrs old •development of object permanence - objects exist even if you can't see them •main source of info obtained via the senses and how they can be used to move about the world
preoperational stage
Piaget's stages of cognitive development •2-6/7 yrs old •defined by mental operations like imagining things •children involved in pretend play and use symbols to represent things •children egocentric at this age, inability to understand the perspective of others
concrete operational stage
Piaget's stages of cognitive development •7-11 yrs old •learn idea of conservation- ex. pour same amount of glass into a wide cup and a skinny cup, and they will be able to understand that it's the same amount of water even if it looks like there's more water in the skinny cup •develop empathy •develop math skills - i.e. conversion and reversibility of numbers; can recognize that #s/objects can be changed and returned to original condition
sympathetic vs parasympathetic nervous system
SYMPATHETIC •fight or flight •pupils dilate •decrease in salivation •increase in respiration rate •increase heart rate •increase glucose release •increase adrenaline •decrease digestion PARASYMPATHETIC •rest and digest •pupils constrict •increased salivation •decrease respiratory rate •decrease heart rate •increase glucose storage •decrease adrenaline •increase digestion
active substance in cannabis
THC
episodic buffer
a component of working memory where information in working memory interacts with information in long term memory (eg. relating information you are processing to a previous memory)
visuospatial sketchpad
a component of working memory where we create mental images to remember visual information
schema
a conceptual framework a person uses to make sense of the world
cyclothymic disorder
a disorder marked by numerous periods of hypomanic symptoms and mild depressive symptoms
dual coding hypothesis
a hypothesis that it is easier to remember words with associated images than either words or images alone
attitude
a learned tendency to evaluate people, issues, events, objects in a certain way
socialization
a life-long process where we learn how to interact with others (ex. how we learn to walk/talk/feed ourselves)
glycine
a major inhibitory neurotransmitter in spinal cord
lexicon
a set of vocabulary items in a language
olfactory epithelium
a specialized epithelial tissue inside the nasal cavity that is involved in smell (airborne substances). contains olfactory sensory cells
dependent stressor
a stressor that happens as a consequence of personal behavior, feelings, attitudes, thoughts. people with depression will expect to experience more dependent stressors than the average person
independent stressor
a stressor that happens regardless of your personal behavior, feelings, thoughts, attitudes, etc. e.g. get hit by drunk driver
describe the terms "hit," "false alarm," "correct rejection," and "miss," and explain how they relate to signal detection theory
a study was performed to determine whether observers found a stimulus to be present or absent. each trial could be sorted into the following categories: •hit- signal present, subject indicates signal is present •false alarm- signal absent, subject indicates signal is present •correct rejection- signal absent, subject indicates signal is absent •miss- signal present, subject indicates signal is absent **NOTE! these are different from type I/type II errors
tastant
a substance that stimulates the sense of taste
prodrome
a symptom indicating an approaching disease
operational span testing
a task in which subjects are asked to perform a simple mathematical verification (e.g., 4/2 +1 = 3) and then read a word, with a recall test following some number of those verify/read pairs. •maximum number of words that can be recalled is the "operation span".
signal detection theory
a theory that looks at how we make a decision under conditions of uncertainty - discerning between important and unimportant stimuli, or "noise" •at what point can we detect a signal
zona pellucida
a thick, transpartent coating rich in glycoproteins that surrounds an oocyte (egg)
somatosensory homunculus
a topological map of the entire body in the cortex. depicts a "sensory strip" in the brain, which is the receiver of somatosensory information. https://www.google.com/search?q=somatosensory+homunculus&tbm=isch&source=iu&ictx=1&fir=fPkNbVa-vKGaiM%253A%252C7eOsT0nLBJ8N-M%252C_&vet=1&usg=AI4_-kSZ58BOZalAKBVgZJNB6gwe0J-mpQ&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjbndO95orjAhXUVs0KHVzPDucQ9QEwAHoECAMQBA#imgrc=fPkNbVa-vKGaiM:
bipolar I disorder
a type of bipolar disorder marked by full manic and major depressive episodes
bipolar II disorder
a type of bipolar disorder marked by hypomanic and major depressive episodes
relative size
a type of monocular cue. closer objects appear to be bigger
relative height
a type of monocular cue. higher objects are perceived to be farther away than lower objects
constancy
a type of monocular cue. includes size, shape, and color constancy
shading and contour
a type of monocular cue. involves using light and shadows to perceive form depth/contours
anterograde memory
ability to form long-term memories after brain injury
emotional intelligence
ability to perceive, understand, and manage/use emotions in interactions with others
retrograde memory
ability to remember experiences before a brain injury
nociception
ability to sense pain. this is a slow response
thermoception
ability to sense temperature. this is a slow response
bipolar and related disorders
abnormally negative mood with periods of abnormally positive moods called mania
evolutionary perspective on why emotions are universally recognizable
according to Darwin, ability to understand and express emotion is an innate ability, provided people better chance of survival
example of projection
accusing your partner of being jealous when you're the one who is jealous
neurotransmitter modulation of orienting attentional network is associated with what neurotransmitter? where is it produced?
acetylcholine produced in the basal forebrain
2 main neurotransmitters of the PNS
acetylcholine, epinephrine
identification
acting/dressing a certain way to be like someone they respect. will do this as long as they maintain respect for that person
why do elements in our dreams defy logic without seeming odd?
activity during prefrontal cortex is low during REM sleep. this area is responsible for logic
does age affect alerting attention? schizophrenia?
aging = deficits in alerting attention schizophrenia = no effect
alerting attention & example
alerting is what you do when something catches your attention, for example, you hear a noise and turn to see what it is.
why are some hallucinogens used to treat PTSD?
allows people to access painful memories from the past and come to terms with them
anterior cingulate
anterior part of frontal cortex
what happens if the hippocampus is destroyed?
anterograde amnesia: old memories still intact but can't make new ones
example of belief perseverance bias
anti-vaxxers still maintaining that vaccines cause autism despite the study being debunked
haloperidol
antipsychotic medication used to treat schizophrenia
reinforcement
any event that strengthens a behavior
punishment
any event that weakens a behavior
secondary reinforcer + examples
any reinforcer that becomes reinforcing after being paired with a primary reinforcer, such as praise, tokens, or gold stars
posterior chamber
area behind the iris to the back of the lens, also filled with aqueous humor
primary auditory cortex
area in the temporal lobe of the brain that receives all info from the cochlea. separated by regions that detect different frequencies. *without these regions, you couldn't distinguish between different sound frequencies
example that supports strain theory
athlete attends school that doesn't have proper baseball training, equipment, or funding. athlete becomes frustrated and turns to steroids to level the playing field
executive attention
attention involved in goal-directed behavior, monitoring conflicts between internal processes, and anticipating the effects of behavior
Bandura's social cognitive theory
attention, memory, imitation, motivation determine whether someone is motivated to learn something
dispositional attribution
attributing behavior to the person's disposition and traits
fundamental difference between availability and representativeness heuristic is
availability = formed based on actual, specific memories in mind representativeness = not thinking of exact memories, thinking of a prototype of idea
covert behavior
behavior that is not observable
intoxication
behavioral and psychological effects you experience when a drug enters the body and exerts its effects. these effects are drug-specific
alertness
being awake, aware of who you are, are able to concentrate & encode new things
self-efficacy
belief in one's abilities to succeed in a situation/organize and execute courses of action required in a particular situation
Piaget's beliefs on cognitive development
believed that cognitive development involved the development of schemas through assimilation and accommodation
example of just world phenomenon
believing people are poor because they didn't do well in school or didn't work hard enough
interactionist approach to language
biological and social factors interact in order for children to learn language
bilaminar disk is found in what stage of embryogenesis?
blastulation
epiblast is found in what stage of embryogenesis?
blastulation
hypoblast is found in what stage of embryogenesis?
blastulation
inner cell mass & blastocoel are found in what stage of embryogenesis?
blastulation
similarities between spotlight and resource model of attention
both say that we are bad at multitasking
social psychology
branch of psychology that focuses on interactions between individuals and the changing external environmental circumstances, rather than internal traits/internal motivations/stable personality traits
arcuate fasciculus
bundle of nerve fibers that connect Broca's and Wernicke's area
olfactory bulb
bundle of nerves located just above the cribiform plate (therefore between cribiform plate and the brain). sends projections through the cribiform plate into the olfactory epithelium, which branch off and have receptors at the end of them which are sensitive to one type of molecule. *thus when you smell something, a molecule will bind to each receptor
example of minimum justification principle
buying something you don't need or want
how can social anomie be resolved?
by strengthening social norms and by having groups redevelop sets of shared norms
classification of MDMA
can be stimulant or hallucinogen
example of fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement
car salesman gets a bonus for every 5 cars he sells
structures of the forebrain
cerebrum
privately conform
change behaviors and opinions to align with group
sensory adaptation
change over time of a receptor to a constant stimulus; the downregulation of a sensory receptor in the body
example of behaviorist theory of language
child learns to say "mama" because every time they say that, the mom reinforces the child.
the brain relies on the _________ to differentiate between 2 different sounds
cochlea
inner ear
cochlea and semicircular canals
components of feature detection
color form motion
auditory canal/external auditory meatus
comes after the pinna; where sound waves travel to reach tympanic membrane (eardrum)
bipolar disorder
condition where someone swings from extreme emotional highs (mania) to extreme emotional lows (depression)
temporal cortex
contains •Wernicke's area involved in audition
frontal lobe
contains •motor cortex •prefrontal cortex •Broca's area
parietal lobe
contains •somatosensory cortex - receives sensory signals from skin involved in spatial manipulation
occipital lobe
contains •striate cortex involved in vision
low-effort syndrome/low-effort coping
coping responses of minority groups in an attempt to fit into a dominant culture
meaning-focused coping
coping that involves person concentrating on deriving meaning from stressful experience
social coping
coping with stress that involves seeking social support from others
Cheynes-Stroke breathing
crescendo then decrescendo breathing followed by stop in breathing. normal breathing pattern is inhale/exhale changes from a normal fixed pattern
habituation
decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation
regression
defense mechanism where one regresses to position of child in problematic situations
reaction formation
defense mechanism where someone says or does exact opposite of what they want/feel
sublimation
defense mechanism where unwanted impulses are transformed into something less harmful
amnesic syndrome
deficit in long-term memory caused by brain damage, disease, psychological trauma, or use of various sedatives/hypnotic drugs
pragmatics
dependences of language on context and pre-existing knowledge. affected by prosody
4 main categories of psychoactive drugs
depressants stimulants hallucinogens opiates/opioids
low levels of serotonin are associated with?
depression
visual cues consist of?
depth form motion constancy
obedience
describes behavioral changes made in response to a command by an authority figure. no cognitive component
reinforcing effect
desire to constantly stimulate the brain by using drugs
Hans Selye
developed the general adaptation syndrome: 3 stages of stress
DSM-5
diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 5th edition. from the American Psychiatric Association (APA)
suppose that the heritability of intelligence is 50%. what does this mean?
difference in intelligence between 2 individuals of a given subpopulation is 50% attributable by genes
touch adaptation example
dip hand in cold water and over time your hand feels less cold. this is due to sensory nerves in your hand become saturated and don't fire as much
post-decision dissonance
dissonance aroused after making a decision, typically reduced by enhancing the attractiveness of the chosen alternative and devaluating the rejected alternatives
example of distal/proximal stimuli
distal = a tree proximal = a photon from the tree onto your retina
gender dysphoria
distress/disability caused by person identifying as a different gender than society represents them as
sexual dysfunction
distress/disability from abnormalities in performance of sexual activity
depressive disorders
distress/disability from abnormally negative mood (long-term emotional state)
paraphilic disorders
distress/disability from having sexual arousal to unusual stimuli for a person's culture. can also apply if arousal harms those who can't give proper consent
elimination disorders
distress/disability from urination/defecation at inappropriate times or places
what is responsible for making us feel dizzy?
dizziness/vertigo occurs when the endolymph doesn't stop spinning at the same time we do, so it continues to signal to the brain that we are moving
problem with behaviorist theory of language
doesn't explain why child can produce words they've never heard before/unique sentences
neurotransmitter modulation of executive attentional network is associated with what neurotransmitter? where is it produced?
dopamine from the ventral tegmental area
sight adaptation & example
down or upregulation to light intensity downregulation ex. pupil constricts when light intensity is high & rods become saturated
id, ego, and superego are concepts associated with which theory of motivation?
drive-reduction theory
when does implantation begin?
during blasulation. zona pellucida is disintegrating while endometrium lining is proliferating
recognition
easiest form of recall. recognizing an item that you were previously exposed to
catecholamines are developed by the endo/ecto/mesoderm?
ecto
corticobulbar tract
efferent nerve fibers from upper motor neurons that travel from the cerebral cortex to the brainstem
corticospinal tract
efferent nerve fibers from upper motor neurons that travel from the cerebral cortex to the spinal cord
example that supports the theory of differential association
elite athlete grows up believing that cheating is wrong and must train hard to be respectful to opponents. then joins new team in which members believe that steroids, heckling is best way to be successful at the sport. over time, elite athlete learns from new team members that this behavior is acceptable
cortisol is developed by the endo/ecto/mesoderm?
endo
variable-interval schedule of reinforcement example
ex. bonus comes randomly on different days
4 things we do to reduce discomfort caused by cognitive dissonance (apply these things to an example)
ex. smoker says "I smoke" but learns that smoking leads to cancer. 4 things can happen to alleviate the discomfort. 1. modify our cognitions - "I don't really smoke that much" 2. trivialize - "evidence is weak that smoking causes cancer" 3. add another cognition - "I exercise so much it doesn't matter" 4. deny the facts - "there is no evidence that smoking and cancer are linked" note that when we experience cognitive dissonance, we modify our cognitions, not our behavior
shadowing task
experiment that studies selective attention. person wears headphones and are exposed to 2 different sounds in each ear. told to repeat everything said in one ear while ignoring the other (selective attention). based on information that the person does or doesn't comprehend, can learn how selective attention works by seeing what they filter out in the other ear
in signal detection theory, how is the strategy of a signal expressed?
expressed via choice of threshold - what threshold individual deems as necessary for them to say yes vs. no to a signal being present (ideal, conservative, or liberal strategy)
T/F: conditioned responses are a core component of emotion
false
T/F: shock or scare tactics are typically good ways to force behavioral change to occur
false
T/F: people with more submissive personalities tend to do be more susceptible to obedience and conformity
false - no one type of personality makes someone more susceptible to authority. but people's moods can affect this! ex. if you have rough day, less likely to conform
T/F: in the dark the rod is turned off, which inactivates on center bipolar cells/activates off center bipolar cells. the off center bipolar cells then activate off center retinal ganglion cells, inhibiting an optic nerve signal to the brain
false for two reasons. 1. in the dark, the rod is turned on 2. the off center retinal ganglion cells still transmit a signal via the optic nerve to the brain
type II error
false negative
type I error
false positive
T/F: the different types of taste buds can detect only one type of taste
false- all taste buds have 5 receptors that can detect each taste
T/F: treatments for a drug addiction focus on treating physiological dependence
false- also treat psychological dependence
T/F: dreams occur only during REM sleep
false- dreams can occur at any time during sleep, but they are memorable only if they occur during REM sleep
T/F: if you have an inability to retrieve certain information, then you have lost it completely
false- learning occurs more quickly if someone has learned that thing in the past, even if they completely forgot it. i.e. some foundation of the previous memory still existed even if it wasn't reproducible at the time
T/F: light from the temporal sides of both eyes crosses to the other side. this is why info from the right visual field goes to the left brain and vice versa
false- light from the nasal sides of both eyes crosses via the optic chiasm. all axons leading from the temporal sides do not cross
T/F: most abused drugs are injected intramuscularly
false- most are injected intravenously even though intramuscular route is the fastest
T/F: continuous reinforcement is more resistant to extinction than a partial reinforcement schedule
false- partial reinforcement schedule is more resistant to extinction
T/F: drinking caffeine while drunk will make you sober
false- stimulants and depressants don't act on the same things at the neurochemical level. so drinking caffeine while drunk will make you an alert drunk person
T/F: everyone has the same absolute threshold of sensation
false- varies between individuals (& even within the same individual)
daydreaming
feeling more relaxed, less focused. includes light meditation
vitreous chamber
filled with vitreous humor, a jelly-like substance to provide pressure to the eyeball and give nutrients to the inside of the eyeball
identification example
football player people admired and bought his jersey, but when he engaged in domestic violence, people stopped buying his jersey
normative influence example
friends are obsessed with a certain singer, so you say that you like that singer as well, even though you hold a different opinion
trilaminar disk is found in what stage of embryogenesis?
gastrulation
iris
gives the eye color. is a muscle that constricts/relaxes to change the size of the pupil
reticular activating system has diffuse projections of which neurotransmitter?
glutamate - makes since, since glutamate is associated with increased cortical arousal
overconfidence bias example
going into a test without having studied
which one develops first: gross or fine motor skills?
gross
chunking
grouping information into meaningful categories that we already know
group-produced reduction of individual effort
groups experiencing social loafing put less productive, put forth less effort, and perform poorly
discrimination example
guinea pig doesn't respond when it hears a dresser drawer open, because it doesn't sound like a refrigerator door opening (has been conditioned to associate refrigerator door opening with getting a carrot)
generalization example
guinea pig gets excited when it hears a desk drawer open, because it sounds similar to refrigerator door (has been conditioned to associate refrigerator door opening with getting a carrot)
cued recall
having extra "hints" to remember.
example of sublimation
having violent energy but instead of expressing violence, you become a boxer
examples of opiates/opioids
heroine codeine morphine oxycodone
2 areas of brain with most glucocorticoid receptors are?
hippocampus, frontal cortex
syntax
how words are put together in sentences, i.e. how words are arranged to create grammatically correct sentences
Galton's idea of hereditary genius
human ability is hereditary
reciprocal determinism
idea that interaction between person's behaviors, personal factors (motivation/cognition), and environment are all determined by one another
ego depletion
idea that self-control is a limited resource. if you use a lot of self-control, then it gets used up and there's less of it to use in the future
situational approach to behavior
idea that we are placed in new situations every day and these situations affect our behavior
why is sensory adaptation adaptive?
if a cell is overexcited, it can die. ex. too much pain signal in a pain receptor (capsaicin) --> cell dies
example of pathological defense mechanism
if someone has breast cancer, deny the fact that they do
Broadbent's early selection theory: problems
if you completely filter out unattended info, you shouldn't be able to identify your own name in unattended ear. but you can due to cocktail party effect
representativeness heuristic example
if you meet someone who knows all of the Shakespearean sonnets by heart, wears glasses, and loves reading, you might assume that this person is an English teacher because they fit your "prototype" of an English teacher
extensor plantar response
if you take a hard object and scrape along bottom of foot, normal response is flexor - toes will come down on the object. but with extensor, toes extend up.
belief perseverance bias
ignoring/rationalizing disconfirming facts
biological theory of personality
important components of personality are inherited or determined in part by our genes
how do lesion studies work?
in animals, destroy parts of animal's brain and then study changes in behavior
conditioned response
in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus
neutral stimulus
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning
unconditioned stimulus
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.
conditioned stimulus
in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response
unconditioned response
in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US)
anterograde amnesia
inability to encode new memories
anomia
inability to name things - difficulty naming objects or retrieving words
retrograde amnesia
inability to recall info previously encoded
agraphia
inability to write
hypertonia
increased tone of skeletal muscles. associated with increased muscle tension and reduction in ability of muscles to stretch
consequences of tyranny of choice
information overload --> decision paralysis --> increased regret over choice made
retina
inside, back area of the eye filled with photoreceptors. •primarily consists of rod photoreceptors **this is where a ray of light is converted from a physical waveform to an electrochemical impulse that the brain can interpret
generalized other
integrated conception of the norms, values, and beliefs of one's community or society
directed attention
intentional attention that is focused on a single task
assimilation
interpretation of new information/experiences in terms of our current understanding/schemas
thiamine biological significance
involved in conversion of carbs into glucose, which is important for neuronal function
orienting attention & example
involves the capacity to change the focus of attention from one stimulus to another stimulus. ex. hearing a noise and turning to see where that noise came from
which of the following are ipsilateral and which are contralateral? •olfaction •audition •touch •gustation •vision
ipsilateral: •olfaction •gustation contralateral: •vision •audition •touch smell and gustation don't synapse onto the thalamus and are therefore considered ipsilateral
drowsiness
just before falling asleep/after waking up. lesser ability to concentrate, more relaxed than simply daydreaming
linguistic determinism
language has influence on thought
latent learning
learned behavior that isn't expressed until required
observational learning
learning by observing others
non-associative learning + examples of types of non-associative learning
learning in which an organism is repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus, ex. habituation, sensitization
associative learning + examples of types of associative learning
learning in which one event is connected to another, ex. classical and operant conditioning
shaping
learning that results from the gradual reinforcement of successive steps to a target behavior
for 90% of people, language is in the _________ hemisphere
left
which brain hemisphere is dominant for most people?
left
verbal inputs from the right ear go to the auditory cortex in the ________ hemisphere and must be processed in the language areas of the __________ hemisphere.
left (due to nerve crossing), left (due to language being processed in left hemisphere) *note: first answer is bc hearing is contralateral
contralateral control
left brain controls right body, and right brain controls left body
positive emotions evoke more activity on the ______ side of the cerebral cortex, while negative emotions more emotions on the ______ side.
left, right
the ____________ hemisphere is needed for language, while the _________ hemisphere is needed for action/perception/attention
left, right
briefly describe what happens BIOCHEMICALLY during the phototransduction cascade. (light is present)
light hits rhodopsin --> 11-cis retinal is converted to 11-trans retinal --> alpha subunit of transducin binds to phosphodiesterase (PDE) --> PDE converts cGMP to GMP --> Na+ channels close since they need cGMP bound to remain open --> Na+ can no longer enter the photoreceptor cell --> photoreceptor is hyperpolarized --> on center bipolar cells are turned on, while off center bipolar cells are turned off --> on bipolar cells turn on the on center retinal ganglion cells --> optic nerve --> brain
resource model of attention
limited resources in attention; resources are easily overtasked if we try to pay attention to multiple things at once
somatosensation: how is location perceived at the neuronal level?
location-specific stimuli are detected by signals that are sent to the brain. relies on dermatomes, localized areas of skin that perceives sensation via a single nerve
mood
long-term emotional state that is not necessarily related to events
example of bottom-up processing
look at the cockpit of a plane (without knowing you're in the cockpit of a plane) and trying to figure out what it is you're looking at
example of top-down processing
looking at a bunch of disconnected circles with lines in them that form the shape of a cube & interpreting the entire image as a cube, rather than circles with lines in them (this would be an example of top down processing that is incorrect)
deindividualization
loss of self-awareness in groups
anosmia
loss of sense of smell - ex. if u get a cold
somatosensation: how is intensity perceived at the neuronal level?
low intensity stimulus = slow neuron firing high intensity stimulus = faster neuron firing
homeostasis
maintenance of temperature, heartbeat, metabolism. occurs even when resting
basilar membrane
membrane in the inner ear which separates it into 2 fluid-filled chambers: the scala media and the scala tympani
organ of Corti
membrane that separates the oval window and the round window. also separates the cochlea into 2 regions that respectively include the basilar membrane and the tectorial membrane
flashbulb memory example
memories of 9/11
autobiographical memory
memory system consisting of episodes recollected from an individual's life, based on a combination of episodic and semantic memory
intelligence
mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations
semantic networks
mental representations of clusters of interconnected, closely related information
mnemonic devices
methods to link what you are trying to learn into previously existing long-term information that is already in your memory
structures of the midbrain
midbrain
classification of cannabis
mix of depressant, stimulant, hallucinogen
LSD mechanism of action
modifies serotonin neurotransmission, especially via the 5-HT2 receptor family
availability heuristic example
more shark attacks are on the news, so you think shark attacks are more fatal than they really are
deviance example
most Americans eat meat, but someone who's vegetarian is deviant in the US
example of displacement
mother who is mad at husband also gets mad at child
drive-reduction motivation
motivation based on the need to fulfill a certain drive, like hunger or thirst
informational influence example
moving into a new place and asking neighbors around you good places to eat/visit
drive-reduction is what type of operant conditioning?
negative reinforcement
what type of operant conditioning is aversive control?
negative reinforcement
schizophrenia
neurodevelopmental brain disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, social isolation, and flat affect (lack of emotion)
neustress
neutral type of stress - happens when you're exposed to something stressful but it doesn't directly affect you
retroactive interference & example
new learning impairs recollection of old info. ex. writing new address makes it difficult to recall your old address
example of neustress
news about a natural disaster on the other side of the world
free recall
no cues in recalling. in cases like this, serial position effect results in the first and last items on a list being most easy to remember. hardest form of recall
neurotransmitter modulation of alerting attentional network is associated with what neurotransmitter? where is it produced?
norepinephrine produced in the locus ceruleus
informal norms
norms that are understood but are less precise and have no specific punishments
formal norms
norms that are written down, formally recognized
sleep
not aware of self/environment
proactive information & example
old learning impairs future learning. ex. new password learning: old password learning impairs ability to learn new one
contralateral
on the opposite side of the body
ipsilateral
on the same side of the body
striatum
one of the principal components of the basal ganglia, a group of nuclei that have a variety of functions but are best known for their role in facilitating voluntary movement.
example of extinction (classical conditioning)
open refrigerator door but don't give the guinea pig a carrot. if this occurs often enough, guinea pig will no longer react to sound of refrigerator door (has been conditioned to associate refrigerator door opening with getting a carrot)
example of peptide neurotransmitter
opioids, involved in pain perception; acts as endorphin
routes of drug entry
oral injection inhalation transdermal intramuscular
taste synapses onto the?
orbitofrontal cortex NOT the thalamus
Gestalt psychology
organized around the belief that it is not possible to understand human behavior by breaking it into parts; people must be understood as a whole
prototype willingness model (PWM)
our behavior is a function of •past behavior •attitudes •subjective norms •intentions •willingness to engage in that behavior •models/prototyping
pinna
outer part of the area
central executive
part of working memory that coordinates the visuospatial sketchpad and the phonological loop, i.e. supervises the cognitive process of memory
serotonin function
partially responsible for feelings of satiation
example of false information affecting retrieval ability
participants watch a car stop at a yield sign. then, they are given a written description of what happened. participants tended to claim the car stopped at a stop sign if the written description contained this false information
example of misleading information affecting retrieval ability
participants watch a traffic safety video in which they observe a car crash. participants were asked "how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?" participants were more likely to say there was glass on the ground (there wasn't any) if the question used the word "smash" instead of "hit"
proximal stimuli
patterns of stimuli from distal stimuli that actually reach the senses (eyes, ears, etc.), i.e. the stimulus that you actually perceive
genetic component to being a thrill-seeker
people with longer dopamine-4 receptors are more likely to be thrill seekers
effort justification
people's tendency to attribute a greater value to an outcome they had to put effort into acquiring/achieving
learned helplessness
perception of lack of a control of a situation because of a history of repeated failures in the past
insomnia
persistent trouble falling asleep or staying asleep
what is denial and what type of defense mechanism is it?
person pretends something hasn't happened
projective identification
person targeted with projection can start believing, feeling, having thoughts of the attributes that were projected onto them
deindividuation
phenomenon in which people in a group are more likely to act inappropriately because the crowd conceals the person's identity
encoding specificity
phenomenon of remembering something better when the conditions under which we retrieve information are similar to the conditions under which we encoded it
group polarization
phenomenon where group decision-making amplifies the original opinion of group members, so a stronger version of the decision is adopted
phonology
phonetic component, actual sound of language; a "sound system"
example of framing effect
phrasing the statistics of a disease based on how many people will survive based on how many will die will cause people to view that statistic differently
gross motor skills
physical abilities involving large body movements, such as walking and jumping
using incentives is what type of operant conditioning?
positive reinforcement
eustress
positive type of stress that happens when you perceive a situation as challenging but motivating
incentive theory focuses on _________ reinforcement, while drive-reduction theory focuses on __________ reinforcement.
positive, negative
reflexes
pre-programmed motor skills. involuntary
Gestalt principles (also called Gestalt's law of grouping)
principles based on the idea that the mind has an innate disposition to perceive patterns in the stimulus based on certain rules
stress
process by which we appraise and cope with environmental threats and challenges
accommodation
process of adjusting our schemas to incorporate new experiences to remember (occurs when the new information can't be assimilated into our current schemas)
aversive control
process of influencing behavior by means of unpleasant stimuli
insight learning
process of learning how to solve a problem or do something new by applying what is already known
transduction (eye)
process of transforming light energy into electrical energy (neural impulse) via rods and cones
projection
projecting own feelings of inadequacy on another
photopsin
protein located along cone photoreceptor outer segments, contains 11-cis retinal
rhodopsin
protein located along rod photoreceptor outer segments, contains 11-cis retinal
purpose, types of monocular cues
purpose: visual cues of one eye; gives humans a sense of object FORM types: relative size, interposition, relative height, shading/counter, motion parallax, constancy
proprioception example
put on goggles that make everything look upside down. over time, your brain accommodates for this by flipping the image right-side up again
instinctual drift example
raccoon is taught to put tokens in a piggy bank, but it drifted to its instinctive behavior of putting tokens on the ground as raccoons often do with food
Treisman's attenuation theory
rather than a selective filter, we have an attenuator that weakens but doesn't eliminate unimportant information. therefore some unimportant info reaches perceptual processes, so we still assign meaning to things in the unattended ear; just not high priority. attended things are processed more deeply so, sensory register --> attenuator --> perceptual process --> conscious •note: later results by Johnson and Heinz found that the importance of task affects when filtering occurs and how long it takes
in signal detection theory, how is the strength of a signal measured experimentally? what variable denotes it?
ratio of hits to misses or misses to hits. •strong signal: hit > miss •weak signal: miss > hit •denoted by d'
example of mass hysteria
reaction due to news of severe weather warnings - people rush to supermarket, drive erratically
fixed-interval schedule of reinforcement example
receive pay check every 2 weeks
thermoreceptors
receptors that sense changes in temperature. slow-responding
nociceptors
receptors that sense pain. slow-responding
mechanoreceptors
receptors that sense position, vibration, touch/pressure. fast-responding, thick myelin sheath
dishabituation
recovery of a habituated response after a change in stimulation
visible spectrum: highest to lowest wavelength?
red (700nm) is the highest, and violet (400nm) is the lowest
reference group example
refer to social science student group when deciding what political party to vote for in election
ventral tegmental area (VTA)
releases dopamine, sending it to the amygdala (controls emotions), nucleus accumbens (controls motor functions), prefrontal cortex (focus, attention, planning) and hippocampus (in temporal lobe, responsible for memory formation)
sleep debt
result of insufficient sleep on a chronic basis. sleeping more enables you to pay off sleep debt
retinal disparity
retina being ~2.5 inches apart. allows people to get slightly different views of objects, also provides sense of depth
drugs that activate the _______ pathway in the brain are more addictive
reward
positive sanction
reward for conforming to norms
sanctions
rewards/punishments for behaviors in accord with or against norms, thus resulting in norms being reinforced
verbal inputs from the left ear go to the auditory cortex in the ________ hemisphere and must be processed in the language areas of the __________ hemisphere.
right (due to nerve crossing over), left (due to language being processed in left hemisphere) *note: first answer is bc hearing is contralateral
what happens if you put a salty receptor inside a sweet cell?
salty tastant NaCl will bind to the salty receptor, but since the sweet cell's axon will synapse to the "sweet" region of the gustatory cortex, you will interpret the taste as SWEET.
formal sanction
sanction that is officially recognized by an authority and enforced.
informal sanction
sanction that is unofficially recognized and does not result in specific punishment
folkway example
saying thank you to someone if they open the door for you
continuous reinforcement
schedule in which behavior is reinforced every time the behavior is performed (1:1 ratio)
partial reinforcement schedule
schedule in which behavior is reinforced only some of the time
high levels of dopamine are associated with?
schizophrenia
selection bias
selection of individuals, groups or data for analysis in such a way that proper randomization is not achieved, thereby ensuring that the sample obtained is not representative of the population intended to be analyzed
proprioception
sense of your position in body in space, includes sense of balance/position
what is somatosensation?
sensory information from the skin and musculoskeletal systemspro
thalamus
sensory relay station; all senses EXCEPT SMELL come through nerves and end up in thalamus, which directs them to appropriate areas in the cortex/other areas of brain.
autocrine
signaling that effects the cell that produced the signal
paracrine
signaling that has a regional effect
endocrine
signaling that has a systemic effect
how is wavelength related to frequency and audition?
smaller wavelength --> higher frequency longer wavelength --> lower frequency, travels farther, penetrates deeper into the cochlea
conjunction fallacy example
someone being a feminist and bank teller is more likely than them being bank teller
auditory path
sound hits pinna (outer area) --> auditory canal (external auditory meatus) --> tympanic membrane (eardrum) --> malleus --> incus --> stapes moves back & forth at same frequency as stimulus--> oval window (elliptical window) vibrates, pushing fluid into/around cochlea all the way into the tip of the cochlea --> round window (circular window) --> hair cells (cilia) moving in the cochlea result in electrical impulse that is transported by the auditory nerve to the brain. this process keeps occurring until the energy of the wound wave dissipates and stops moving
tonotopical mapping
spatial arrangement of where sounds of different frequency are processed in the brain- where tones of similar frequency activated areas of the primary auditory cortex that are closer together
smell adaptation example
spray perfume - over time, can't smell perfume anymore due to sensory receptors in nose have become desensitized to the molecules
spacing
spreading out study sessions over time in shorter periods rather than cramming into a single session
theory of differential association
states that deviance is a learned behavior that results from continuous exposure to others who violate norms and laws (learn from observation of others)
steroid hormone definition
steroids for which cholesterol is a precursor
subliminal stimuli
stimuli below the absolute threshold of sensation
general somatosensory tract
stimulus info goes to spinal cord --> brain via one of the 2 main somatosensory pathways --> cross to the other side --> cerebrum
primary reinforcer + examples
stimulus that is naturally rewarding, such as food or water
how is the anterior cingulate affected by stress?
stops responding to serotonin
hippocampus
structure of brain that is responsible for formation of new memories; converts short term memories into long-term memories
how is priming related to implicit memory?
subconscious implicit memory can affect response to another stimulus or interpretation of an event
withdrawal symptoms
symptoms experienced while going through a period without having a drug in your system. can make you sick or ill, or can be fatal
example of drug tolerance
take cocaine --> dopamine floods the synapse --> over time, brain gets rid of some post-synaptic neuron receptors due to prolonged high levels of dopamine --> less sensitive to cocaine
example of eustress
taking on a hard class
door in the face phenomenon
tendency for people who won't agree to a large task, but then agree when a smaller request is made
pleasure principle
tendency of the id to strive for immediate gratification; as a young child you want to immediately feel pleasure and avoid suffering. not willing to compromise
traditionalism
tendency to follow authority, common in twins
social loafing
tendency to put forth less effort in a group task if individual contributions aren't evaluated
neural plasticity
the ability of the brain to change in response to experience
self-control
the ability to control our impulses and delay gratification
divided attention
the ability to process two or more responses or react to two or more different demands simultaneously. (not paying full attention to either thing)
selective attention
the ability to select from many factors or stimuli and to focus on only the one that you want while filtering out other distractions
intuition
the ability to understand something immediately, without the need for conscious reasoning. high chance of error when trying to problem solve this way
covert orienting
the act of mentally shifting one's focus without moving one's eyes/body
overt orienting
the act of selectively attending to an item or location over others by moving the eyes or body to point in that direction
nigrostriatal pathway
the dopaminergic tract from the substantia nigra to the putamen of the neostriatum. associated with motor planning and purposeful movement
how are you able to listen to two different frequencies at the same time?
the ear essentially breaks up the two frequencies into separate frequencies, because the sound waves of each frequency will travel different lengths along the cochlea
transmission
the electrical activation of one neuron by another neuron
principle of aggregation
the idea that an attitude affects a person's aggregate or average behavior, but cannot necessarily predict each isolated act
tyranny of choice
the impairment of effective decision making when confronted with an overwhelming number of options
hidden curriculum
the informal and unofficial aspects of culture that children are taught in school (nonacademic standards of behaviors that are taught by teachers)
absolute threshold of sensation
the minimum intensity of stimulus needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time
source traits
the more basic traits that underlie the surface traits, forming the core of personality (fewer and more abstract)
what does it mean to be addicted to a drug?
the need to keep taking a drug in order to feel "normal" not euphoric
processing
the neural transformation of multiple neural signals into a perception
pupil
the opening in the middle of the iris that changes size to let in different amounts of light
middle ear
the ossicles: malleus to stapes
ventromedial hypothalamus
the part of the hypothalamus that depresses hunger
lateral hypothalamus
the part of the hypothalamus that produces hunger signals
phonological loop
the part of working memory that holds and processes verbal and auditory information
external locus of control
the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate
internal locus of control
the perception that you control your own fate
Deutch & Deutch's late selection theory: problems
the process laid out by Deutch and Deutch must occur quickly, so seems meaningless to assign meaning to things you won't ever need
attribution
the process of explaining one's own behavior and the behavior of others
discrimination (classical conditioning)
the process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not others
source monitoring
the process of making inferences about the origins of memories
lexical access
the process of matching a perceptual description of a word on to a stored memory description of that word
retrieval
the process of pulling something from long term memory into working (conscious) memory.
deviance
the recognized violation of cultural norms
Weber's law & example
the size of the just noticeable difference is a constant proportion of the original stimulus value. thus, delta(I)/I = k, where delta(I) is the Just Noticeable Difference, I is the initial intensity of the stimulus, and k is a constant ex. 2 vs 2.05 lb weight feels the same while 2 vs. 2.2 lb weight = noticeable difference
morphemes
the smallest meaningful units of language
phoneme
the smallest unit of sound that is recognizable as speech rather than as random noise
morphology
the structure of words and word formation in a language
bystander effect
the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present
fundamental attribution error
the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of a person's character
Hawthorne effect
the tendency for people to behave differently when they know they are being studied/observed
just world phenomenon
the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve (good things happen to good people, and bad things happen to bad people)
size constancy
the tendency to perceive an object as being the same size regardless of whether it is close or far away
color constancy
the tendency to perceive an object as having the same color regardless of changes in lighting
shape constancy
the tendency to perceive an object as having the same shape regardless of its orientation or the angle from which we view it
self-serving bias
the tendency to perceive oneself favorably
generalization (classical conditioning)
the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses
what is the just noticeable difference? (also called the difference threshold)
the threshold at which you're able to notice a change in any sensation; i.e. smallest difference that can be detected 50% of the time (Weber's law)
encoding
the transferring of information from working memory into long term memory
trichromatic theory (Young-Helmholtz theory)
theory of color vision: 3 types of photoreceptors in the retina are responsible for color vision •red cones (60%) •green cones (30%) •blue cones (10%) •red objects reflect red, green objects reflect green, blue objects reflect blue •this means that, for example, red light hitting a red cone causes it to fire an action potential, causing the brain to identify the object as red
place theory
theory of hearing stating that different parts of the cochlea are activated by different frequencies. made possible because different sound frequencies cause vibrations in specific parts on the basilar membrane of the cochlea --> we hear different pitches
temporal theory
theory of hearing stating that different pitches are a result of different firing rates in the auditory nerve. a low frequency tone causes slow waves of motion in the basilar membrane and that might give rise to low firing rates in the auditory nerve. a high frequency tone causes fast waves of motion in the basilar membrane and that might give rise to high firing rates.
dissociation theory
theory of hypnosis- says that hypnotism is an extreme of divided consciousness (thus a different form of consciousness)
social influence theory
theory of hypnosis- says that people do and report what is expected of them, like actors caught up in roles- similar to a placebo effect
labeled-line theory
theory of olfaction •specialization of olfactory receptors can be explained by a particular receptor responding most strongly to a specific odor molecule and not to others theory of taste •each taste bud receptor has 5 axons, which send separate taste info to different parts of the gustatory (taste) cortex by synapsing onto different parts of this cortex
vibrational theory
theory of olfaction •specialization of olfactory receptors can be explained by a vibrational frequency of a molecule that gives that molecule its specific odor profile
steric/shape theory
theory of olfaction •specialization of olfactory receptors can be explained by the conformation of odor molecules that fit into receptors (similar to lock & key)
how does thermoception work? nociception?
thermoception: •heat causes a conformational change to the TrypV1 receptor nociception: •when a cell is poked, thousands of cells are broken up, releasing different molecules that bind to the TrypV1 receptor. this causes a conformational change to the receptor, which causes the cell to send a signal to the brain
conjunctiva
thin layer of cells that lines the inside of your eyelids from the eye
example of self-serving bias
thinking we could never commit an act of atrocity (like in the Milgram experiment) despite evidence that we are capable of doing things like that
example of regression
throwing a tantrum, whining
example of fad
tidepod challenge
describe a real world example of when you would need to apply signal detection theory
traffic lights on a foggy day; how strong does a signal have to be for you to know when to drive?
surface traits
traits evident from a person's behavior
cornea
transparent thick sheet of fibrous tissue on the anterior region of the eye, first part of the eye that bends light •makes up the anterior 1/6th of the eye
outpatient treatment
treatment regimens that allow the patient to live at home, coming into the hospital only to receive treatment
inpatient treatment
treatment regimens that require residence at a hospital or treatment facility
T/F: Weber's law predicts a linear relationship between incremental threshold and background intensity.
true
T/F: a person who is more skilled at a task will require less attention to complete the task
true
T/F: adaptive associations are learned faster than learning with no biological value
true
T/F: all signals from stimuli in our right visual field travel to the left side of our brain, while all signals from stimuli in our left visual field travel to the right side of our brain
true
T/F: if someone in your family has a drug addiction, you are at an increased risk for developing one as well
true
T/F: in signal detection theory, there is a direct relationship between hits and false alarms as well as between misses and correct rejections.
true
T/F: motor development proceeds head to toe
true
T/F: medical conditions can result in psychological symptoms
true - ex. those with autoimmune conditions, cardiovascular disease, and diabetes often have symptoms of depression, anxiety
more examples (sociology)
truthfulness - tell the truth because it's the right thing to do
convergence
turning inward of the eyes, gives people a sense of depth
what information can we gather from stimuli from somatosensation?
types, intensity, timing, and location (where on the body do I experience the stimulus)
tyrosine derivative hormone definition
tyrosine is a derivative
id, ego, and superego: which belong to the unconscious mind? conscious mind?
unconscious mind: id, ego, and superego conscious mind: ego and superego
how is collective behavior different from group behavior?
unlike group behavior, collective behavior is... •time-limited - involves short social interactions, while groups stay together and socialize for a long period of time •collectives can be open, while groups can be exclusive •collectives have loose norms (murkily defined), while groups have strongly held/well-defined norms
cortical granules
vesicles located just under the plasma membrane of an egg cell that undergo exocytosis during the cortical reaction
photopic vision
vision at high levels of light
mesopic vision
vision at intermediate levels of light, such as at dawn or dusk or inside with artificial lights. this type of vision involves both rods and cones
scotopic vision
vision at low levels of light such as at nighttime
LSD effects on the body
visual but not auditory hallucinations
selective attention example
watching TV and studying together
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
we want to satisfy needs in a particular order - develop pyramid to illustrate the hierarchy of needs
mass psychogenic illness/epidemic hysteria
when large amount of people believe they have the same illness despite lack of disease
framing effects
when people give different answers to the same problem depending on how the problem is phrased (or framed)
conjunction fallacy
when people think that two events are more likely to occur together than either individual event
minimum justification principle
when someone does something and there is minimal justification for them doing it, this creates more dissonance than if they can explain it through significant rationale
tolerance
when the body gets used to a drug --> need more of it to achieve the same effect
negative sanction example
when you criticize a group project and are ridiculed by other members of the group
pars intermedia
where the cells of the anterior pituitary meet the cells of the posterior pituitary; makes melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)
example of extinction (operant conditioning)
you stop giving your dog a treat when it sits, so it stops sitting when you tell it do so
sensorineural narrowing hearing loss
•"nerve deafness" •hearing loss due to damage to the inner ear or the auditory nerve •therefore have problems with conduction of sound waves from cochlea to the brain
ego
•"the reality principle" •mediates the demands of reality vs. desires of id •this is who we identify with/believe ourselves to be
psychosocial theory stage 1
•0-1 years •crisis is trust vs. mistrust •virtue achieved is hope •if infant physical and emotional needs aren't met, adult may mistrust everyone
psychosocial theory stage 2
•1-3 years •crisis is autonomy vs. shame/doubt •children develop independence by walking away from mother, choosing what to eat •virtue achieved is will •if child is overly controlled/criticized, feel inadequate, lack self-esteem, have shame/doubt in abilities
4 sources to determine if person has strong or weak sense of self-efficacy
•1. mastery of experience •2. social modeling - seeing those similar to use completing the same task •3. social persuasion - when someone says something positive to you •4. psychological responses - learning how to minimize stress and control/elevate mood in difficult/challenging situations
beta wave
•12-30 Hz •associated with alertness/concentration •beta levels too high = stress, anxiety
how many rods are typically found in the human eye? cones?
•120 mil rods •6-7 mil cones
psychosocial theory stage 6
•20-40 yrs •crisis is intimacy vs. isolation •try to find love and relationships •virtue achieved is love, have comfortable relationship •if crisis isn't resolved, then feel isolation, loneliness, depression
Robert Sternburg's theory multiple intelligence (include evidence for this theory)
•3 types of intelligences: analytical (academic), creative (adapt to new situations, generate new ideas), and practical (solve ill-defined problems) •IQ score measures only analytical intelligence •high analytical intelligence = tend to do better at school •people with high IQ, creative, and/or practical intelligence do not have better marriages, raise kids better
alpha wave
•8-13 Hz •associated with daydreaming •disappear in drowsiness, found later in deep sleep
what are the 3 types of nerve fibers?
•A-beta fibres: fast fibers, thick and covered in myelin •A-delta fibres - smaller diameter, less myelin (intermediate speed) •C fibres - smaller diameter, unmyelinated, slow (lingering sense of pain)
Broadbent's early selection theory
•ALL information in the environment goes into a sensory register, which briefly registers/stores all sensory info •info then passes through selective FILTER which identifies what you should attend to and what you should ignore based on physical characteristics •then, info moves to perceptual processes, where information that you have filtered in is processed into meaning. so, sensory register --> filter --> perceptual process --> conscious (decide how to act from there)
Asch experiment
•Asch - Gestalt psychologist •conducted "line test" experiment - where group of actors gave the wrong answer, and individual, under perceived pressure to conform, also gave wrong answer •afterwards, some participants said they gave the wrong answer bc they doubted their own abilities (informational social influence) while others said they knew the wrong was wrong but decided to go along with the others (normative social influence) •some participants made a perceptual error - truly believed their answer was correct
social-cognitive theory + example
•Bandura •theory that views behaviors as being influenced by people's traits/cognitions and their social context •girl is interested in soccer (cognition), joins a soccer team (environment), and spends time with soccer players (behavior). OR she spends a lot of time with soccer players (behavior), becomes interested in it (cognition), and joins a soccer team (environment)
Myers Briggs personality test
•Carl Jung •4 letters characterize you in one of 16 personality types
humanistic theory
•Carl Rogers & Maslow •says that humans are inherently good, focuses on healthy personality development •most basic motivation for people = self-actualizing tendency, the innate drive to maintain and enhance oneself to full potential •people have free will •focus on the conscious
theory of general intelligence
•Charles Spearman •1 general intelligence •g factor can predict intelligence in multiple academic areas •problems: controversial; can one factor explain all of the diverse human abilities? also limited in what it considers to be intelligence
psychosexual theory of development
•Freud •believed childhood was most important period in which personality developed. this influences behavior later in life •5 stages - if completed successfully, results in healthy personality. if issues aren't resolved, fixation occurs •fixation due to libido (natural energy source that fuels mechanisms of the mind). when libido energy fixated, lifelong effects into adulthood •first 5 yrs of life crucial in personality development
endoderm differentiates into
•GI tract (esophagus, small intestine, large intestine) •lungs •liver •pancreas
moral development theory
•Kohlberg •focused on moral reasoning •moral reasoning develops through level of cognitive development, and people pass through 3 stages of development (each with 2 stages) •6 stages total
theory of primary mental abilities
•L.L. Thurnstone •7 factors of intelligence: word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial reasoning, perceptual speed, numerical ability, inductive reasoning, memory •ex. possible to have high inductive skills without high verbal comprehensions •problems: scores vary together statistically, suggesting underlying intelligence factor. also limited in what it considers to be intelligence
difference between Rogers and Maslow's humanistic theory approach
•Maslow created hierarchy of needs but said that self-actualization is rarely ever achieved, because you must satisfy baser needs first •Rogers said that self-actualization is a constant growth process nurtured in a growth-promoting climate. in order for a climate to be growth-promoting, the individual has to be genuine (open about themselves without fear of being wrong), and they have to be nurtured through acceptance (unconditional, positive regard from others). thus, you achieve self-actualization through self-actualization
triarchic theory of intelligence
•Robert Sternberg •3 independent intelligences based on real world success: analytical, creative, practical •easy to study with research •problems: scores of all intelligences vary together
psychoanalytic theory
•Sigmund Freud •personality is shaped by childhood experiences, including a person's unconscious thoughts/desires, feelings, and past memories (esp. childhood memories) •libido (motivation for survival, growth, pleasure) and death instinct (unconscious wish to die/hurt self or others) are the 2 instinctual drives that motivate human behavior •when libido is stuck at various stages of psychosexual development, conflicts can occur that have lifelong effects
describe the theories that attempt to explain why dreams occur
•Sigmund Freud: dreams are our unconscious thoughts and desires that need to be interpreted. little scientific support •evolutionary biology: threat simulation, to prep for real world (problem solving) •other: maintain brain flexibility, allowing us to learn or be creative when awake. •other: consolidate thoughts to long-term memory, clean up thoughts, particularly during deep sleep. evidence: ppl who learn and then sleep retain more than those who don't sleep. •other: preservation and development of neural pathways. evidence: infants constantly developing new neural networks spend most of time in REM sleep
flashbulb memory
•a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event (either positive or negative) •still susceptible to reconstruction like less vivid memories
basal forebrain
•a collection of structures located in front of and below the striatum •includes nucleus accumbens, nucleus basalis, and medial septal nuclei - all structures that are important in the production of acetylcholine •the major cholinergic output of the CNS
what is intellectualization and what type of defense mechanism is it?
•a coping mechanism in which the person analyzes a situation from an emotionally detached viewpoint •neurotic defense mechanism
availability heuristic
•a decision-making heuristic where choices are based on quick, easily accessible examples •helpful, but easily memorable experiences don't necessarily match reality
representativeness heuristic
•a heuristic where people look for the most representative answer and look to match a prototype •can lead to conjunction fallacy
cerebellum
•a large structure of the hindbrain that controls fine motor skills. (voluntary movement) •receives position sense information •involved in speech/movement of eyes •middle of cerebellum controls middle body movement/walking, while sides are involved in limb movement
taste aversion + example
•a learned avoidance of a particular food •ex. you eat cilantro and really like it but get sick afterwards. then you start hating cilantro. this could happen even if it was the chicken that caused the sickness. body connects the fact that the sickness was a result of food, not other attributes of the environment when you ate
reticular formation
•a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal •filters info and sends important info to thalamus •controls respiration, digestion
acetylcholine - what does it do, and where can it be found
•a neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction •found in frontal lobe, which releases acetylcholine into cerebral cortex •released for lower motor neurons and the autonomic nervous system
split-brain patient
•a patient who has had most or all of his or her corpus callosum severed. •often used to treat seizures but a side-effect = defect with language, i.e. trouble naming objects •explained by the brain's contralateral organization. ex. see object in the left visual field --> info sent to right hemisphere, but you can't name the object, because right hemisphere can't communicate with left. but if object was in right visual field, then you would be able to process it
temperament
•a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity, including their shyness and sociability •broader than personality •established before babies are exposed to the environment and persists as a person ages
Heinz dilemma
•a woman is dying and needs an expensive medication. husband cannot afford the medication, should he steal it or should she die? •Kohlberg told this story to children and based on their responses developed the moral development theory
fluid intelligence
•ability to reason quickly and abstractly, such as when solving novel logic problems independent of previous experience •helps you see patterns, organize and identify feature and spatial relationships to solve complex problems
depression: physical abnormalities observed in the brain
•abnormal activity in frontal lobe and limbic structures (decreased in frontal lobe and increased in limbic structures) •communication of frontal lobe, limbic system, and hypothalamus may explain abnormal levels of stress hormones in the body (but unclear whether this is a cause or effect of disease) •abnormalities of neuroplasticity (unclear if cause or effect), resulting in changing of connections or changes in information flow •decreased serotonin receptors and norepinephrine receptors •abnormalities in neurotransmitter pathways: •one pathway starts in raphe nuclei (in brain stem) responsible for serotonin release •one pathway starts in the locus coeruleus, which sends long axons to cerebrum and releases norepinephrine •ventral tegmental area sends long axons to different areas of cerebrum and supplies dopamine
what is regression and what type of defense mechanism is it?
•acting like a baby in some situations, ex. tantrum •neurotic defense mechanism
stages of withdrawal
•acute •post-acute
positive punishment + example
•adding stimulus to decrease tendency of a behavior •ex. give speeding ticket to decrease behavior of speeding
positive reinforcement + example
•adding stimulus to increase tendency of a behavior •ex. give a gift card for safe driving
adrenal glands
•adrenocorticotropic hormones (ACTH) acts on adrenal cortex •supportive role in development of muscle and bones
3 components of attitude + examples for each
•affective - feelings/emotions about a certain object/topic/subject. ex. feeling scared of spiders •behavioral - how we act or behave towards that certain thing. ex. screaming when you see a spider •cognitive - opinions/thoughts/beliefs/knowledge about that certain thing that will influence future attitude ex. I believe spiders are dangerous
sociocultural factors that influence decision to have sex
•age •cultural background •stimulus - how responsive we are to visual/tactile stimuli •emotions •desires (to procreate or not)
psychosocial theory stage 5
•age 12-20 •crisis is identity vs. role confusion •want to start feeling like they belong in society. need to learn rules that they must follow as an adult •virtue achieved is fidelity, seeing self as unique •if crisis isn't resolved, then role confusion. can cause rebellion and unhappiness
psychosocial theory stage 8
•age 65+ •crisis is integrity vs. despair •contemplate on life, reminisce •virtue achieved is wisdom - look back on life with sense of closure, completeness, accept death without fear •if crisis isn't resolved, leads to dissatisfaction/despair upon death
self-concept
•aka self identity or self-awareness; how someone thinks about themselves •development of self concept has 2 parts: existential self and categorical self
3 stages of stress are? describe them
•alarm phase - stress reaction kicks in, heart races, resources mobilized •resistance - fleeing, huddling, temperature elevated, BP high, breathing rate high, cortisol running through the body •exhaustion - if resistance isn't followed by recovery, our body's stress resources are depleted, tissues are damaged, body is susceptible to illness
Deutch & Deutch's late selection theory
•all information enters sensory register and is processed •after processing, information is filtered based on what's important/unimportant so, sensory register --> perceptual process --> selective filter --> conscious
Gordon Allport
•all of us have different traits •came up with a list of 4500 descriptive words for traits & said that people have a subset of traits from a universal set of possible traits •came up with 3 basic categories of traits: 1. cardinal traits - characteristics that direct most of a person's activities and all of their behaviors, including central + secondary traits 2. central traits - less dominant than cardinal traits, ex. honesty, sociability, shyness 3. secondary traits - preferences or attitude ex. love for modern art
you eat a piece of cake. using this example, explain how each component of the mesolimbic pathway is involved once dopamine is released
•amygdala - this cake is delicious, I love this cake. I am feeling so happy right now •hippocampus - remembers everything about the experience: where you were at, who you were with, etc •nucleus accumbens - controls motor function. says let's take another bite •prefrontal cortex focuses attention - focuses attention on the cake
sensitization
•an increase in behavioral response with repeated stimulation •often characterized by enhancement of a response to a whole class of stimuli in addition to the one that is repeated
factor analysis
•analysis method in which correlations among many variables are analyzed to identify closely related clusters of variables
the anterior 2/3rd of the tongue carry signals via what nerve? what about the posterior 1/3rd?
•anterior 2/3rd of the tongue carries signals via cranial nerve 7 (chorda tympani) •posterior 1/3rd carries signals via cranial nerves 9 and 10 (glossopharyngeal and vagus)
cluster B personality disorders
•antisocial - little or no regard for others; can commit crimes without remorse •borderline - unstable relationships and emotions, variable self-image, compulsive (often at the brink of an emotional/relationship issue) •histrionic - very attention seeking, display emotions outwardly •narcissistic - huge ego, need for admiration and praise, grandiose
nicotine withdrawal symptoms
•anxiety •insomnia •irritability •distractibility
Lazarus's belief on stress
•appraisal theory of stress: stress arises from the appraisal of the stressor, not the stressor itself. •primary appraisal: assessing stress in the present situation. if the stressor is deemed to be stressful, then move onto secondary appraisal •secondary appraisal: evaluation of individual's ability to cope with the situation, including how the threat can be overcome and how much damage it could cause
norepinephrine is released by what brain structure(s)?
•area in pons called locus coeruleus releases it to cerebral cortex and some to the autonomic nervous system (although less than ACh) •hypothalamus
what causes hair cells to fire an action potential?
•as fluid flows around the organ of corti, hair cells move back and forth •at the upper membrane the hair cells/cilia called the hair bundle have filaments called kinocilia. each kinocilia is connected by a tip link via a K+ channel •when tip link is pushed back and forth by the endolymph, it stretches, allowing K+ to flow into the cell •influx of K+ causes Ca2+ channel to open, allowing Ca2+ to enter the cell •the influx of these ions causes the hair cell to fire an action potential to a spiral ganglion cell •the spiral ganglion cell sends the signal through the auditory nerve
what is prosody and what hemisphere of the brain controls it?
•aspect of language that is concerned with larger units of speech, like syllables. includes intonation, tone, stress/ rhythm, presence of irony/sarcasm •right hemisphere
BF Skinner
•associated with behaviorist theory of language •associated with operant conditioning
Alzheimer's disease
•associated with loss of cognitive functions and decrease in memory •motor functions remain normal until later stages, where they lose basic activities of daily living (ADL)
abnormalities of lower motor neurons
•atrophy of skeletal muscle •fasciculations - involuntary twitches of skeletal muscle •hypotonia - decrease in tone of skeletal muscle: how much muscle is contracted when person is relaxed •hyporeflexia - decreased muscle stretch reflex
suspensory ligaments
•attached to a ciliary muscle. suspensory ligaments & ciliary muscle form the ciliary body, which secretes aqueous humor •also contributes to changing of lens shape
consciousness
•awareness of self and environment •can have different levels of consciousness, which can be natural or induced •ranges from alertness to sleep
sociocultural theory
•babies have 4 elementary mental functions: attention, sensation, perception, and memory •elementary mental functions are developed into higher mental functions (independent learning and thinking) through a "tutor" - someone who models the behavior •development of higher mental functions from elementary ones... •1. requires cooperation and collaborative dialogue from more knowledgeable other (MKO) •2. involves zone of proximal development - part where most sensitive instruction/guidance should be given. allows learner to use skills they already have to expand learning things they haven't done •3. involves use of language - means by which adult transmits info the child. accelerates thinking and understanding (kids who engage in lots of private speech are more socially competent)
palmer grasp reflex - what is it, and is it a permanent reflex or neonatal reflex?
•baby closes hand on anything that comes in their palm •neonatal
sucking reflex - what is it, and is it a permanent reflex or neonatal reflex?
•baby will suck on any object placed in its mouth •neonatal
bottom-up processing
•begins with stimulus, which influences our perception •does not involve preconceived cognitive constructs of stimulus (have never seen it before). therefore makes this type of processing data-driven •requires inductive reasoning & is therefore always correct
what is passive aggression and what type of defense mechanism is it?
•behaving vengefully while denying that you have aggressive feelings •immature defense mechanism
collective behavior
•behavior for which large numbers of people rapidly behave in ways that aren't inline with societal norms •often driven by group dynamics like deindividualization
complex behavior + example
•behavior that is innate and learned •can be a spectrum •ex. ability of insects to fly
B.F. Skinner's view of personality
•behaviorist •associated with concept of operant conditioning; using rewards/punishment to increase/decrease behavior
behaviorist vs. nativist view of language
•behaviorist - empiricist, believes language is conditioned behavior •nativist - rationalist, believes language must be innate
taboo
•behaviors completely forbidden/wrong in any circumstance •violation results in consequences far more extreme than a more •punishable by law and accompanied by severe disgust by members of community
what is altruism and what type of defense mechanism is it?
•being in service of others and feeling fulfilled •mature defense mechanism
informative influence + example
•being influenced by a group when you don't know what to do and assume the group is correct •ex. never trained a dog before so look to group for guidance
normative influence + example
•being influenced by a group when you know what to do but go with the group's negative actions to avoid social rejection •ex. you know you shouldn't train dogs with a shock collar but do it anyway to avoid being a social outcast
Carl Rogers's view of self-concept
•believed it has 3 components •self image: the view we have of ourselves •self-esteem/self-worth: how much value we place on ourselves •ideal self: what we wish/aspire to be. incongruity when ideal self doesn't match real self
lens
•bends light so it goes to the back of the eyeball. focuses light on the fovea of the retina •can also change shape via suspensory ligaments to bend the light to different degrees
theory of planned behavior
•best predictor of our behavior is the strength of the intentions and implications •we consider implications of our actions before we decide on how to behave •intentions based on 3 things: 1. attitudes towards certain behavior, 2. subjective norms, and 3. perceived behavioral control (how hard it is to control our behavior)
MEG (megnetoencephalogram)
•better resolution than EEG •records magnetic fields produced by electric currents in the brain •rarer than EEG due to large machine needed & special room •tells us about seizures, sleep stage, and cognitive tasks •non-invasive
biomedical vs. biopsychosocial models of mental disorders
•biomedical - focus on biological, physical abnormalities •biopsychosocial - considers abnormalities, while including psychological and cultural/social factors that can be used to classify mental disorder
Jeffrey Alan Gray
•biopsychological theory of personality •personality is governed by behavioral inhibition (punishment/avoidance) and activation (reward)
language critical/sensitive period
•birth to age 8-9 •period of time when a child is most able to learn a language
deindividuation example
•black friday shopping - more violence (trampling, more shop lifting) •the internet - people express opinions they typically wouldn't express
cocaine mechanism of action
•blocks dopamine reuptake which causes brain to release large amounts of dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine. this depletes brain's supply
amphetamine mechanism of action
•blocks dopamine reuptake which stimulates increase in presynaptic dopamine release (like cocaine)
sleep problems can occur in what 3 areas?
•brain (central sleep apnea) •upper airways (obstructive sleep apnea) •lung/chest walls (hypoventilation disorder)
Alzheimer's disease: changes in the brain
•brain tissue atrophy, especially of the cerebrum. begins in temporal lobes (important in memory) and spreads to parietal and frontal lobes •loss of neurons, occurrence of amyloid plaques, which occur between cells, and occurrence of tangles (clumps of the protein tau, found inside neurons). these proteins occur normally but are clumped together in Alzheimer's •group of neurons at base of cerebrum called nucleus basalis is lost early
social anomie
•breakdown of social bonds between an individual and community •happens because society doesn't have a firm collective consciousness •results in social groups disbanding, alienation from social groups and people feeling sense of aimlessness and purposelessness •often accompany periods of rapid social change
inhalation route of drug entry & examples
•breathing, snorting, smoking •drug goes straight to the brain •highly addictive but less addictive than drugs that are injected •~10s •ex. tobacco, cocaine
examples of stimulants
•caffeine •amphetamines (Adderall) •methamphetamines (Meth) •MDMA (Molly/Ecstasy) •cocaine •nicotine •THC (marijuana)
substanceuse disorders
•can be caused by substance-induced disorders •occurs when use of a drug causes a serious/real degree of impairment when functioning in real life •not everyone who uses a substance experiences this (ex. not everyone who drinks alcohol or smokes have a substance use disorder)
purposes/consequences of hypnosis
•can be used to retrieve memories but can also result in formation of false memories, or memories that incorporate the hypnotizer's expectations •may control pain depending on person's degree of openness to suggestion
how is schizophrenia diagnosed
•can detect high dopamine in brain scans but this is NOT used to diagnose •diagnose via clinical interview: history, hearing from patient/family, observing patient
EEG (electroencephalogram)
•can't tell us activity of individual neurons or groups of neurons, only the sum total •tells us about seizures, sleep stage, and cognitive tasks •non-invasive
efferent neurons in PNS control what types of cells?
•cardiac muscle •smooth muscle •gland
obstructive sleep apnea
•caused by airway obstruction •soft tissues around neck relax at night and potentially cause obstruction of airflow for short period of time •worsens as people age •causes snoring/gasping or pauses in breathing at night •feelings of fatigue/unrefreshed in the day
Korsakoff's syndrome cause
•caused by lack of vitamine B1 or thiamine due to malnutrition, eating disorders, or alcoholism •not often caused by brain injuries
muscle stretch reflex + example
•causes muscle to contract after it has been stretched a s a protective response •ex. knee jerk response
how to improve self-control
•change environment - make object of temptation harder to get •operant conditioning - reinforcing good behaviors with rewards or punishing undesirable behaviors •classical conditioning - ex. eat healthy snack every time you crave chocolate •deprivation - remove object of temptation. may be problematic, because may make you want it more
what is sublimation and what type of defense mechanism is it?
•channeling negative to positive energy; transforming it into socially acceptable behaviors •mature defense mechanism
OCD
•characterized by obsessions and compulsions which persistently interfere with everyday life •common obsessions: dirty, bad future, need for symmetry •common compulsions: washing, movement ritual •affected are typically teens, young adults
Pavlov's view of personality
•classical conditioning •placing neutral stimulus with unconditional stimulus to trigger an involuntary response •fundamental idea: people have specific response tendencies, leading to consistent behavior patterns. consistent behavior patterns may change over time, which is how personality develops
aphasia
•communication disorder that causes problems with language like speaking, listening, reading, writing
types of conformity
•compliance •internalization •identification
substance-induced disorders
•conditions that are caused by substance. •can be substance induced mood disorders (high mood -mania/low mood - depression), or disorders related to anxiety, sleep, sexual function, psychosis (loss of contact with reality, characterized by seeing things, hearing voices, becoming paranoid).
corpus collossum
•connects the left and right hemispheres together •largest white matter structure
what is suppression and what type of defense mechanism is it?
•conscious thoughts gets pushed into unconscious but can access thoughts at a later time •mature defense mechanism
3 main parts of external attribution
•consistency - does the person usually behave this way •distinctiveness - does person behave differently in different situations •consensus - do others behave similarly in similar situations?
working/episodic memory
•consists of processed sensory info, i.e. what is stored while you are paying attention to it •7 +/- 2 items •explains the primacy and recency effects (serial position effects) •includes the visuospatial sketchpad and phonological loop
pupillary reflex - what is it, and is it a permanent reflex or neonatal reflex?
•constrict pupil when there's bright light •permanent
orientation behaviors + example
•coordinated movements in response to an external stimulus •ex. positive taxis and negative taxis, i.e. movement towards/away from stimulus, respectively. insects = positive taxis towards light
maladaptive coping mechanism/non-coping technique
•coping method that reduces symptoms of stress while maintaining and strengthening a disorder •more effective in short-term rather than the long-term coping process
effect of chronic stress on metabolism
•cortisol and glucagon secreted by stress response converts glycogen to glucose •glucose increases in our blood and remains floating around in blood vessels --> can exacerbate metabolic conditions like diabetes
what is the N2 stage & what is it associated with?
•deeper stage of sleep, harder to awaken than N1 •more theta waves •sleep spindles •K-complexes
alcohol
•depressant •decreases inhibitions, cognitive control •decreases coordination •decreases thinking speed •disrupts REM sleep (& thus memory formation) •absorbed thru cell membrane
benzodiazepenes
•depressant •mostly commonly prescribed •used to induce sleep, reduce anxiety •enhance brain's response to GABA by opening GABA-activated chloride ion channels •short and intermediate-acting benzodiazapenes = for insomnia •long-acting benzodiazapenes = for anxiety •-zelam, -zolam
barbiturates & examples
•depressant, used to be called tranquilizer •used to induce sleep, reduce anxiety •depress CNS activity •not prescribed due to negative side effects: reduced memory, judgment, concentration. combine with alcohol => death •ex. anesthesia, anticonvulsant
emotional responses to stress
•depression due to anhedonia - inability to experience pleasure, so you perceive more stressors •learned helplessness - lose ability to identify coping mechanisms because you have learnt that you don't have control over your life •addiction- can occur in attempt to find a coping mechanism for stress •anger •anxiety
narcolepsy
•describes an inability to control when you fall asleep/your sleepiness. involves various fits of sleepiness or spontaneously going into REM sleep •cause thought to be genetic- lack of alertness neurotransmitter •1 in 2000 affected
generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)
•describes someone whose general state is tense and uneasy - influences their life •source of anxiety is unclear, so person can't deal with/identify source of stress •can lead to high blood pressure and other symptoms •usually also have depression •symptoms: eyelids twitching, trembling, fidgeting •2/3 affected are women
schizophrenia prodromes
•deterioration in person's behavior and function, i.e. schoolwork/work suffers, relationship suffers (paranoia or suspiciousness towards others), delusional ideas
George Herbert Mead
•developed idea of social behaviorism- mind and self emerge through process of communicating with others (beginning of symbolic interactionism) •infants/children aren't influenced by others, because they're the focus of their own world. as we grow up, how people perceive becomes increasingly important •developed 3-stage role-taking process
primary deviance + example
•deviance that results in no big consequences, reaction to deviant behavior is typically mild and doesn't affect person's self-esteem •individual can behave in the same way without feeling immoral/wrong •ex. athletes of a team use steroids, so the act of a player using steroids does not result in them being labelled as deviant
secondary deviance + example
•deviance that results in serious consequences, characterized by severe negative reaction that produces stigmatizing label and results in more deviant behavior •ex. teammates label use of steroids as deviant, so when a player uses steroids they are excluded from practices and called a terrible player. reaction to this may be to use steroids or try more dangerous forms of drug, leading to acquiring stigma of deviance
Cannon-Bard theory + example
•disagreed with James Lange theory bc you can experience physiological response w/o the emotion - ex. higher heart rate after a long run •physiological response and emotion occur simultaneously •ex. holding your cat causes heart rate to increase, and you feel joy at the same time •event --> physiological response + emotion at the same time
cognitive dissonance
•discomfort experienced when holding 2 or more conflicting beliefs, ideas, values, or emotional reactions •can lead to changing beliefs in order to alleviate the discomfort
dissociative identity disorder (formerly called multiple personality disorder)
•disorder in which 2 or more distinct personalities exist in a single body •personalities have different mannerisms, emotional responses, denial of existence of the other identity •those with history of child abuse or other extreme life stressor tend to have this disorder •extremely rare
conversion disorder
•disorder in which a person experiences very specific genuine physical symptoms for which no physiological basis can be found. •symptoms must be neurological ONLY like problems with speech, swallowing, seizures, paralysis •symptoms cannot be explained based on test or clinical exam •can sometimes be associated with high psychological stress or a traumatic event
panic disorders
•disorder in which panic attacks occur frequently enough to cause the person difficulty in adjusting to daily life •panic attacks occur in response to situations that usually don't warrant that level of stress •panic attacks associated with heart palpitations, sweating, chest pain, shortness of breath
factitious disorder
•disorder in which patient wants to be sick and will falsify signs of disease in order to get diagnosis/treatment •people do this to be in the sick role, not for money •often called Munchausen's syndrome •Munchausen's by proxy - when one person makes another look ill in order to gain medical attention/treatment
PTSD
•disorder in which person has lingering memories and nightmares about a past event such that it impacts them in daily life •includes physical symptoms like insomnia •associated with trigger that leads to the disorder •symptoms must persist for over 4 weeks after an event
types of maladaptive coping mechanisms
•dissociation - mind separates and compartmentalizes thoughts, memories, and emotions •sensitization - when a person seeks to learn about, rehearse, and anticipate fearful events in a protective effort to prevent them from occurring •safety behaviors - relying on someone/something to cope with anxiety •anxious avoidance - avoiding provoking situations by all means •escape (including self-medication)- fleeing situation at the first sign of anxiety •overcompensation: aggression/dominance/recognition-seeking/manipulation/excessive orderliness
anxiety disorders + examples
•distress/disability from abnormal worry/fear •can be specific to certain stimuli (phobias) •ex. social anxiety disorder - fear of humiliation, embarrassment, rejection, negative evaluation by others. selective mutism •general anxiety disorder - excessive, persistent worry about a variety of things
disruptive, impulse-control, and conduct disorders
•distress/disability from behaviors that are unacceptably disruptive or impulse for someone's culture •inability to control inappropriate behaviors
obsessive-compulsive and related disorders
•distress/disability from obsessions or compulsions
schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders
•distress/disability from psychosis and hallucinations •psychosis involves delusions not explainable by experiences/culture and can lead to disorganized thinking
somatic symptom and related disorders
•distress/disability from symptoms similar to those that may occur to a non-mental illness but of psychological origin. ex. experiencing abdominal pain but no physical signs of it
substance-related and addictive disorders
•distress/disability from the abnormal use of substances that affect mental function •includes alcohol, caffeine, cannabis, hallucinogens, inhalants, opioids, sedatives, hypnotics, anxiolytics, stimulants, tobacco •can cause mood abnormalities, anxiety symptoms, or psychosis
personality disorders
•distress/disability related to a personality •involves long-term mental and behavioral features that are characteristic of a person
trauma/stress-related disorders + examples
•distress/disability that occurs after stressful/traumatic events, leading to mood, emotional, and behavioral abnormalities •ex. PTSD
left hemisphere of the brain
•dominant in most people •associated with language, math
law examples
•don't J-walk (not associated with strong emotions if violated) •don't murder (associated with strong emotions if violated)
exogenous/external cues & examples
•don't have to tell ourselves to look for them in order for them to capture our attention •ex. bright colors, loud noises
transdermal route of drug entry & examples
•drug absorbed thru skin •ex. nicotine patch •drug in patch must be pretty potent; releases into bloodstream over several hrs
motivational interviewing
•drug addiction treatment process that involves working with patient to find intrinsic motivation to change •doorway for CBT, group meeting therapy
cocaine
•drug that causes abnormal release of dopamine •result: overstimulates/activates limbic system (involved in movement, emotion, motivation, pleasure) --> experience state of euphoria
insomnia treatments
•drugs - however, can lead to dependence and tolerance •psychological training and lifestyle changes (exercising regularly, relaxing before bed)
psychoactive drugs
•drugs that can alter our consciousness and perceptions •classified by action and effect on bodies
stimulants
•drugs that excite CNS •increase HR/BP •increase alertness, awakeness, energy •vasoconstrict •effect similar to stress; increases glucose metabolism in brain
hallucinogens/psychedelics
•drugs that induce distorted perceptions/hallucinations •induce heightened sensations, emotional responses •effects differ based on person's personality •results in pupil dilation without physiological cause - mydriasis
what are depressants & what are the categories of depressants?
•drugs that lower your body's basic functions and neural activity •lower CNS activity (decreased arousal, BP, HR, reaction time) •act on GABA (inhibitory) neurotransmitter which opens Cl- channels of neurons and inhibits excitation •low doses results in vasodilation; high doses results in vasoconstriction •3 categories: alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazapenes
conduction aphasia
•due to damage to arcuate fasciculus •ability to conduct between listening and speaking is disrupted. makes it difficult for people with this to repeat things even when they understand what is being said
Freud's view on identification
•during a child's develop there comes a time when a child adopts the characteristics of the same-sex parent and significant others •this is done by incorporating same-sex parent's superego into their own •ex. parents are honest people, so child may come to realize that honesty is important and lying is wrong
implantation stages
•during blastulation, zona pellucida disintegrates, while endometrium proliferates. this is blastocyst stage •outer trophoblasts divide into endometrium (adhesion) •blood vessels of the endometrium enlarge. trophoblasts enlarge and differentiate into syncitiotrophoblast and cytotrophoblast •syncitiotrophoblasts form villi, which will eventually form fetal blood vessels, which are in close contact to uterine blood. •cells of syncitiotrophoblasts and cytotrophoblasts make up the placenta
lower motor neurons (LMN) - what are they, where are they found, and where do they synapse?
•efferent neurons of the PNS that synapse to control skeletal muscle •forms neuromuscular junction with skeletal muscles that it contacts (synapse with muscles) •lower motor neurons that pass thru cranial nerves innervate muscles of the head & neck
compliance
•engaging in a behavior that is requested by another person/group to get a reward or avoid punishment •don't question why we should engage in behavior •goes away when reward/punishment is removed
effects of amphetamines/methamphetamines on the body
•euphoria for up to 8 hrs •irritability, insomnia, seizures, depression after it wears off •highly addictive •long-term users: loss of ability to maintain normal dopamine levels
attitude to behavior process model + example
•event triggers our attitude •then, attitude and some outside knowledge determine our behavior •boy has attitude that junk food is unhealthy because many family members have heart related diseases associated with poor eating habits. so, he decides to avoid junk food bc he knows it's bad for him
problems with retrieval
•every time we retrieve a memory, we modify it in some ways to fit our goals, mood, environment. •false information - inaccurate recollections of an event •misleading information - info that suggests a desired response
example of homeostasis maintenance
•ex. ingest amphetamines --> body tries to lower HR to counteract increased HR •ex. if long term user of cocaine and take cocaine in the same room, then cues like the room, needle, etc. will cause your brain to begin lowering HR before you inject cocaine. this habituation is part of the reason why you need higher doses over time **if you got those cues but DIDN'T inject the drug, you would experience a crash bc your body would be below homeostasis **if you're in a new location and take the same level of drugs, could result in an overdose because your body hasn't prepared by reducing HR/metabolism
how does task similarity influence our ability to perform multiple tasks at once?
•ex. listening to radio vs listening to classical music while writing a paper •more similar task = harder to perform multiple tasks
sexual response cycle
•excitement phase: increased heart rate, muscle tension, blood pressure •plateau •orgasm •resolution/refractory period
oxidopamine
•excitotoxin that selectively destroys dopamine and norepinephrine. •used to create neurochemical lesions in the brain •models Parkinson's disease
2 types of cues that can direct our attention
•exogenous/external •endogenous/internal
Lazarus theory + example
•experience of emotion depends on how the situation is cognitively labeled, and labeling depends on cultural/individual differences •if we label emotion as good, it's positive, and if we label it as bad, it's negative •ex. jumping off a plane is terrifying for some but exhilarating for others •event --> label the event --> emotion and physiological response
James-Lange theory + example
•experience of emotion is due to perception of physiological response •man who is allergic to bees encounters a bee. man's heartbeat increases, he starts sweating, and he interprets these physiological changes as fear •event --> physiological response --> interpretation of response --> e motion
incentive theory of motivation + example that supports this theory
•factors outside of individuals, like community values and culture, can motivate behavior •reward is presented after occurrence of an action with intention of causing the behavior again; people are motivated to behave in ways that produce rewards/incentives •ex. doing well at work and getting promotion or winning a game and getting recognition *note: rewards must be obtainable for them to be motivating
3 types of collective behavior
•fad - something that becomes incredibly popular very quickly but loses popularity just as quickly •mass hysteria - large # of people who experience unmanageable delusions and anxiety. reactions spread rapidly and reach more people through rumors and fears •riots - large # people engage in dangerous behavior (vandalism, violence, other crimes), violating laws indiscriminately. often seen as collective act of defiance/disapproval, resulting from feelings of injustice/feelings that needs have been ignored
what is decay and generally speaking, why does it occur?
•fading away of memory over time •occurs when we don't encode something well or don't retrieve it for a while. or due to interference (retroactive or proactive)
change blindness & example
•failing to notice changes in the environment •ex. don't notice when someone gets a haircut
agents of socialization (through whom/what are norms transmitted?)
•family •school •peers •mass media - books, TV, internet, radio, magazines
depression symptoms
•feelings of hopelessness •loss of interest in activities •suicidal thoughts, low self-esteem •guilt •lethargy •decreased concentration •appetite disturbance •psychomotor changes •sleep disturbance
genital stage
•fifth stage of psychosexual theory •development of strong sexual interests •before this stage, focus on individual needs but now focus on needs of others •no adult fixation
oral stage
•first stage of psychosexual theory •0-1 yrs •libido centered on baby's mouth (rooting/sucking reflex) •infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation •completely dependent at this stage, develops sense of trust and comfort •fixation at this stage = issues with dependency or aggression, smoking/biting fingernails, overeating
Alfred-Binet
•first to develop an intelligence test (unintentionally) •developed a test to establish a child's mental age and measure a child's intellectual development to predict how well they will do in school later on
what is fixation, what personality theory is it associated with, and provide an example
•fixation - getting stuck at a psychosexual stage, and the stage that the person is stuck at is thought to predict adult personality •psychoanalytic theory •ex. someone fixated at the oral stage might have oral personality characteristics like smoking habits/being overly talkative
fixed vs. growth mindset of intelligence
•fixed = belief that intelligence is biologically set and unchanging •growth = intelligence is changeable if you learn more •those with growth mindset accomplish more in their careers
types of complex innate behaviors
•fixed action patterns •migration •circadian rhythms
what happens with Wernicke's area is damaged? what is this called?
•fluent/receptive aphasia (Wernicke's aphasia) •difficulty producing sentences that make sense, and the person can't understand what others say •can produce many words and speak with grammatically correct sentences at a normal rate but will pepper sentences with irrelevant words or make up words without realizing it
how do fluid and crystallized intelligence change with age?
•fluid decreases •crystallized remains constant
drive-reduction theory + example that supports this theory
•focus on drives vs. needs. drive-need balance maintains homeostasis •need = lack or deprivation that will energize the drive •drive = aroused state •ex. you are at the gym and need water, but trainer says you must exercise more first. drive = thirst. fulfill drive by doing push-ups
operant conditioning
•focus on relationship between behavior and consequences (either reinforcement or punishment) •can either decrease or increase a behavior this way
ways in which behavior can influence attitude
•foot in the door phenomenon - tendency to agree to small actions first and then over time comply with much larger actions •role-playing - influences attitude over time as you begin to adapt to the role being played (ex. parent, student, Zimbardo Stanford prison experiment) •public declarations - more likely to follow through if you just told everyone •justification of effort - engaging in behavior just because you've put a lot of effort into it (even if you don't want to engage in that behavior) ex. med school
Paul Ekman
•found 6 main universal emotions that can be identified by everyone around the world •happiness, sadness, fear, disgust, anger, surprise
Tetris effect
•found in N1 stage of sleep •if you play Tetris right before bed, you may see visual images of blocks during sleep
hypnic jerks
•found in N1 stage of sleep •muscle twitches one experiences before falling asleep - results in sleep starts
what are hypnagogic hallucinations & provide an example
•found in N1 stage of sleep •strange sensations such as hearing or seeing things that aren't there •ex. seeing a flash of light, hearing someone call your name
sleep spindles
•found in N2 stage of sleep •rapid bursts of brain activity •thought to inhibit certain perceptions so we maintain a tranquil state during sleep - ex. thought to help us sleep through loud noises
5 factor model (big 5 personality traits)
•found in all people of all populations 1. openness - independent vs. conforming, imagining vs. practical 2. extroversion - talkative or quiet 3. conscientiousness - careful vs. careless, disciplined vs. impulse 4. agreeableness - kind vs. cold, appreciative vs. unfriendly 5. neuroticism - stable vs. tense, calm vs. anxious
latent period
•fourth stage of psychosexual theory •no focus of libido •period of exploration, libido present but directed into other areas like intellectual pursuits and social interactions •fixation doesn't develop into adult fixation
serotonin is released by what brain structure(s)/pathway?
•from raphe nuclei all over the brainstem: midbrain, pons, medulla •serotonin released to cerebral cortex and other parts of nervous system
mirror neurons
•frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. •thought to enable imitation, language learning, and empathy •evidence for observational learning
causes of Parkinson's disease
•genetic mutations have been found in some affected families but unclear how these mutations contribute to disorder
Alzheimer's disease physiological/genetic characteristics
•genetic mutations involved in amyloid protein processing •ApoE4 mutation - involved in fat metabolism •high blood pressure = higher risk of disorder
factors that influence likelihood of drug addiction
•genetic predisposition •biochemical factors - imbalance in brain •curiosity •novelty of drug •poor control of user •stress •low self-esteem •desire to feel good •relief from fatigue
fixation (as it relates to problem solving)
•getting stuck on a wrong approach to a problem •hard to get insight this way, because you are fixated on seeing a problem from the same inefficient approach
evidence that addiction/reward pathway can take over rational choices (negative consequences don't affect brain) using animal models
•give non-addicted rat regular food it likes with a substance that makes it sick --> rat learns to avoid the food •give addicted rat its favorite drug with a substance that makes it sick --> rat still wants the drug
what happens when both Broca's and Wernicke's areas are damaged? what is this called?
•global aphasia •combination of impaired comprehension and impaired speech production
long-term potentiation
•gradual strengthening of the connections among neurons from repetitive stimulation (rather than the growing of new neurons). aids in learning and facilitated recollection •equal levels of presynaptic stimulation result in greater postsynaptic potential over time --> more ion channels open in the neuron = stronger neural response
factors that influence conformity
•group size - more likely to conform in groups of 3-5 •unanimity of opinion •group status - ex. trusting 4 doctors over 4 gardeners about health •group cohesion - extent to which we feel connected to group •observed behavior - do we believe our behavior is observed? •public response - if we think we'll be met with acceptance vs. shunning •prior commitments - if we said something earlier that goes against group, we will decrease conformity bc less likely to say something different later •feelings of insecurity - more likely to follow others' judgments •people with low SES more likely to conform •people in more individualized cultures are less likely to conform
reference groups
•group that an individual compares himself or herself to for self-evaluation, often set some level of aspiration •influence our social decisions and our beliefs, attitudes, behaviors
how does task difficulty influence our ability to perform multiple tasks at once?
•harder tasks require more focus •ex. texting while driving is more difficult than talking to passenger in a car
marijuana effects on the body
•heightens sensitivity to sounds, tastes, smells •reduces inhibition, impairs motor and coordination skills & perceptual skills •disrupts memory formation and short-term recall •relieves pain and nausea
means-end analysis: what is it and provide an example
•heuristic where we analyze the main problem and break it down into similar problems (biggest --> smallest problem; current state --> goal state). then attack problem that has the most difference between current state and the goal stage. •ex. planning a trip to a new country. biggest problem would be to get to the new country, so you book a plane ticket to the new country
working backwards: what is it and provide an example
•heuristic where we start with the goal and use it to suggest connections back to current state (goal state --> current state) •used in mathematical proofs and mazes
effect of chronic stress on the heart
•hypertension due to high blood pressure and vascular disease bc of higher force of blood movement •damaged areas of blood vessels attract fat - can lead to coronary artery disease
structures of the endocrine system
•hypothalamus •pituitary gland (master gland) •thyroid •parathyroid •adrenal glands •gonads •pancreas
id, ego, and supergo: which seeks immediate gratification? which seeks long-term gratification?
•id seeks immediate •ego seeks long-term
symbolic interactionism
•idea that society is a product of everyday interactions of individuals •society is composed of symbols that people use to establish meaning, develop worldview, and communicate with others
how does practicing a task influence our ability to perform multiple tasks at once?
•if an activity is well-practiced, it becomes an automatic process = doesn't need attention •non-automatic tasks are harder to complete if attention is divided
consequences of meditation
•if regularly enter deep meditation, then increased activity in prefrontal cortex, right hippocampus, right anterior insula (which results in increased attention control) •helpful for older people, people with ADHD
types of mnemonic devices
•imagery •pegword system - verbal anchors that link words ex. 1 is bun, 2 is shoe, 3 is tree •method of loci •acronym
how does aging affect memory?
•implicit memories (aka procedural memories) and recognition memory remains stable •semantic memories improve until age 60, resulting in better verbal skills, higher crystallized IQ (ability to use knowledge and experience), and emotional reasoning •more difficult: recall, formation of new episodic memories, processing speed, divided attention, and prospective memory (remembering to do things in the future)
positive priming
•implicit memory effect in which prior exposure to a stimulus favorably influences the response to the same stimulus •caused simply by experiencing the stimulus. likely due to a first stimulus activating associative parts of memory. so when you encounter second stimulus, there is less additional activation needed for one to become consciously aware of it
negative priming
•implicit memory effect in which prior exposure to a stimulus unfavorably influences the response to the same stimulus. •caused by experiencing the stimulus & then ignoring it •slows down processing
social facilitation
•improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others (and conversely if task is not well-rehearsed, then performing in presence of others exacerbates mistakes) •occurs due to presence of others increasing your arousal - increased HR, faster breathing, activation of autonomic nervous system (autonomic nervous system)
brainstem
•in midbrain •also called medulla oblongata •contains medulla & pons •controls heart rate/breathing •crossover point for nerves •connects all parts of the brain, including cranial nerves
tonic neck reflex - what is it, and is it a permanent reflex or neonatal reflex?
•in response to head being turned baby stretches its arm on same side and opposite arm bends up at the elbow •neonatal
parathyroid
•in the neck; 4 spots in the back of the thyroid. •controls the calcium levels in your body as well as bone growth
in-attentional blindness/perceptual blindness & example
•inability to see something in plain sight because of attending to another stimulus •can't say where the nearest fire extinguisher is because your attention is typically elsewhere. this is the case even though fire extinguishers are brightly colored and essential to survival
hypoventilation disorder
•inability to ventilate lungs fully and remove all CO2 •results in buildup of CO2 and decrease in O2 •can occur due to meds that repress respiratory functions (ex. opioids) or problems with lung or chest wall so lungs can't expand •often due to obesity
mesocorticolimbic pathway
•includes soma of neurons that use dopamine, which are located in the ventro tegmental area (located in midbrain, hence "meso") •includes axons projecting to frontal and temporal lobes of cerebral cortex (hence "cortico") •involves structures of the brain involved in emotions, motivations, etc. (hence "limbic")
how to reduce social loafing
•increase difficulty of task •separate performances of individuals
hyperreflexia + cause
•increase in muscle stretch reflexes •thought to be caused by lack of periodic stimulation of lower motor neurons by upper motor neurons, which causes upper motor neurons to become hypersensitive --> bigger reflex
how much sleep is needed for the following age groups: •an infant (4-11 months) •preschooler (3-5 yrs) •school age child (6-13) •older adults
•infant: 12 hrs •preschooler: 10+ •school age child: 9+ •older adults: 7+ individual variation
effects of chronic stress on immune function
•inflammation, ex. arthritis, where joint is overly inflamed •chronic stress = immunosuppression
spotlight model of attention
•information is taken from the 5 senses, and certain stimuli take up the most of our attention •we are also aware of things on an unconscious level, ex. priming, where exposure to one stimulus affects response to another stimulus, even if we weren't consciously paying attention to it. we are primed to respond to our name
oral route of drug entry & examples
•ingesting something •slowest route because drug must pass thru GI tract •~30 min •ex. pill, alcohol
breathing reflex - what is it, and is it a permanent reflex or neonatal reflex?
•inhalation and exhalation •permanent
characteristics of innate behavioral traits
•inherited - encoded by DNA •intrinsic - present even if raised in isolation •stereotypic - performed the same way each time •inflexible - not modified by experience •consummate - fully developed right away, at first performance *note: subject to change via mutation and recombination, natural selection
caffeine mechanism of action
•inhibits enzyme that breaks down cAMP (adenosine receptors)
Ebbinghaus's findings on memory
•initial rate of forgetting very fast but levels off over time •later replications of this experiment found that more integration of the initial memory still results in the same pattern, but it takes a longer time to forget
injection route of drug entry & examples
•inject directly into vein •fast; occurs within seconds •also the most dangerous-can inject bacteria, other toxins
PET (positron emission tomography) scan
•inject glucose into cells --> see what areas of brain are more active at a given point in time. active cells=use more glucose •can't give us details about structure but can combine with CAT scan & MRI
mesoderm differentiates into
•inner layers of skin •muscles •bones •cardiac muscles •kidneys •bladder •ovaries/testes
sensory memory/register
•input enters the sensory register, which temporarily registers information from the senses •sensory register is composed of 2 components based on type of input: iconic (what you see, lasts 0.5s) and echoic (what you hear, lasts 3-4s)
internalization
•integrating an idea/belief/behavior into our own values. we conform to this belief privately •note that you are not specifically told to conform. instead you learn knowledge and rules about the world from social context •stronger than other types of conformity
Vygotsky's view of language
•interactionist approach •language and thought are independent but converge through development •eventually learn to use them at the same time via socialization when they interact with adults who already know the language
superego
•internalization of cultural ideals and parental sanctions •includes morals •inhibits sexual/aggressive impulses and tries to replace reality with morality •strives for perfection •composed of the conscious (what you should not be) and the ego ideal (what you should be)
eyeblink reflex - what is it, and is it a permanent reflex or neonatal reflex?
•involuntary blinking of the eye when something comes near the head or if there's bright light •permanent
caffeine withdrawal symptoms
•irritability •difficulty concentrating •depression
weak linguistic determinism (relativism)
•it is easier/more common for us to think in certain ways based on how our language is structured •linguistic structure influences but doesn't determine the context of everyday encounters
what is repression and what type of defense mechanism is it?
•keeping distressing thoughts/feelings in the unconscious •neurotic defense mechanism
marshmallow test
•kids given marshmallow could eat it whenever they want but if they waited 15 minutes before eating could get a 2nd marshmallow •kids who waited tended to have better life outcomes when followed 10 years later - higher SAT, lower drug use, fewer relationship problems, less stress, better social skills, smoked less
strong linguistic determinism (sapir-whorfian hypothesis)
•language determines thought completely •people understand their world through language, which in turn shapes how we experience the world, i.e. linguistic structure determines how and what someone is able to think
Piaget's view of language (+ example)
•language is influenced by cognitive development; once children are able to think a certain way, they develop language to describe those thoughts •ex. child develops concept of object permanence --> begins to develop words like "gone," "missing"
non-associative learning
•learning where no reward/punishment is occurring with increase/decrease of response •instead, you notice how response changes in relationship to the same stimuli over time
rays of light from the left visual field hit the __________ of the left eye and the ___________ side of the right eye. rays of light from the right visual field hit the _________ of the left eye and the ___________ side of the right eye.
•left visual field --> nasal side of the left eye, temporal side of the right eye •right visual field --> temporal side of the left eye, nasal side of the right eye
algorithm: what is it & provide an example
•logical step-by-step procedure of trying solutions until you get the right one •not efficient but eventual correct solution is guaranteed •ex. methodically approach all possible solutions of an 8-character password
neurocognitive disorders + examples
•loss of cognitive/other functions of the brain AFTER nervous system has developed. •can be caused by drugs, abnormalities in blood, infections •ex. dementia
main function of behavior
•maintain homeostasis
trial + error: what is it & provide an example
•making random guesses until something works •not efficient •ex. trying to remember passwords to an email account you haven't accessed in a while
what is rationalization and what type of defense mechanism is it?
•making yourself believe you were not at fault - avoids blaming self. can have false logic or reasoning •neurotic defense mechanism
in signal detection theory, how is the strength of a signal measured mathematically? what variable denotes it?
•mathematically, strength of a signal is the difference between the MEANS of the signal and noise distributions •therefore, if the signal distribution curve is shifted further to the right, d' is large and easy to detect •if signal distribution curve is shifted further to the left, d' is small and more difficult to detect •denoted by d'
detox process for stimulants like tobacco
•medications replace nicotine (active ingredient in tobacco) by delivering low levels of nicotine through patch •alternatively, deliver chemicals that act on nicotine receptors in the brain. this prevents release/reuptake of dopamine --> reduces cravings
depression treatment
•medications that affect serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine often improve symptoms •ex. monoamine oxidase inhibitors
detox process for depressants like alcohol
•meds block receptors in reward system of alcohol •reduces symptoms of withdrawal (anxiety, insomnia, dysphoria - or dissatisfaction with life) & cravings
group meetings (treatment for drug addiction) what are the 3 categories of the 12 steps involved in this process?
•meetings that involve a 12-step program to help people go through the process of recovery 3 categories: •acceptance- acknowledging the addiction •surrender- giving self over to a higher power, accepting help offered through that power/group •active involvement in meetings/activities - can include helping other addicts •can include parallel group meetings for families of recovering addicts
what happens if you destroy the amygdala?
•mellowing effect •Kluver-Bucy syndrome if you destroy both amygdala. characterized by hyperorality (put things in mouth a lot), hypersexuality, disinhibited behavior
repressed memories
•memories that have been unconsciously blocked due to memory being associated with high level of stress/trauma •believed that memory affects the conscious mind of the person even if they can't recall the memory •some believe that these memories can be recovered if triggered by a particular smell, taste, or other identifier related to the lost memory
somatic symptom disorder
•mental disorder that manifests itself as physical (somatic) symptoms •symptoms include pain, general fatigue •must cause functional impairments - stops them from going to school or enjoying life for ex. •also characterized by excessive worry, extreme levels of anxiety
heuristic: what is it & provide an example
•mental shortcut that allows us to find a solution •more efficient than trial & error and algorithm •does not guarantee correct solution, but it does simplify complex problems and reduce total # of possible solutions to a manageable number •ex. focusing on one category of solutions or guessing a password that contains your birthday
how can hormone concentration be regulated?
•metabolism: liver metabolizes and kidney excretes •secretion is controlled by negative feedback loops
folkways
•mildest type of norm •common rules/manners we are expected to follow on a day-to-day basis •not following these norms doesn't result in any punishment
elaboration likelihood model
•model that explains how are attitudes are formed and how likely they are to be changed •3 main characteristics that impact on how we are persuaded: 1. message characteristics - clarify of message, logic progression, was it well-written and grammatically correct, etc. 2. source characteristics - environment around the message, speaker's background- speaker's level of expertise, is info credible, where did info come from, physical environment 3. target characteristics - listener's mood, self-esteem, intelligence, alertness •how we evaluate info •stage 1: pre-processing stage - info filtered by interest, motivation, importance. central processing = if listener interest, motivation, and importance are high, people choose this route when they care about the topic. peripheral processing = if listener interest, motivation, and importance are low, people choose this route when they don't care about the topic •stage 2: processing stage - central processing focuses on deep processing of info, while peripheral processing focuses on superficial characteristics such as attractiveness of speaker, powerpoint attractiveness, how many times speaker got audience to laugh •stage 3: change in attitude - central processing creates lasting attitude change, while peripheral processing creates temporary attitude change
Lewis Terman
•modified Alfred-Binet's intelligence test to incorporate teenagers and adults, called the Stanford-Binet intelligence test. •test was used to measure intelligence of immigrants
describe the pathway an olfactory molecule takes to the brain
•molecule enters the olfactory epithelium of the vomeronasal organ (different olfactory epithelial cells are specialized for different odor molecules) •activates G protein coupled receptor on basal cells and apical cells within the vomeronasal organ •G protein binds ion channel which causes influx of ions to enter the olfactory epithelial cells (apical & basal) •basal cells sends action potential through the olfactory bulb •action potential goes to cribiform plate •goes to glomerulus •activates mitral/tufted cell •synapse to amygdala of the brain •to the piriform cortex •to orbitofrontal cortex
consequences of sleep deprivation
•more irritable •poorer memory •poorer attention •more susceptible to obesity due to body making more cortisol and the hunger hormone ghrelin •increase risk for depression bc REM sleep helps brain process emotional experiences, which can be protective against depression
rods vs cones
•more rods than cones in the human eye •cones found in fovea, unlike rods, which are found in the periphery of the retina •rods are 1000x more sensitive to light than cones (rods are quickly saturated) •rods have slow recovery time vs cones, which have a fast recovery time. recovery times refers to how long it takes for photoreceptor to be activated •cones primarily detect color but also some light (60% red, 30% green, 10% blue) •rods = peripheray
glutamate
•most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS, EXCEPT vision •acts as the major inhibitory neurotransmitter on bipolar cells of the eye in the absence of light.
evolutionary theory of motivation + example that supports this theory
•motivation and emotion are inseparable and that our motives are largely based on instincts •ex. baby cries, sleeps, eats - universal for humans
what is kinaesthesia? provide an example
•movement of the body - this is behavioral (& thus conscious, unlike proprioception) •i.e. teaching yourself how to move to complete the task at hand •ex. if I move this direction, I will hit the baseball
Noam Chomsky
•nativist language perspective: children are born with the ability to learn language •thought humans have language acquisition device (LAD) that allowed them to learn language •evidence: all languages share universal grammar, critical/sensitive period
intramuscular route of drug entry & examples
•needle stuck into muscle •delivery can be slow or fast •quick delivery ex- epiPen. given to someone experiencing allergic reaction which begins to close airways. epinephrine is delivered quickly, usually via thigh muscle since it has the most access points to blood vessels •slow delivery ex- slow delivery vaccines. •FASTEST ROUTE OF DRUG ENTRY - therefore the most addictive potential
Parkinson's disease
•neurological disorder involving motor abnormalities and mental dysfunction •characterized by slowed movements, tremors, increased muscle tone, abnormal walking, poor balance
upper motor neurons (UMNs) - what do they do and where are they found? where do they synapse?
•neurons that control lower motor neurons •found in cerebral cortex •synapse onto lower motor neurons in the brainstem or spinal cord
evidence that emotions are innate
•newborn baby reacts the same way/has same emotions as grown-ups •blind individual has same facial expression as those who can see
somatosensation: how is timing perceived at the neuronal level?
•non-adapting- neurons fire at a constant rate (always fire, even without stimulation) •slow-adapting- neuron fires quickly at beginning of stimulus and eventually slows down •fast-adapting- neuron fires quickly when stimulus starts then stops until the stimulus stops, where the neuron fires quickly again
right hemisphere of the brain
•non-dominant in most people •associated with emotional tone of language, creativity, music, big picture concepts
what happens when Broca's area is damage? what is this called?
•non-fluent aphasia (Broca's aphasia) •trouble producing speech •characterized by apraxia, a disorder of motor planning that causes problems related to speech
characteristics of learned behavioral traits
•non-inherited - acquired through observation/experience •extrinsic - absent when animals are raised in isolation •permutable - changeable sequence/pattern •adaptable - capable of being modified in response to changing conditions •progressive - subject to improvement or refined thru practice
mores
•norms based on a moral value/belief •generally produces strong feelings and associated with strong reaction by others if violated •can have consequences for violating but not serious
which personality theory focuses strictly on observable processes? which focuses strictly on cognitive/unobservable processes? which personality theory takes into account both observable and cognitive processes?
•observable processes - behaviorist •cognitive processes - psychoanalytic •cognitive theory takes into account both because it treats cognitive thinking as behavior
obsession vs. compulsion
•obsession = thoughts that occur involuntarily and aren't welcome. occur repeatedly •compulsions = activities that one must do and are often related to an obsession
opiates/opioids
•opiates=natural, opioids=synthetic •similar to depressants: decrease CNS function, decrease HR/BP, cause relaxation, induce sleep •act as analgesics-reduce pain perception •vasodilates, pupillary constricts •different from depressants because different mechanism of action; act on endorphin receptors by mimicking endorphins, no action on GABA receptors •can lead to euphoria •can lead to death by respiratory failure
ectoderm differentiates into
•outer layer of skin •sweat glands •hair •nervous system
gonads
•ovaries (females) •testes (males) •FSH/LH stimulation releases sex hormones (progesterone/estrogen in females, testosterone in males) •involved with sexual development
types of biases
•overconfidence •belief perseverance •confirmation bias
filiform papillae
•papillae that don't have taste buds •exist all over the tongue •center of tongue = only filiform papillae, so you can't taste there
what is parallel processing? provide an example
•parallel processing- the process of detecting/processing all incoming visual stimuli of differing quality (color, form, motion) at once •example- when a person sees an object, they don't see just one thing, but rather many different aspects that together help the person identify the object as a whole.
cluster A personality disorders
•paranoid - profound distrust & suspicion of others •schizoid - emotionally detached in relationships, shows little emotion •schizotypal - odd beliefs/magical thinking
implicit/non-declarative memory
•part of long term memory that involves things that you can't articulate •includes procedural memory - previous experiences aid performance of a task without conscious awareness of these previous experience (ex. riding a bike and habits) •includes memories formed via conditioning •stored in basal ganglia
amygdala
•part of the brain involved with emotion, aggression, mating. •stimulation of amygdala --> anger + violence, fear + anxiety •involved in memory, decision making, emotional reactions •located in temporal lobe
prefrontal cortex
•part of the cerebral cortex that is responsible for higher-order functions such as solving problems, making decisions, and how you act in social situation •reduces emotions
explicit/declarative memory
•part of the long term memory that consists of facts/events, etc. that you can explicitly describe. these memories are conscious •includes semantic memory - words & facts (ex. take vocab test, state capitals) •includes episodic memory - event-related (ex. your last b-day party)
criticisms of Asch experiment
•participants came from the same population - all male undergrads from the same culture. women, minorities, etc. may not have conformed •participants knew they were coming in for a study and could have conformed to see what would happen •demand characteristics - participants change behavior to match expectations of experimenter
partial report technique to test sensory memory
•participants identify a subset of characters from the visual display using cued recall •frequency of cue's tone indicated which set of characters within the display need to be reported •therefore, this test looks at a random sample of someone's memory for the entire display
Zimbardo prison study/Stanford prison experiment
•participants randomly selected to play either prisoner or prison guard •prisoners/guards got so caught up in roles that they had to stop experiment early •conclusion - conformity/obedience can result in acts different from usual or even contrary to how they think they would act •also shows us the influence that a situation can have on our behavior, how it can become easier towards people who suffer from deindividualization, the role of internalization of prison roles, and how cognitive dissonance results in guards justifying their inappropriate behaviors
parvocellular pathway
•pathway involved with spatial resolution (boundaries and shape- high levels of details) and color •poor temporal resolution - can't detect motion, only stationary •cones are involved
magnocellular pathway
•pathway involved with temporal resolution (time, motion) •poor spatial resolution- can't detect color •rods are involved
Yerkes-Dodson law
•people perform best when they are moderately aroused •moderate emotions like mild fear are associated with optimal memory recall •extreme arousal/low arousal associated with worse performance
optimum arousal theory + example that supports this theory
•people want to reach full arousal/alertness, so there is a drive to get full arousal and natural high - a state we enjoy •ex. why people go to amusement parks
ways in which we can cope with stress
•perceived control •optimism •social support •exercise •meditation •religious beliefs/faith •cognitive flexibility- perspective change
heritability
•percentage of variation of trait due to genes in a specific subgroup of individuals •doesn't describe the # of individuals with a gene/disorder •not a broad estimate of nature vs. nurture in a general population
what is displacement and what type of defense mechanism is it?
•person is angry at someone but displaces it to someone else •neurotic defense mechanism
behaviorist theory of personality
•personality is result of learned behavior patterns based on a person's environment and is thus deterministic •people begin as blank slates and environment completely determines their behavior/personality •focuses on observable and measurable behavior rather than mental/emotional
components of emotion
•physiological •cognitive •behavioral - such as body language/facial expression
examples of positive & negative consequences of obedience
•positive - firefighter tells you not to enter building because there's a fire •negative - normal people committing acts of inhumanity during Holocaust
examples of positive & negative consequences of conformity
•positive - see people running from a building bc there's a fire, so you run too •negative - peers pressure you into stealing
Korsakoff's syndrome
•precursor to Korsakoff's syndrome: Wernicke's encephalopathy; damage to certain areas of the brain causes poor balance, abnormal eye movements, mild confusion. treatment at this stage can reverse damage •untreated Wernicke's encephalopathy can develop into Korsakoff's syndrome, characterized severe memory loss, confabulation (making up of stories), anterograde and retrograde amnesia •not progressive like Alzheimer's
biological changes during adolescence (aside from changes in primary and secondary sex characteristics)
•prefrontal cortex develops •changes to connections in the corpus collossum occur until puberty. these changes are associated with language/language learning •increased myelination •increase in brain volume early in adolescence followed by decrease later in adolescence due to synaptic pruning: breaking down connections between certain neurons that are deemed unimportant (i.e. not reinforced) •changes in hypothalamus regulate sexual development
well-defined problems
•problems with a clear starting and ending point. •clear criteria that describe whether or not goal has been achieved
ill-defined problem
•problems with amore ambiguous starting and/or ending point •does not have an obviously stated goal or lacks relevant info the solve the problem
basilar tuning
•process by which the cochlea distinguishes between sounds of different frequencies. hair cells at the base (start) of the cochlea are activated by high frequency sounds, and those at the apex (end) of the cochlea are activated by low frequency sounds. makes sense bc long wavelengths travel farther (basically the place theory) •sounds activate the hair cell that matches its frequency, and this hair cell is mapped to a particular part of the brain
hearing adaptation
•process in which a loud sound causes a small muscle attached to one of the bones of the inner ear to contract, reducing the transmission of sound vibrations to the inner ear •note: this takes a few seconds to kick in- doesn't work for immediate noises like a gun shot
dopamine is released by what brain structure(s)/pathways?
•produced in arcuate nucleus •dopaminergic neurons in hypothalamus send dopamine to pituitary gland via the tuberoinfundibular pathway to control hormone release •dopamine also produced in substantia nigra. then transmitted from neuron soma to axons projecting into the caudate nucleus and the putamen of the neostriatum via the nigrostriatal pathway •dopamine also produced in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) & then goes to pre-frontal cortex via mesocortical pathway •VTA-produced dopamine can also traverse through the nucleus accumbens, the amygdala, and the hippocampus via the mesolimbic pathway
Alzheimer's disease (AD)
•progressive disease in which neurons die off over time, eventually causing cerebral cortex to shrink •earliest symptoms = memory loss, esp. difficulty to retrieve or decode short term memories. •other symptoms include difficulties paying attention, planning, semantic memory, and abstract thinking. •later symptoms: more severe language difficulties, long-term memory loss. also emotional instability and loss of control over bodily functions •characterized by buildup of amyloid plaques in the brain
hormones involved in the sexual response cycle + their roles
•prolactin - related to sexual gratification, associated with relieving sexual arousal after orgasm •endorphins - produce feelings of pleasure, released post-orgasm •oxytocin released after orgasm to facilitate bonds and feelings of connectedness between sexual partners
convergent intelligence
•proposed by Guilford •describes IQ test-related intelligence such as puzzles, vocab words, arithmetic
Raymond Cattell
•proposed that everyone has 16 essential personality traits that represent basic dimensions of personality •turned this into 16 personality factor questionnaire
Spearman's general intelligence (include evidence for this theory)
•proposed that there is 1 type of intelligence- general intelligence, and factor underlying these consistent abilities is called the g factor •evidence: people who score well on one type of test tend to score well on other types of tests
what is the information processing model?
•proposes that our brains are similar to computers: receive info from environment, process it, and output decisions •input --> process --> output •assumes limited storage capacity •assumes serial processing even though human brain has capacity for parallel processing
defense mechanisms
•psychological shield against anxiety or discomfort of unconscious psychological processes. •a means of protecting ourselves when we have to deal with unconscious wants, feelings, desires, impulses
counterconditioning (stimulus substitution)
•purpose = condition an unwanted behavior/response to stimulus into a wanted behavior/response by associating positive actions with the stimulus •similar to extinction except instead of removing the unwanted response, the unwanted response is replaced with a wanted response •this is done by overriding weaker stimulus with a stronger stimulus through conditioned inhibition, habituation, or extinction
averse conditioning
•purpose = stop a particular behavior •pair habit that a person wishes to break (ex. smoking) with an unpleasant stimulus such as electric shock or nausea
systematic desensitization
•purpose = teach person to replace feelings of anxiety with relaxation •gradual process in which person gradually learns to associate trigger for anxiety with relaxation techniques
electroencephalogram (EEG)
•purpose: measure brainwaves (brain's electrical activity) •attach electrodes to head that detect electrical charges produced by brain. machine amplifies these signals
briefly describe what happens GENERALLY during the phototransduction cascade. what is its purpose?
•purpose: process of transforming a light stimulus into a neural impulse •light hits rods --> rods turn OFF --> rods turn ON bipolar cells --> bipolar cells turn ON retinal ganglion cells --> optic nerve --> brain *note: rods are normally on by default (when light is absent)
what is the REM stage & what is it associated with?
•rapid-eye movement but other muscles are paralyzed bc most dreams happen during this stage •most important for memory consolidation, formation of episodic memories •combination of alpha, beta waves •also called paradoxical sleep, because brain is active but body prevents it from doing anything •more REM sleep in the hrs before awakening, while more N3 right after going to bed
crystallized intelligence
•refers to accumulated knowledge and verbal skills, i.e. ability to retrieve and acquire knowledge •based on fact, experience, prior learning
types of simple innate behaviors
•reflexes •taxis •kinesis - undirected movement, like rats scurrying in a bunch of diff directions
effects of cocaine on the body
•regular users: disturbances, emotional suspicion, convulsions, cardiac arrest, respiratory failure •depression when it wears off
thyroid
•regulation of body metabolism •affects growth and development of the brain
negative reinforcement + example
•remove stimulus to increase tendency of a behavior •ex. confiscate gameboy so you will start sleeping earlier
negative punishment + example
•removing a stimulus to decrease tendency of a behavior •ex. confiscate gaming device to decrease tendency to game
effect of chronic stress on reproductive system
•reproduction is shut down during stress response •FSH/LH and estrogen/progesterone can be inhibited, reducing reproductive abilities in women •reduced testosterone in men as well as impotence/erectile dysfunction b/c blood vessels are being constricted
endogenous/internal cues & examples
•require internal knowledge to understand the cue and the intention to follow it •ex. a mouse arrow on a computer screen
whole report technique to test sensory memory
•required participants to recall as many elements from a visual display in their proper spatial locations as possible •therefore assesses entire memory for the entire display
id
•reservoir of all psychic energy; made up of all instincts •seeks to discharge tension arising from internal needs or external stimulation. wants to get rid of uncomfortable feelings
Wernicke's area
•responsible for processing/understanding language sound •found in temporal lobe
Broca's area
•responsible for speak/language expression •found in frontal lobe
sleep-wake disorders
•result in distress/disability from sleep-related issues •include insomnia and breathing-related sleep disorders, abnormal behaviors during sleep
rote rehearsal
•retaining information in long term memory simply by repeating it over and over •least effective technique because doesn't require you to process the information
neural (synaptic) plasticity
•retraining other parts of brain by creating new connections between neurons after injury •ex. stroke in left hemisphere = can retrain other speech-related parts of the brain to retain/recover fluent communication abilities
clonus + cause
•rhythmic contractions of antagonist muscle •cause = hyperreflexia because if, for ex., doctor pulls on foot, it activates the muscle stretch reflex, which triggers antagonist muscles
Hans Eysenck
•said we possess ALL universal traits that Allport came up with, which we express to different degrees (unlike Allport who said we have different subset of these traits) •3 major dimensions of personality, which encompass all the traits we possess: 1. psychoticism - degree to which reality is distorted 2. extroversion - degree of sociability 3. neuroticism - emotional stability
Sigmund Freud's theory of dreams
•says dreams represent our unconscious feelings/urges/thoughts, like an iceberg. interpreting dreams can help us identify and resolve conflcit •manifest content - literal meaning of dreams, i.e. what happens. ex. monster chasing you •latent content - hidden meaning of dreams, ex. job pushing you out
modified semantic network theory
•says that every individual semantic network develops based on experience and knowledge •supported by spreading activation model, which says that all ideas in your brain are connected together, so pulling one memory up also pulls up others ex. saying fire engine activates truck, fire, red •node link strength is a function of exposure, where more exposure = stronger node links = decreased processing time
diffusion of responsibility theory
•says that, in the presence of others, individuals feel less personal responsibility and are less likely to take action in a situation where help is required •explains bystander effect
similarities between Rogers and Maslow's humanistic theory approach
•self-concept is the central feature of our personality, and it is achieved when we bring genuineness and acceptance together to achieve growth-promoting climate •importance of congruency between self-concept and our actions needs to be fulfilled
self-worth vs. self-esteem
•self-esteem - respect and regard one has for oneself •self-worth - deep knowing of one's own value •self-esteem isn't possible without self-worth
existential self
•sense of being separate and distinct from others •awareness that the self is constant/consistent throughout life
fixed-action pattern (FAP) + example
•sequence of coordinated movement performed without interruption. similar to reflex but more complicated •ex. praying mantis. any prey-sized movement results in praying mantis experiencing a strike response
serial processing vs. parallel processing
•serial - objects are processed one at a time •parallel - objects are processed simultaneously
CAT (computerized axial tomography) scan
•shoots x-rays to create image of the brain to visualize tumor/abnormal swelling/bleeding •can't tell us anything about what areas of the brain are active in a given time
avoidance (aversive control) + example
•signal is given before aversive situation, and you learn to engage in behavior to avoid situation •results in continued avoidance •eventually self-reinforcing, even in the absence of aversive stimulus, because performing avoidance behavior provides relief •ex. fire alarm allows you to avoid the fire
4 categories of stressors
•significant life changes- changes in personal life •catastrophic events- things that everyone considers threatening •daily hassles- seemingly minor events/hassles of everyday life •ambient stressors- stressors integrated into the environment; hard to control and can negatively impact us without us being aware of them (ex. noise, crowds)
ecstasy/MDMA/Molly mechanism of action
•similar to stimulant- stimulates CNS •increases dopamine, serotonin by damage neurons that produce serotonin
list all of Gestalt's principles
•similarity •pragnanz •proximity •continuity •closure •symmetry •law of common fate •law of past experiences •contextual effects
central sleep apnea
•sleep disorder with periods of interrupted breathing due to a disruption in signals sent from the brain that regulate breathing •not caused by airway obstruction; caused by problem with brain's control system for ventilation •Cheynes-Stroke breathing - crescendo then decrescendo breathing followed by stop in breathing. normal breathing pattern is inhale/exhale changes from a normal fixed pattern •believed that heart failure/stroke/renal failure is the cause
sleep apnea
•sleep disorder: stop breathing while sleeping --> body realizes you're not getting enough oxygen, so wakes you up long enough to gasp for air and fall back asleep without realizing. can happen 100x a night. results in deficiency in N3 sleep •snoring or fatigue after full night of sleep = indications •people who have it are often unaware •1 in 20 affected
what is the N1 stage & what is it associated with?
•sleep stage dominated by theta waves •hypnagogic hallucinations •Tetric effect •hypnic jerks
what is the N3 stage & what is it associated with?
•slow wave sleep, very difficult to awaken •mostly delta waves •sleep walking/talking •declarative memory consolidation
people are more likely to be honest when...
•social influences are reduced •general patterns of behavior for that particular person are observed vs. a single one (principle of aggregation) •specific actions are considered •attitudes are made more powerful thru self-reflection
ossicles
•sound wave hits ossicles after hitting the eardrum. ossicles consist of 3 bones that vibrate in the following order: -malleus (hammer) -incus (anvil) -stapes (stirrup) •smallest bones in the body
how are sour and salty tastes processed? how does this process differ from bitter/sweet/umami tastes?
•sour & salty tastes bind directly to non GCPR receptors, which result in opening of ion channels + ions to flow in --> depolarization. unlike bitter/sweet/umami tastes, does not involve GCPRs •sour tastants in particular bind to sourness receptors that react with H+. binding of H+ closes K+ channels
anterior chamber
•space filled with aqueous humor, which provides pressure to maintain shape of the eye •allows nutrients and minerals to supply cells of the cornea/iris
pheromones
•specialized olfactory chemicals that act as a chemical signal •induce an innate response in the animal smelling them •linked to mating, fighting, communication
steps of fertilization
•sperm binding: sperm comes in contact with zona pellucida, binding to it •acrosome reaction: enzymes of the sperm's acrosome leak into zona pellucida, digesting it. sperm gets closer to egg's plasma membrane •cortical reaction: egg enzymes containing cortical granules are ejected to further digest zona pellucida. the remaining surrounding zona pellucida hardens to prevent other sperm from binding. IF THIS DOESN'T HAPPEN, ZYGOTE FAILS •sperm binds to plasma membrane and acrosome is gone. cortical granules are released, plasma membranes fuse and all genetic material is released into egg. fusion of genetic material = fertilization
norms
•standards for which behaviors are acceptable and which are not •set by groups of individuals •usually guided by some sort of moral standard/ethical value that is internalized by all members of the group •vary by context, physical location, culture, country
internalization example
•start going to gym to comply with friends and end up internalizing that exercise is good for you and continue the behavior
monro reflex - what is it, and is it a permanent reflex or neonatal reflex?
•startle reaction: fan out arms then back •neonatal
in signal detection theory, what is strategy, what are the types, and what variable denotes it?
•strategy refers to the criteria that someone uses to determine whether they believe that a signal is present •conservative strategy - always say no unless 100% sure that a signal is present. drawback: might get some misses (c>1) •liberal strategy- always say yes, even if not entirely sure a signal is present. drawback: might get false alarms (c<1) •ideal observer strategy (c=0), minimizes misses and false alarms •denoted by "c"
rooting reflex - what is it, and is it a permanent reflex or neonatal reflex?
•stroke baby's head = baby's head turns in that direction •allows orientation to mother's nipple or bottle •neonatal
strong vs. weak self-efficacy
•strong - recover quickly from setbacks, have strong/deep interest, strong sense of commitment to activities, enjoy challenging tasks •weak - focus on personal failures/negative outcomes, avoid challenging tasks, quickly lose confidence in personal abilities
intelligence: nature or nurture? (describe what studies tell us)
•strongest correlation between IQ scores in identical twins raised in the same homes •lesser correlation if ID twins raised apart (environment does influence intelligence) •lesser correlation if twins were fraternal, even if raised together (biology does influence intelligence)
basal ganglia
•structure located in the base of the forebrain •plays a role in motor functions and some mental functions, receiving info primarily from cerebral cortex •processes info from cerebral cortex, sending it back through the cerebral cortex to influence areas of activity such as the motor cortex •includes substantia nigra and striatum
hypothalamus
•structure that regulates autonomic nervous system (flight or fight vs. rest and digest) •controls endocrine system by triggering hormones like epinephrine and norepinephrine •responsible for hunger, sleep, thirst, sex
Andrew Meltzoff
•studied imitation and found that babies are born with built-in capacity to imitate others •if you stick out tongue, baby will do the same
ethology
•study of animal behavior •these behaviors are called overt behaviors, i.e. observable
what is the subcortical cerebrum & what structures does it include?
•subcortical cerebral nuclei that are located deep part of the cerebrum includes... •internal capsule - contains many important pathways, including the corticospinal tract •corpus collosum •basal ganglia - major role in motor functions, don't have UMNs but help motor areas to perform proper movements. also involved in cognition and emotion •thalamus •hypothalamus
Parkinson's disease: changes in the brain
•substantia nigra is less dark or not dark at all •only dopaminergic neurons are lost (motor abnormalities related to loss of dopaminergic neurons at the substantia nigra. in fact, loss of dopamine neurons projecting from substantia nigra to striatum causes most of motor abnormalities) •Lewy bodies (disease neurons) found degenerating in the substantia nigra. contain a protein called alpha synuclein (normal protein) that is clumped together •more advanced stages: widespread neuronal loss and Lewy body depositions throughout the cerebral cortex. the latter thought to contribute to cognitive dysfunction
catatonic schizophrenia
•subtype of schizophrenia that includes extremes of behavior •at one end of the extreme the patient cannot speak, move or respond, i.e. catatonic state
example of shaping
•suppose you want to learn to do a headstand. you start by showing up to yoga class. then, put hands on mat. then, forearms on mat. finally, put legs up •teaching a bird to spin in a circle and press a button - give it a treat for completing gradual steps and eventually begin to only give treat when it completes entire task
cochlear implants
•surgical procedure to restore some hearing to people with sensorineural narrowing hearing loss •speech processor gets information from the microphone. this sends sound to a transmitter (outside the skull), which then goes to a receiver (inside skull). receiver goes to a stimulator, which reaches the cochlea.
swallowing reflex - what is it, and is it a permanent reflex or neonatal reflex?
•swallowing food happens automatically •permanent
what is reaction formation and what type of defense mechanism is it?
•switching unacceptable impulses into their opposites •neurotic defense mechanism
what physiological systems activate upon exposure to a stressor?
•sympathetic n.s. •endocrine system
the 3 factors that influence our ability to perform multiple tasks at once
•task similarity •task difficulty •practice
examples of biological influence on learning
•taste aversion •phobias
the gustatory system consists of?
•taste receptor cells in taste buds •taste buds are contained in structures called papillae
Milgram experiment
•teacher = participant. instructed to shock learner by the experimenter if they got answers to questions wrong •more than half of participants delivered shocks all the way to 450V. compliance dropped very little even if learner protested about their heart condition and pleaded for the experiment to stop •conclusion - people will obey authority, even when the orders given conflict with their moral values •afterwards, many participants tried to blame victim by saying the victim would be shocked if they would answer correctly/be smarter (just world phenomenon), while others blamed the experimenter when the experimenter said they'd take full responsibility for the harm
what is the Gestalt principle of continuity? provide an example
•tendency for lines to be perceived as following the smoothest path •ex. seeing a bunch of randomly scattered on a page - you may perceive some as forming a line if they are close enough together such that they form the shape of a line
what is the Gestalt principle of closure? provide an example
•tendency for objects grouped together to be seen as a whole; the mind fills in the missing information •ex. https://www.google.com/search?q=gestalt+principle+of+closure&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiDhPfE3YPjAhXIVc0KHe5_DPgQ_AUIECgB&biw=1440&bih=704#imgrc=-M13LdkiZLozeM: you would perceive this as a triangle
what is the Gestalt law of past experiences? provide an example
•tendency for our past experiences to alter the way we perceive certain visual stimuli •ex. the color black being associated with evil and death
conformity
•tendency for people to adopt the behavior, attitudes, and beliefs of other members of a group •"peer pressure"
what is the Gestalt principle of similarity? provide an example
•tendency for the brain to group similar looking items •ex. imagine a dot array in which black and white dots alternate by row (i.e. row 1=black dots, row 2=white dots, row 3=black dots, etc.). you would organize the dots into rows instead of columns, since all dots in the same row would have the same color
what is the Gestalt principle of pragnanz? provide an example
•tendency for the brain to organize reality to reduce it into the simplest form possible •ex. Olympic rings: the brain organizes them into 5 circles, rather than more complex shapes
reality principle
•tendency of the ego to postpone gratification until it can find an appropriate outlet. when we become mature, need to sacrifice short term reward and replace with long term gratification •must play by roles of the real world and might have to compromise
what is the Gestalt law of common fate? provide an example
•tendency to perceive visual elements that move in the same speed and/or direction as parts of a single stimulus •ex. flock of birds
dementia
•term for decline in memory and other cognitive functions to the point of interfering with normal daily life •caused by excessive damage to brain tissue, such as a stroke •Alzheimer's = most common form
structures of limbic system
•thalamus •amygdala •hippocampus •hypothalamus
meditation
•the act of self-regulating attention and awareness. •can be guided and focused on something in particular like breathing •can also be unfocused- mind wandering freely
mesolimbic pathway
•the dopaminergic tract from the VTA to the nucleus accumbens, the amygdala, and the hippocampus •associated with reward, motivation, and many positive symptoms of schizophrenia
mesocortical pathway
•the dopaminergic tract from the VTA to the pre-frontal cortex •associated with cognition, affect, and negative symptoms of schizophrenia
the pleasure principle
•the id's desire to maximize pleasure and minimize pain in order to achieve immediate gratification. •accomplishes this through reflex action (sneezing), primary processes (forming a mental image of desired object), wish fulfillment (image of your desire which temporarily restores comfort)
source amnesia & example
•the inability to remember where, when, or how previously learned information has been acquired, while retaining the factual knowledge •ex. participants watch a car stop at a yield sign and are given a written description of what happened afterwards. participant may forget whether they actually saw the yield sign in the video or if the written description said there was a yield sign (or both) •ex. angry with someone but forgot it happened in a dream
what is the Gestalt principle of contextual effects? provide an example
•the influence of environmental factors on one's perception of a stimulus •ex. when reading messy handwriting, must use contextual effect to make out some of the words
what is the Gestalt principle of symmetry? provide an example
•the mind perceives objects as being symmetrical and forming around a center point •ex. https://www.google.com/search?biw=1440&bih=704&tbm=isch&sa=1&ei=TZoRXdS2D4-7tQaVgbrQBA&q=gestalt+principle+of+symmetry&oq=gestalt+principle+of+symmetry&gs_l=img.3..0j0i24.49529.50342..50424...0.0..0.85.587.8......0....1..gws-wiz-img.0LsMtIQKz1k#imgrc=AHKgEqE2jF2MCM:
sensory amplification? example?
•the opposite of sensory adaptation. •upregulation of the activity of a sensory receptor in the presence of a constant stimulus •light hits photoreceptor in the eye, causing cell to fire. when cell fires action potential, it can be connected 2 cells which also fire an action potential. by time the signal reaches the brain it is amplified
what is feature detection? provide an example.
•the process of breaking down a visual stimulus into its component features to process it •ex. looking at a picture of someone's face and being able to identify smaller details in the picture such as a scar
spontaneous recovery
•the tendency of a learned behavior to recover from extinction after a rest period (can apply to classical or operant conditioning) •doesn't persist for a long time and response is usually less strong than response prior to extinction
what is the Gestalt principle of proximity? provide an example
•the tendency of the brain to group objects that are close together rather than things that are far apart •ex. two groups of dots that are farther away from each other will be perceived as two separate groups of dots, rather than a single group of dots
adolescence
•the transition between childhood and adulthood beginning at puberty and ending at independent adult status (being self-supported) •some cultures don't have adolescence period, since they find jobs as teenagers
sclera
•the whites of the eye, consists of thick fibrous tissue that covers the posterior 5/6th of the eye. •also functions as an attachment point for muscles •provides protection and structure of the eyeball •lined with conjunctiva
activation synthesis hypothesis
•theory about the purpose of dreams •suggests that dreams are created by changes in neuron activity that activate the brainstem during REM sleep. brain stem=activation, cortex = synthesis •our brain is simply trying to find meaning from brain activity, so dreams don't actually have meaning
social cognitive theory
•theory of behavior change that emphasizes interactions between people and their environment (unlike behaviorism, which focuses entirely on observable actions) •includes social factors, observational learning, environmental factors
gate control theory
•theory of pain. states that pain stimuli sent through the spinal cord must first pass through a "gate" before reaching the brain. in some cases, signals pass readily through this gate, resulting in more intense pain, while in other cases signals are slower, resulting in a duller pain. •it further says that non-painful stimuli can suppress painful stimuli, which can "close" the gates to painful input
strain theory
•theory that if a person is blocked from attaining a culturally accepted goal, they may become frustrated and turn to deviance •i.e. society values a certain behavior but opportunity to be successful is not made available to everyone, resulting in illegal ways to achieve success
social identity theory
•theory that says that self-concept has 2 parts: •personal identity - things unique to each person •social identity - identity that includes the groups you belong to in your community •also says there is a 3-step mental process we use to categorize ourselves •step 1 - people categorize ourselves into groups without really realizing it (part of human nature) •step 2 - identification. we adopt identity of group by behaving like the category we belong to, and our self-esteem becomes bound with group identification •step 3 - social comparison. how we compare ourselves with other groups
what is the hierarchical semantic network theory and what evidence is there to support it?
•theory that we store information in a hierarchical way, where broad categories are higher up, and more specific categories are lower on the hierarchy •supported by the cognitive economy principle, which says that our brain is efficient •ex. it takes very little time for people to verify certain statements, such as verifying that a canary is a canary, and longer distances between nodes means that it takes longer to verify the connection. for ex. it takes longer to verify that a canary is a bird than it does to verify that a canary is a canary
Korsakoff's syndrome treatment
•thiamine injections •stay on healthy diet •abstain from alcohol, take vitamins •relearn things •effectiveness depends on how early diagnosis occurred
self-referencing
•think about new info and how it relates to you personally can help you remember it more efficiently •similarly, preparing to teach = the idea that you are learning the material to teach it to someone else. makes you put more effort into organizing and understanding info
phallic stage
•third stage of psychosexual theory •3-6 yrs •discovery of difference between males and females •Oedipus complex and Electra complex at this stage •boy views father as rival for mother's attention (Oedipus) •girls view mother as rival for father's attention (Electra) •resolved through process of identification, where child starts to understand and develop similar characteristics as same-sex parent •if fixation occurs, can cause homosexuality/exhibitionism
cognitive theory of motivation + example that supports this theory
•thought processes drive behavior •ex. a light bulb going off in one's head
what is projection and what type of defense mechanism is it?
•throw your attributes onto someone else. can cause projective identification •immature defense mechanism
example of tyrosine derivative hormones
•thyroid hormones •catecholamines both produced by adrenal medulla
stages of gestation
•time 0 = last menstrual period •week 2 = fertilization •week 10 = embryogenesis •week 24 = birth (50% survival) •week 40 = full term birth, end of gestation
how do we process proprioception?
•tiny little spindles (receptors that contain proteins that are sensitive to stretching) in our muscles send signals through the spinal cord to the brain •sensors contract with muscles so we can tell how contracted/relaxed a muscle is •proprioception therefore gives us cognitive (subconscious) awareness of our body in space
types of lesion studies (which is the most precise?)
•tissue removal - surgical removal, aspiration (sucking out tissue), or severing nerve with scalpel •radiofrequency lesions - destroy tissue on surface of brain and deep inside brain. insert wire into brain to isolate area of interest & then pass high frequency current to destroy tissue, including cell bodies and axons. therefore, can't tell if area was responsible for the behavior or if it just had an axon passing thru •neurochemical lesions - excitotoxic lesions are created. add excitotoxins that bind to glutamate receptors, causing influx of calcium, that excites the neuron to death. MOST PRECISE •cortical cooling - cool down neurons until they stop firing. process is reversible
nature vs. nurture studies: experimental approach
•to determine extent of nature's influence, compare monozygotic with dizygotic twins •to determine extent of nurture's influence, compare adopted child with adopted parents and biological parents •gene mapping - compare populations that share certain traits with genetic profiles
methods of problem solving
•trial + error •algorithm •heuristics •insight/incubation
Schachter-Singer theory + example
•two-factor theory of emotion: physiological and cognitive responses simultaneously form the experience of emotion •if we become physiologically aroused, we don't feel the emotion until we're able to label it •ex. hold cat --> increased heart rate --> label the situation and identify reason for increased heart rate --> emotion •event --> physiological response --> conscious identification as to why --> emotion
factors that influence obedience
•type of authority giving orders •closeness to authority giving orders - do we respect them? •physical proximity •legitimacy of authority - ex. wearing a lab coat/carrying clipboard •institutional authority - expectation that these places wouldn't give you a harmful command •victim distance - ex. Milgram study: couldn't see learner •depersonalization - victim seen less human through stereotypes/prejudices •role models of defiance - more likely to disobey when we see others doing the same
pet guinea pig gets excited about a carrot. before giving the carrot to the guinea pig, you must open the refrigerator door. after some time, guinea pig gets excited when it hears the refrigerator door opening. identify the unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, neutral stimulus, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response
•unconditioned stimulus - the carrot •unconditioned response - excitement upon seeing carrot •neutral stimulus - sound of refrigerator door opening •conditioned stimulus - sound of refrigerator door opening •conditioned response - excitement upon hearing the refrigerator door open
unconscious mind vs. subconscious mind
•unconscious - part of the mind that consists of primitive, instinctual wishes and info that can't be accessed •subconscious mind - part of the mind that consists of info that becomes accessible once you direct your attention to it
signs of a substance use disorder
•usage- using increasingly larger amounts, having stronger cravings, failing to cut back, more time to recover from use •presence of withdrawal- feeling sick/unwell after stopping drug use, suggests physiological dependence •tolerance- body adaptation to the substance. effect decreases with equal doses •can be mild, medium, or severe
Charles Cooley
•used term "looking glass self" to describe the process of socialization. idea that a person's sense of self develops from interpersonal interactions with others •happens via 3 steps: 1. how do I appear to others? 2. what must others think of me? 3. revise how we think about ourselves accordingly •important: Cooley thought we aren't influenced by opinions of others but what WE THINK they think of us
methadone
•used to help detox opioid addicts •activates opiate receptors but acts more slowly than opioids like heroine, so the high is dampened. •reduces cravings, eases withdrawal. if heroine is taken, user can't experience the high because opiate receptors already filled with methadone
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
•uses radio waves exposed to a magnet field to disrupt orientation of atoms •as atoms move back into alignment with magnetic field, they release signals that are used to create an image •doesn't tell us anything about what areas of the brain are active at a given time
fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)
•uses radio waves exposed to a magnet field to disrupt orientation of atoms •as atoms move back into alignment with magnetic field, they release signals that are used to create an image •unlike MRI, can look at which structures are active by looking at oxygenated/deoxygenated areas of brain. •fMRI is a calculated composite of several MRI images registering changes
top-down processing
•using background knowledge/expectation to influence perception •theory driven •requires deductive reasoning & therefore not always correct
incubate (as it relates to problem solving)
•waiting a period of time to solve a problem •can eventually result in insight
K-complexes
•waveform that suppresses cortical arousal, helping to keep you asleep. •promotes memory consolidation •can occur spontaneously or by being gently touched during sleep
what is melatonin, what is it used for, and where is it produced?
•what it is: a hormone •use: control our body temperature, sleep cycle. primary modulator of circadian rhythm •produced in pineal gland of the brain
extinctive burst
•when an individual no longer receives regular reinforcement, its original behavior will sometimes spike (increase dramatically) •often occurs when the extinction procedure has just begun - results in sudden and temporary INCREASE in response frequency followed by eventually decline and extinction of behavior
swimming reflex - what is it, and is it a permanent reflex or neonatal reflex?
•when held horizontally on their stomachs, newborns stretch out their arms and legs and move them in a swimming motion •neonatal
groupthink
•when maintaining harmony among group members is more important than carefully analyzing problem at hand •often occurs when the group has important/respected leaders, resulting in group members suppressing their own opinions in the interest of group unity
relapse
•when recovering patients who are drug addicts resume use of the drug •likelihood of relapse depends on environment (encountering anything that one used to associate with the drug) & drug (more addicting drug = more likely to relapse)
galant reflex - what is it, and is it a permanent reflex or neonatal reflex?
•when skin is stroked, baby moves/swings to the side it was stroked •neonatal
steps of embryogenesis
•zygote formed. zona pellucida splits to initiate cleavage •at 32 cells, called morula. differentiation begins; outside = trophoblast, and inside = embryoblast •blastulation: inner cell mass and blastocoel (hollow space). zona pellucida disintegrates. inner cell mass becomes amniotic cavity and bottom cells of inner cell mass differentiate into hypoblasts. cells hypoblast = epiblast. bilaminar disk = epiblast + hypoblast. primitive streak forms •gastrulation: trilaminar disk forms. 3 germ layers form: ectoderm, endoderm, mesoderm •neurulation: core of mesoderm differentiates into notochord, which induces nearby cells to become ectoderm in an area called neural plate. neural plate invaginates to become neural tube
implosive therapy
a method for decreasing anxiety by exposing person to an imaginary anxiety stimulus. risky because overexposure can actually increase anxiety. (ex. throwing person with a spider phobia into a room full of spiders)
example of reaction formation
a person who doesn't like immigrants volunteers at an immigration center
cross tolerance
a reduction in the efficacy or responsiveness to a novel drug to a common CNS target
interposition (overlap)
a type of monocular cue. perception that one object is in front of another, where the front object is closer
motion parallax
a type of monocular cue. refers to relative motion: things farther away move slower, and closer things move faster
cones
a type of photoreceptor that detects color and discerns high level of detail in what is being observed
rods
a type of photoreceptor that functions to detect light
acrosome
a vesicle at the tip of a sperm cell that helps the sperm penetrate the egg
nicotine mechanism of action
acetylcholine receptor agonist
confirmation bias
actively seeking out only confirming facts
receptors send info through efferent/afferent axons?
afferent
token economy
an operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats
somatosensory cortex
area of the parietal lobe that processes somatosensory sensations; contains the somatosensory homunculus
optic disc
area where the optic nerve connects to the retina, forming a blind spot
extrinsic motivation
associated with rewards or obligated behavior; i.e. motivation to do something based on an external reward
semantics
association of meaning with a word
selective exposure
avoidance from certain stimuli to reduce cognitive dissonance
how can groupthink be avoided?
bring in outsiders/experts, have leader of group not disclose opinion, discuss what should be done in smaller groups
only drug for which we can't develop a substance use disorder
caffeine
affect
how mood is displayed to others
intrinsic motivation
intenal motivation
ICD-10
international classification of diseases, 10th revision. from the WHO
amotivation
lack of motivation
white matter contains?
myelinated axons
audition
our sense of sound
external/outer ear
pinna to tympanic membrane
perceived behavior control
refers to person's ability to carry out intentions to perform a certain behavior - are we capable of doing X?
transformationalist grammar
refers to the different ways that words can be arranged to convey the same information
circadian rhythm
regular body rhythms across a 24 hour period
pancreas
regulates blood sugar, not tied to pituitary gland
fixed-interval schedule of reinforcement
reinforcement occurs after a fixed amount of time
variable-interval schedule of reinforcement
reinforcement occurs after a variable amount of time
variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement
reinforcement occurs after a variable number of responses
fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement
reinforcement only occurs after a fixed # of responses
far away objects cause the muscles of the eyes to _________, while close objects cause the muscles to _______.
relax, contract
histamine is released by what brain structure(s)?
released from hypothalamus to the cerebral cortex
perception
the conscious sensory experience of neural processing
extinction
the diminishing of a conditioned response despite exposure to conditioned stimulus; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced
stressor
threatening/challenging event
T/F: it is possible to have low self-esteem but high self-efficacy
true - ex. perfectionist can have low self-esteem (critical about themselves0 but high self-efficacy (see themselves as capable of doing a task)
how can source monitoring be improved?
using more retrieval cues
which schedule of reinforcement is the most effective?
variable interval
psychosocial theory stage 3
•3-6 yrs •crisis is initiative vs. guilt •children feel more secure in their ability to lead others and play, so they will ask questions •virtue achieved is sense of purpose in what they do and choices/decisions they make •if tendency to ask questions is controlled, they develop guild and will act as a follower. inhibits creativity
how many sleep stages are there and how long do they last?
•4 sleep stages •last ~90 min each
theta wave
•4-7 Hz •associated with drowsiness •found in light sleep & right after falling asleep
psychosocial theory stage 7
•40-65 yrs •crisis is generativity vs. stagnation •establish career, settle down, make family center of life •virtue achieved: sense of care for others •if crisis isn't resolved, feel stagnant and unproductive
psychosocial theory stage 4
•6-12 yrs •crisis is industry vs. inferiority •teachers take important role in child's life and child works towards competence •virtue achieved is greater significance and self-esteem, competence •if initiative is restricted too much child will feel inferior
Bobo doll experiment
•Albert Bandura •showed that children can learn through observation of adult behavior •group of children doing arts & crafts when suddenly man appeared and started hitting the doll •the man left and children were given an impossible puzzle to solve to frustrate the children. many children came up to the doll and hit it in the same way that the man hit the doll, even shouting the same things that the man shouted
types of amino acid transmitters
•GABA (CNS) •glycine (PNS)
which trait theories used factor analysis?
•Raymond Cattell's theory •Eysenck's theory •Big 5 •NOT Allport
sociocultural cognitive development theory
•Vygotsky •believed children learn actively through hands-on processes, suggests that parents, caregivers, culture, language, and attitudes are all responsible for development of higher function of learning •children internalizes info through interacting with others, so social interaction is important for development of cognition
4 main types of brain waves
•alpha •beta •delta •theta
5 main tastes
•bitter •salty •sweet •sour •umami (ability to taste glutamate)
3 clusters of personality disorders
•cluster A - odd & eccentric traits •cluster B - dramatic, emotional, erratic traits •cluster C - anxious and fearful traits •clusters can overlap
elaboration likelihood model for persuasion (ELM)
•cognitive approach to behavior that says information is processed in 2 ways.... •central route of persuasion - degree of attitude change depends on quality of argument by persuader •peripheral route of persuasion - looks at superficial/non-verbal persuasion cues, such as attractiveness/status of persuader. ex. a doctor
categorical self
•comes after development of existential self •awareness that we exist in the world with others and each object/entity has properties (ex. age, gender, skills, size)
post-acute stage of withdrawal
•common symptoms: mood swings, anxiety, irritability, tiredness, variable energy, low enthusiasm, variable concentration, disturbed sleep •in the beginning, symptoms change from minute to minute/hour to hour. as time passes, bad symptoms are experienced less frequently; good stretches will last a few weeks or months •after a while, post-acute withdrawal episodes will only last a few days •lasts about 2 years •can be a trigger for relapse
categories of norms
•folkways •mores •laws •taboos
types of taste buds
•fungiform (anterior) - mushroom shaped •foliate (side) - folded structures •circumvallate (back) - flat mound structures
types of non-associative learning
•habituation •sensitization
taboo example
•incest •cannibalism
hypnotism
•involves getting a person to relax and focus on breathing, making them more susceptible to suggestion. •also involves focused attention - ex. can inhibit attention to pain while focusing it on other things •associated with more alpha waves: awake but relaxed state
phobias
•irrational fear of specific objects or certain situation (focused anxiety) •tend to form a pattern; people tend to have phobias of specific subtypes of things
schizophrenia: physical abnormalities observed in the brain
•less tissue in the brain, resulting in enlargement of fluid-filled regions •smaller cerebral cortex - specifically frontal and temporal lobes. furthermore, disorganization and thinning of layers •abnormally high dopamine, which plays a role in frontal/temporal lobes •abnormal activity in the mesocorticolimbic pathway (thought to lead to dysfunction in frontal cortex that causes cognitive symptoms, dysfunction in limbic structure that causes negative symptoms, and abnormal activity in temporal lobe that causes positive symptoms)
how do EEG readings differ between light and deep meditation
•light- more alpha waves •deep- more theta waves
C. Robert Cloninger
•linked personality to brain systems in reward/motivation/punishment •ex. low dopamine correlation with higher impulsivity
mania is characterized by
•little sleep •talking quickly •making bad decisions due to impaired judgment
psychosexual theory stages
•oral stage •anal stage •phallic stage •latent period •genital stage
4 categories of defense mechanisms
•pathological defense mechanisms - distort reality •immature defense mechanisms •neurotic defense mechanisms •mature defense mechanisms
example of compliance
•person buys a soft drink because celebrity was in the advertisement •paying taxes
types of retrieval cues
•priming - prior activation of nodes/associations without our awareness •context- the environment you're in while encoding can help retrieval •state- your state (mood or drunkenness, for example) at the time of encoding can influence what you remember
3 types of innate behavior
•reflexes •orientation behaviors •fixed-action pattern
Piaget's stages of cognitive development
•sensorimotor stage •preoperational stage •concrete operational stage •formal operational stage
effects of nicotine on the body
•stimulate CNS •increase HR, BP •disrupt sleep •suppress appetite •high levels of nicotine = muscles relax, stress-reducing neurotransmitters are released
labeling theory
•theory that says that a behavior is deviant if people have judged the behavior and labelled it as deviant. depends on what's acceptable in society •calls to attention the power that stereotypes can have in determining how individuals are perceived
conventional stage of moral development
1. societal norms/acceptance - do what is right to maintain friendly relations with others 2. law and order/law abidance - purpose of morality is to maintain social order. child aware of wider roles of society and obeying laws age: school-age
evidence for learning-performance distinction
Bobo doll experiment (2nd expt) •TV showed Bobo doll and someone being aggressive to it and then being punished. afterwards, some kids walked up to the doll and hit it, while others didn't •then, researchers bribed the children, offering them stickers/juice if they imitate the behaviors. children who didn't hit the doll ended up hitting it •shows that learning a behavior and performing it are 2 different things - not performing it doesn't mean you didn't learn it!
non-REM stages are?
N1, N2, N3
if you remember your dream, what sleep stage did you wake up in?
REM
nucleus basalis
a group of neurons at base of cerebrum that send axons to cerebral cortex and through cerebrum and release ACh
GABA
a major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain
hypomania
a mild manic state in which the individual seems infectiously merry, extremely talkative, charming, and tireless.
method of loci
a mnemonic technique that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations
distress
a negative type of stress that builds up and is bad for your body. happens when you perceive a situation to be threatening, causing your body to become primed in response to the threat
choroid
a network of blood vessels in the eye that helps nourish the retina.
ventral tegmental area
a portion of the midbrain that projects dopaminergic fibers to the nucleus accumbens
motor cortex
an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements
substantia nigra
an area of the midbrain that is involved in motor control and contains a large concentration of dopamine-producing neurons
kainic acid
an excitotoxin that destroys cell bodies but not cell axons. used to create neurochemical lesions in the brain
relationship between dopamine and serotonin levels
an increase in dopamine in the brain is accompanied by a decrease in serotonin. serotonin decrease --> less likely to be satiated, content
proactive coping
anticipating a stressor, preparing for it, and therefore reducing feelings of stress associated with the s tressor
auditory nerve
attached to cochlea, relays hair cell signals to the brain
situational attribution
attributing behavior to the environment
cribiform plate
bone that separates the olfactory epithelium from the brain
variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement example
bonus paid after selling 5 cars for first bonus, 3 for second, 7 for third
publicly conform
changing behaviors but maintaining your core beliefs even when they disagree with the group
attention
concentration on something at the exclusion of the other stimuli in the environment
neglect syndrome (hemispatial neglect)
disabling condition following brain damage in which patients fail to be aware of items to one side of space
light is a(n) ______ wave.
electromagnetic
example of a well-defined problem
how to fix a lightbulb
example of an ill-defined problem
how to live a happy life
universalist view of language
human cognition shapes language entirely. language is created from a set of universal and constructions
examples of induced states of consciousness
hypnosis, medication
Binet's idea of mental age
is a measure of how a child at a specific age performs intellectually compared to average intellectual performance for that physical age in years
treatments for narcolepsy
neurochemical interventions
gray matter contains?
neuron cell bodies
distal stimuli
objects and events out in the world about you that cause you to perceive a stimulus
vomeronasal organ
organ located between the nose and mouth that detects olfactory stimuli in the olfactory epithelium
fine motor skills
physical abilities involving small body movements, especially of the hands and fingers, such as drawing and picking up a coin
stress reaction
physical and emotional response to stressor
sensation requires a _____________ to be converted into a neural impulse
physical stimulus
structures of the hindbrain
pons/medulla/cerebellum
negative sanction
punishment for violating norms
purpose, types of binocular cues
purpose: give people a sense of depth types: retinal disparity, convergence
3 types of cones
red, green, blue
learning-performance distinction
referring to the observation that learning can take place without actual performance of the learned behavior
fovea
special part of the macula which is completely covered in cones, NO RODS. area where you can see with highest resolution bc no axons in the way of light, thus allowing light to directly hit cones
macula
special part of the retina rich in cones, but there are also rods
where is dopamine released? (be more specific than the brain)
the ventral tegmental area (VTA) of the midbrain
T/F: small rewards can change cognitions, but large rewards change compliance without changing cognitions
true
T/F: training self-control in one area can improve it in other areas
true
vestibular system: what does it control and where is it located?
what it controls: balance and spatial orientation location: inner ear, limbs
attentional capture
what occurs when attention is attracted by the motion of an object or stimulus
positive sanction example
when you do something good at work you get a raise (reward for doing something good)
optic chiasm
where optic nerves cross
THC mechanism of action
works on anandamide (a fatty acid neurotransmitter), increases dopamine & GABA activity
delta wave
•0.5-3 Hz •associated with deep sleep or coma
psychosocial developmental theory
•Erikson •proposed that personality/identity development occurs throughout lifespan •8 stages- each stage depends on overcoming a conflict, and success/failure at each stage affects overall functioning •crisis can occur at each stage of development between needs of individual and society. if failure to resolve, then reduced ability to move onto further stage and unhealthy personality/sense of self
theory of multiple intelligence
•Howard Gardner •9 independent intelligences: logical-mathematical, verbal-linguistic, spatial-visual, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, musical, naturalist, existential intelligence •problems: no way to test this theory (not supported by research)
evidence of the role of reward pathway/biological basis on drug dependence in animal models
•IV cocaine injection into rats if rats pushed a lever •rats learned to push lever and sought to increase dosage
bystander effect example
•Kitty Genovese - woman who was stabbed, raped, and robbed while 38 people were in vicinity
trait
•a relatively stable characteristic of a person that causes individuals to consistently behave in certain ways •interaction of traits forms personality
limbic system
•a set of structures in the brain that play an important role in regulating emotions •responsible for storage/retrieval of memories, especially ones tied to emotions
personality
•a stable predisposition towards a certain behavior •patterns of behavior
what do we NEED for audition to occur?
•a stimulus: pressurized sound wave •a receptor in the cochlea: hair cell
cocktail party effect
•ability to concentrate on one voice amongst a crowd or when someone calls your name •this is an endogenous cue
endocrine response to stress
•adrenal glands: adrenal medulla release catecholamines. (epinephrine/adrenaline and norepinephrine/noradrenaline) •adrenal cortex releases glucocorticoid (cortisol), a steroid hormone that redistributes glucose energy in the body and suppresses the immune system
what is the mesolimbic pathway and what parts of the brain are involved?
•also known as the reward pathway. connected to VTA •nucleus accumbens, amygdala, hippocampus
vigilance attention and signal detection
•attention for a sustained period of time. during this time, the person attempts to detect the appearance of a particular target stimulus. •this attention primes the response
classical conditioning usage in therapy (names of methods)
•averse conditioning •systematic desensitization •counterconditioning
cluster C personality disorders
•avoidance - inhibited, feel inadequate and try to avoid putting themselves in a situation where they can be criticized •dependent - submissive and clingy •obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (OCPD - to be mixed up with OCD). very focused on life being ordered and things being perfect. must be in control to the extent that it annoys others
"old brain" structures
•brainstem (medulla + pons0 •reticular formation •thalamus •cerebellum
social potency
•degree to which a person assumes mastery and leadership roles in social situations •common in twins reared separately (therefore genetic component exists
neurodevelopmental disorders + examples
•distress/disability due to abnormality in development of nervous system •intellectual disability, autism spectrum, ADHD, dyslexia
dissociative disorders + examples
•distress/disability from abnormalities of identity or memory •ex. multiple personalities
feeding and eating disorders + examples
•distress/disability from behavioral abnormalities related to food •ex. anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa
generally speaking, heritability increases when...
•environments become more controlled •there is more genetic variation
what can influence one's absolute threshold of sensation?
•expectations- are you expecting a text? •experience- are your familiar with your phone's text vibration sound? •motivation- are you interested in the response of a text? •alertness- awake or drowsy?
what is humor and what type of defense mechanism is it?
•expressing humor/jokes to be truthful and alleviate feelings while also making them socially acceptable •mature defense mechanism
stepping reflex
•hold an infant upright on a flat surface, and they will start to step as if they're trying to walk •neonatal
acute stage of withdrawal
•lasts a few weeks •experience physical withdrawal symptoms •different for each drug/person
classical conditioning
•learning process in which an innate response to a potent stimulus comes to be elicited in response to a previously neutral stimulus •achieved through repeated pairings of neutral stimulus with potent stimulus •does NOT involve change in behavior
escape (aversive control) + example
•learning to perform a behavior in order to terminate an ongoing, aversive stimulus •typically includes element of surprise •"get me out of here" reaction •ex. fire in a building and you must find a way to get out
babinski reflex - what is it, and is it a permanent reflex or neonatal reflex?
•newborn fans out toes when the sole of the foot is touched •neonatal
laws
•norms based on right and wrong that have formal/consistent consequences •not necessarily associated with outrage if violated (depends on the law)
instinctual drift
•phenomenon where established habits that were learnt via operant conditioning are replaced by innate food-related behaviors •i.e. learned behavior "drifts" to organism's species-specific instinctual behavior
cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)
•psychological treatment for drug addiction •teaches patients to recognize problematic thought pattern and develop more positive thought patterns and coping behaviors •teaches patients to anticipate problematic situations (ex. going to a party where there is alcohol for an alcoholic) •successful in alcohol, cocaine, meth, and nicotine-addicted patients
anal stage
•second stage of psychosexual theory •1-3 yrs •libido centered on anus •development of control/independence, encourage child to feel positive outcomes •fixation at this stage = problems with orderliness, messiness
example that supports the labelling theory
•steroids can be labelled as deviant even though it's possible that steroids are necessary in some situations, deviance is determined by team members, sporting league, or greater society label •adolescents often subject to stigmatizing labels, leading to perceptions that may not match behavior
effects of ecstasy/MDMA/Molly on the body
•stimulates CNS •high BP •dehydration •overheating •death •euphoria •hallucinations, heightened sensations. artificial feeling of social connectedness, intimacy
long-term memory
•unlimited capacity •has explicit (declarative) and implicit (non-declarative) memory
endolymph
(part of vestibular system) fluid within semicircular canals. shifts when we move, allowing us to detect... •what direction our head has moved based on direction of fluid flow •strength of the rotation based on the speed of fluid flow
otolithic organs- what happens within them when we lie down or sit up?
(part of vestibular system) •consists of utricle and saccule •function: help us detect linear acceleration and head positioning •contains calcium carbonate crystals attached to hair cells in viscous gel •when we stand up after lying down for a while, the calcium carbonate crystals move and pull on hair cells --> triggers action potential in hair cells
semicircular canals
(part of vestibular system) a part of the inner ear; consists of posterior, lateral, and anterior portions, each orthogonal to each other. filled with endolymph
moral development theory stages
*each stage has 2 parts •preconventional 1. obedience vs. punishment 2. individualism and exchange or self-interest •conventional 1. societal norms/acceptance 2. law and order/law abidance •post-conventional 1. social contract 2. universal ethical principle
provide examples of things that can change your level of consciousness.
-drugs -mental efforts
Maslow's hierarchy of needs: what is the order of needs that must be fulfilled?
1. physiological 2. safety (employment, health, resources, property, security, protection, freedom) 3. love 4. self-esteem 5. self-actualization - reaching maximum potential, achieving the most one can be (varies by person) acronym: Please Stop Liking Stupid Shit
Mead's 3-stage role-taking process
1. preparatory stage - interaction through imitation, ex. play with pots and pans when parents are cooking. can't take perspective of others 2. play stage - more aware of social relationships. children pretend play as others because have developed ability to mentally assume the perspective of others and acting on perceived viewpoint (role-taking) 3. game stage - understanding of the generalized other - realization that people perform in ways that society expects them to, and people can take on multiple roles. also realization that people can have opinions of them based on actions, making them concerned with how other certain people perceive them •before game stage was the development of "I" and "me", where "me" = what we learn through interactions with others, how individual believes the generalized other perceives us (social self). part of self formed in interaction with others and the environment "I" = response of the individual to "me". spontaneous, autonomous less socialized component of the self actual self is balance between I and me
post-conventional stage of moral development
1. social contract - awareness that laws exist for greater good but can sometimes work against interest of the people (sometimes law must be broken). age: teens 2. universal ethical principle - morality based on principles that transcend mutual benefit. age: adulthood
types of somatosensation
1. thermoception (temperature) 2. mechanoception (pressure) 3. nociception (pain) 4. proprioception (position)
range of human hearing frequency
20-20,000Hz
cannabis metabolites can be present in the blood of users for up to _______ months
3
trophoblast & embryoblast are found in what stage of embryogenesis?
32 cell stage, i.e. morula
posterior pituitary secretes?
ADH (antidiuretic hormone), oxytocin
which senses are contralateral?
ALL except smell, which is ipsilateral
example of a norm
Americans greet each other with hello and a handshake, while Europeans greet with a kiss on the cheek
