Psychology Ch 1,6, &12
List the four goals of psychology,explain the assumptions and attitudes of psychologists and describe critical thinking.
(1) describe, (2) explain, (3) predict, and (4) control or influence behavior and mental processes.
Discuss the organization of information in long-term memory.
... information in long-term memory is clustered and associated. clustering means organizing items into related groups, or clusters during recall. another model-semantic network model-when one concept is activated in the semantic network it can spread in any number of directions activating other associations in the semantic network . different bits and pieces of information in long-term memory are also logically linked, or associated.
List and explain the factors in Milgram's original experiments that promoted destructive obedience.
...(1) A previously well-established mental framework to obey- Milgrams subjects arrived at the lab with the mental expectations that they would obediently follow the directions of the person in charge. (2) the situation, or context, in which the obedience occurred- the subjects to trust and respect the experimenters authority(3) the gradual, repetitive escalation of the task-subjects could easily justify using such low levels of electric shock in the service of science(4) the physical and psychological separation from the learner- distanced the subjects form the pain he was inflicting on the learner (5) confidence that the learner was actually receiving shocks- wondering if they were actually retrieving shocks.
Identify several strategies you can use to enhance your ability to remember information.
...(1) commit the necessary time(2)organize the information(3)elaborate on the material(4)explain it to a friend(5)use visual imagery(6)reduce interference within a topic(7)counteract the serial position effect(8)use contextual cues to jog memories(9)use a mnemonic device for remembering lists(10)finally,sleep on it to help consolidate those memories.
Give examples of maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal, and explain why one is more effective in encoding long-term memories.
...(1)Maintenance rehearsal example- someone gives you a number and you repeat the number over and over to remember it longer then usual 30 seconds.(2)elaborative rehearsal something and think of things you already know that relates to it. Rehearsal is more effective because if you already know one thing and find a way to connect it, it will stick better then just repeating something for a short period of time until its used then never used again.
Identify the various explanations that have been postulated to account for why forgetting occurs.
...(1)encoding failure-never encoded the information into long term memory in the first place. memory was in short term but never encoding into long term prospective memory-remembering to do something in the future. (2)decay theory-forget memories because we dont use them and they fade away over time as a matter of normal brain processes. (3)interference theory-forgetting is caused by one memory competing with or replacing another memory. Retroactive interference-when a new memory occurs with an old and proactive interference is when an old memory interferes with a new (4)motivated forgetting-forget because we are motivated to forget. unpleasant or disturbing memory. one form suppression the deliberate,conscious effort to forget information and repression-forgetting that occurs unconsciously.
Discuss the different forms of the encoding specificity principle, and evaluate the accuracy of flashbulb memories.
...(1)encoding specificity principle-more closely retrieval cues match the original learning conditions, the more likely it is that retrieval will occur. (2)context effect-tendency to remember information more easily when the retrieval occurs in the same setting in which you originally learned the information (3)mood congruence-the idea that a given mood tends to evoke memories that are consistent with that mood. accuracy of flashbulb memories-thought to involve the recall of very specific details or images surrounding a significant rare, or vivid event. Flashbulb memories are not immune to forgetting, nor are they uncommonly consistent over time. Instead, exaggerating belief in memory's accuracy at long delays is what may have led to the conviction that flashbulb memories are more accurate than everyday memories.
List the components of an attitude, and identify the conditions under which attitudes are most likely to determine behavior.
...Components of attitude-(1)cognitive component- beliefs,thoughts, ideas about the attitude object. (2)behavioral component- predisposition to act in a particular way. (3) emotional component- feelings and emotions about the attitude object. Most likely to determine behavior- you anticipate a favorable outcome or response from others for behaving that way. Your attitudes are extreme or are frequently expressed. Your attitudes have been formed through direct experience. You are very knowledgeable about the subject, or you have a vested interest in the subject and personally stand to gain or lose something on a specific issue.
Define deindividuation, describe its potential consequences, and identify the conditions under which it tends to occur.
...Deindividuation- refers to the reduction of self-awareness and inhibitions that can occur when a person is part of a group whose members feel anonymous. conditions it occurs- people may do things that they wouldn't do if they were alone or identifiable. it can lead to irresponsible or antisocial behaviors. cyberbullying can have serious consequences. someone hurts them selves because you and a group of friends were bullying someone and you were doing to it to try and act cool.
Identify cultural differences in patterns of attributional biases.
...Different cultures view how they did on something differently. If an American did bad they blamed it on someone else and didn't take the blame that they just didn't study hard enough by a Japanese student didn't do well and blames his failure for not studying hard enough.
Define memory, and explain the processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval.
...Memory-refers to the mental processes that enable us to acquire,retain,and retrieve information. Encoding-the process of transforming information into a form that can be entered and retained by the memory system. Storage-process of retaining information in memory so that it can be used at a later time. Retrieval-recovering the stored information so that we are consciously aware of it.
List and explain the conditions identified by Milgram in later experiments that tended to decrease the level of destructive obedience.
...Original study,experiment conducted in office building instead of university setting,teacher and learner in the same room,teacher required to force learners hand down on a "shock plate",experimenter leaves laboratory and gives orders over the phone,experimenter leaves and ordinary man gives orders to continue, teacher observes two other teachers rebel and refuse to continue, teacher free to choose level of shock. Goes from least to most obedient.
Describe the roles of different brain structures in normal memory.
...Prefrontal cortex-memory involving the sequence of events, but not the events themselves. (2)hippocampus-encodes and transfers new explicit memories to long-term memory(3)cerebellum-memories involving movement(4)amygdala-encodes emotional aspects of memories(5)medial temporal lobe-encodes and transfers new explicit memories to long-term memory
Describe how retrieval is tested, and explain the serial position effect.
...Retrieval is tested through recall,cued recall, and recognition. Recall-involves producing information using no retrieval cues. Cued recall-involves remembering an item of information in response to a retrieval cue. recognition- identifying the correct information from several possible choices. serial position effect-refers to the tendency to retrieve information more easily from the beginning and the end of a list rather then from the middle.
Describe the stage model of memory, and describe how each of the three stages functions.
...State model of memory-is useful in explaining the basic workings of memory. three stages. (1)Sensory memory-registers a great deal of information from the environment and hods it for a very brief period of time. after free seconds or less, the information fades. (2)Short-term memory-refers to the active,working memory system. your short-term memory temporarily holds all of the information you are currently thinking about or consciously aware of. stored briefly in short-term memory for up to about 20 seconds. (3)Long-term memory-represents what most people typically think of as memory--the long term storage information, potentially for a lifetime.
Discuss the function, duration, capacity, and types of sensory memory.
...Types of sensory memory-vision,hearing,touch,smell. visual sensory memory typically holds an image of your environment for about one-quarter to one-half second before replaced. It momentarily holds a snapshot of the environmental image.
Define and provide examples of the attributional biases, including the actor-observer discrepancy, the self-serving bias, and the self-effacing bias.
...actor-observer bias-when it comes to explaining our own behavior, we tend to be biased in the opposite direction. example "he dropped the filing cabinet because he was a dimwit, you dropped it because there wasn't a good way to get a solid grip on it"Hindsight bias-tendency, after an event has occurred, to overestimate ones ability to have foreseen or predicted the outcome. An example "could have told you that one would happen" self-serving bias-student does well on a test, they congratulate themselves and so forth all internal attributions. but when a student bombs a test they blame it on someone else and they are external attributions.
Define attribution and the fundamental attribution error, and discuss how the fundamental attribution error explains people's tendency to "blame the victim" of misfortune.
...attribution-process of inferring the cause of someones behavior,including your own. fundamental attribution error-tendency to spontaneously attribute the behavior of others to internal,personal characteristics ,while ignoring or underestimating the role of external,situation factors. blame the victim because of the misfortune for having somehow caused the problem or for not having taken steps to avoid or prevent it.
Define the bystander effect and diffusion of responsibility, and explain how these and other factors played a role in the death of Kitty Genovese.
...bystander effect-a phenomenon in which the greater the number of people present, the less likely each individual is to help someone in distress. diffusion of responsibility-a phenomenon in which the presence of other people makes it less likely that any individual will help someone in distress because the obligation to intervene is shared among all the onlookers.
Define cognitive dissonance, identify how it occurs, and discuss how it is typically resolved.
...cognitive dissonance-an unpleasant state of psychological tensions that occurs when theres an inconsistency between two thoughts or perceptions. In these situations, you are simultaneously holding two conflicting cognitions: your original attitude versus the realization your behavior contradicts that attitude. you can easily rationalize your behavior to make it consistent with your attitude, then any dissonance you might experience can be quickly and easily resolved. You can resolve the contradiction and eliminate the unpleasant state of dissonance by changing your attitude to make it consistent with your behavior
Define obedience and discuss the experimental design and results of Milgram's obedience experiments.
...obedience-the performance of behavior in response to a direct command. experimental design and results- The Milgram experiment on obedience to authority figures was a series of social psychology experiments conducted by Yale University psychologist Stanley Milgram. They measured the willingness of study participants, mostly young male students from Yale, to obey an authority figure who instructed them to perform acts conflicting with their personal conscience; the experiment found, unexpectedly, that a very high proportion of people were prepared to obey, albeit unwillingly, even if apparently causing serious injury and distress. Milgram first described his research in 1963 in an article published in the Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology[1] and later discussed his findings in greater depth in his 1974 book, Obedience to Authority: An Experimental View.
Define person perception, describe the components of the interpersonal context in which Explain the advantages and disadvantages of using social categories and implicit personality theories, and note the effects of physical attractiveness on person perception. person perception occurs, and explain the basic principles that guide person perception.
...person perception-refers to the mental processes we use to form judgments and draw conclusions about the characteristics of other people. social categories-mental process of classifying people into groups on the basis of common characteristics. implicit personality theories-often assume that certain types of people share certain traits and behaviors. First impressions, depends on how they look is what we usually think of them. BASIC PRINCIPLES- (1)your reactions to others are determined by your perceptions of them,not by who they really are. (2)your self-perception also influences how you perceive others and how you act on your perceptions (3)your goals in a particular situation determine the amount and kinds of information you collect about others. (4)in every situation, you evaluate people partly in terms of how you expect them to act within that particular context.
Define persuasion, describe common persuasive tactics, and list suggestions for counteracting persuasion tactics.
...persuasion-the deliberate attempt to influence the attitudes or behavior of another person in a situation in which that person has some freedom of choice. you can use persuasion tactics like asking either mom and dad something when they are in a good mood. counteracting persuasion tactics-sleep on it, play devil's advocate, when in doubt, do nothing.
Discuss the controversy surrounding repressed memory therapy, noting the objectives of memory experts.
...repression is an extremely controversial topic. some believe that true repression never occurs. those who are convinced that memories are at the root of many psychological problems, particularly repressed memories of childhood sexual abuse. the problem is determining whether a memory has been "repressed"or simply forgotten studies found people are better able to remember positive life experiences then negative.
Define retrieval, noting how retrieval cues work, and describe what happens when retrieval fails, as in a tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) experience.
...retrieval-refers to the process of accessing,or retrieving stored information. A retrieval cue is a clue,prompt or hing that can help trigger recall of a stored memory. Retrieval cue failure, refers to the inability to recall long-term memories because of inadequate or missing retrieval cues . TOT-refers to the inability to get a bit of information that your absolutely certain is stored in your memory. it feels as though the information is very close,but just out of reach. "at the tip of your tongue"
Define retrograde amnesia, and anterograde amnesia, noting what has been learned about memory from the famous case of H.M.
...retrograde amnesia-unable to remember some or all of their past, especially episodic memories for recent events. H.M had portions of his brain removed it helped with his seizures, it also dramatically revealed the role of the hippocampus in forming new explicit memories for episodic and semantic information.
Describe the function, duration, and capacity of short-term memory, and explain the usefulness of chunking.
...short term memory-provides temporary storage for information transferred from sensory and long-term memory. Holds memory up to about 20 seconds before it is forgotten. It can be maintained if it is rehearsed or repeated over and over . Chunking is important-it increases the amount of information that can be held i short-term memory by grouping related items together into a single unit, or to "chunk"
Explain how the presence of other people can strongly influence individual behavior, resulting in social loafing, social striving, or social facilitation.
...social loafing- tendency to expend less effort on a task when it is a group effort. Social facilitation-the tendency for the presence of other people to enhance individual performance. social striving-that is, individuals worked harder when they were in groups then when were alone.
Define social psychology, and describe the two areas of social cognition and social influence.
...social psychology- investigates how your thoughts, behavior, and feelings are influenced by the presence of other people and by the social and physical environment. social cognition is affected by our attitudes and social influence focuses on how our behavior is affected by other people and by situation factors.
Describe the types of information in long-term memory, and explain the differences between implicit memory and explicit memory.
...types of information in long term memory (1)procedural memory-refers to the long-term memory of how to perform different skills,operations, and actions. (2)episodic memory-refers to your long-term memory of specific events or episodes,including the time and place that they occurred. (3)semantic memory-general knowledge that includes facts,names,definitions,concepts and ideas. implicit memory is without awareness and explicit memory is memory with awareness.
Describe survey research and list the criteria that must be met for survey results to be valid
A useful way of obtaining data about people's opinions, attitudes, preferences, and experiences that are hard to observe directly; data may be obtained using questionnaires or interviews.
List the major perspectives in contemporary psychology, and discuss the scope of each.
Biological perspective-studying the physical bases of human and animal behavior. Psychodynamic perspective- explains the underlying dynamics of behavior or in treating people with psychological problems. behavioral perspective-study how behavior is acquired or modified by environmental causes humanistic perspective-focuses on the motivation of people to grow psychologically,the influence of interpersonal relationships on a persons self-concept, and the importance of choice and self-direction in striving to reach ones potential. positive psychology perspective-focusing on the study of positive emotions and psychological states,positive individual traits, and the social institutions that foster those qualities in individuals and communities. cognitive perspective-focused on the important role of mental processes in how people process and remember information. Cross-cultural persepctive-studying the diversity of human behavior in different cultural settings and countries.
Describe the functions and limitations of correlational research
Correlation means association - more precisely it is a measure of the extent to which two variables are related. If an increase in one variable tends to be associated with an increase in the other then this is known as a positive correlation. An example would be height and weight. Taller people tend to be heavier. limitations- While correlational research can suggest that there is a relationship between two variables, it cannot prove that one variable causes a change in another variable.
Explain the importance of cross-cultural psychology.
Cross-cultural psychology is the scientific study of human behavior and mental processes, including both their variability and invariance, under diverse cultural conditions
Explain the purpose of placebo-control groups,defining expectancy effects,double-blind study, and demand characteristics.
Placebo-controlled studies are a way of testing a medical therapy in which, in addition to a group of subjects that receives the treatment to be evaluated, a separate control group receives a sham "placebo" treatment which is specifically designed to have no real effect. Double-blind study- An experimental control in which neither the participants nor the researchers interacting with the participants are aware of the group or condition to which the participants have been assigned Demand Characteristics-in a research study,subtle cues or signals expressed by the researcher that communicate the kind of response or behavior that is expected from the participant.
Define psychology and discuss the issues that shaped psychology's evolution over the past century,including the influence of philosophy and physiology?
Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and the mind. The term behavior refers to actions and responses that we can directly observe, whereas the term mind refers to internal states and processes, such as thoughts and feelings, that cannot be seen directly and that must be inferred from observable, measurable responses.
define the scientific method,noting its four steps,and explain how a hypothesis and theory differ
Scientific method-a set of assumptions,attitudes,and procedures that guide researchers in creating questions to investigate,in generating evidence,and in drawing conclusions. Steps-(1)formulate a specific question that can be test(2)design a study to collect relevant data(3)analyze the data to arrive at conclusion(4)report the results. A hypothesis is a testable prediction or guess and a theory is a system of ideas that explain something
Explain the basic assumptions of the evolutionary perspective.
That psychology should be made on a biological and cultural basis. That internal, personal and interpersonal behaviour is influenced by the genetic codes received by parents, however not imprisioned by them as culture has a greater influence. That we, Homo sapiens have evolved from our primate ancestors, most likely the Old World Primates. That our ancestors formed social groups for protection, food gathering and mating opportunities.
Describe the roles played by Wilhem Wundt and William James in the establishment of psychology as a separate scientific discipline.
Wrote the first psychology textbook, applied laboratory techniques to study of the mind, identified "atoms" of the mind. William James- Functionalism- influenced by Darwin to focus on how behaviors help us adapt to the environment.
Discuss behaviorism, noting its advocates,focus, and methodology.
discover the fundamental principles of learning--how behavior is acquired and modified in response to environmental influences.
Identify the advocates of humanistic psychology,noting how this approach differs from behaviorism an psychoanalysis.
humanistic psychology deal with personality and motivation and therapies. behaviorism and psychoanalysis deal with how you react and mental issues with the brain
Describe the limitations of the experimental method
since they are often conducted in highly controlled laboratory situations, they are sometimes criticized for having little to do with actual behavior .
Describe the structuralist and functionalist schools of psychology and identify their differences and their common goal
structuralist school- broken down into sensations and feelings, trained subjects in a procedure called introspection. view simple stimulus such as a book then reconstruct their sensation and feelings immediately after viewing it functionalism-stressed the importance of how behavior functions to allow people and animals to adapt to their environments. differences- functionalism did not limit their methods to introspection. they expanded the scope of psychological research to include direct observation of living creatures in natural things. but they both thought that psychology should focus on the study of conscious experiences.
Describe the emphasis of Freud's psychoanalysis
study mental disorders
Use the experiment testing the relationship between violent video games and aggressive behavior to illustrate key terms and concepts associated with the experimental method.
those that play violent video games tend to be more agressive. have kids play violent video games for a month and then put them in an aggravated situation dont let a group of kids play violent video games and see how they react to an aggravating situation.
