Psychology ch 7

What is long-term potentiation?

Enhanced firing of neurons after repeated stimulation. Occurs as an outcome of structural changes at the synapse - strengthening of synaptic transmission.

Define encoding

The process of getting information into long term memory

Define memory consolidation

The process that transforms new memories from a fragmentile state, in which they can be disrupted, to a more permanent state, in which they are resistant to disruption.

Distinguish between maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal. What effect is there on encoding when using the different procedures?

---Maintenance rehearsal Results in poor memory Going over something repeatedly without any consideration of meaning or making connections to other information. ---Elaborative rehearsal Results in better memory than maintenance rehearsal. Able to remember by considering meaning or making connections to other information.

How does the standard model of consolidation explain graded amnesia?

-The gradual decrease in amnesia corresponds, according to the standard model of consolidation, to the changes in connections between the hippocampus and cortical areas -As time passes after an event, connections between the cortical areas are formed and strengthened, and connections between the hippocampus and cortex weaken and eventually vanish.

Describe reconsolidation.

A process that occurs when a memory is retrieved and during so becomes reactivated. Once this occurs, the memory must be consolidated again as it was during the initial learning (repeat consolidation).

Free recall:

A subject is simply asked to recall stimuli (short answer question)

Explain how organization can affect information retrieval.

Allows information to be accessed more efficiently.

What is the testing effect?

Enhanced performance on a memory test caused by being tested on the material to be remembered.

Explain the generation effect. How does this affect the retrieval of information?

Generating material yourself, rather than passively receiving it, enhances learning and retention.

What is reactivation? How is this process important in consolidation?

Hippocampus replays the neural activity associated with a memory. Activity occurs in the network connecting the hippocampus and the cortex and this actively helps form direct connections between the various cortical areas.

Explain the standard model of consolidation. What brain areas are involved?

Incoming information activates a number of areas in the cortex including the hippocampus.

Define deep processing. Give an example.

Involves close attention, focusing on an items meaning and relating it to something else. ex) fitting a word into a sentence that makes the most sense.

Define shallow processing. Given an example

Involves little attention to meaning or attention is focused on word's physical features. ex) focusing on whether a word is printed in capital or lowercase letters.

What evidence supports survival effect.

Linking words to survival created memory that was not only better than memory created by counting vowels but was also much better than memory achieved by the "elaborative" and generating information.

Describe Levels of Processing Theory

Memory depends on the depth of processing that an item receives

Explain the self-reference effect. How does this affect retrieval of information?

Memory is better if you are asked to relate a word to yourself. More likely to remember words when they become linked to something the subjects know well.

Describe Eich and Metcalfe's (1989) study on state-dependent learning.

Procedure Asked subjects to think positive thoughts while listening to "merry" or happy music, or depressing thoughts while listening to "melancholic" or sad music. Subjects rated their mood while listening to the music, and the encoding part of the experiment began when their rating reached "very pleasant" or "very unpleasant." Once this occurred subjects studied a list of words while in their positive or negative mood and returned 2 days later and were given a memory test once put in the same mood. Results They did better when their mood at retrieval matched their mood during encoding.

What does this tell us about state-dependent learning? Memory is better when a person's mood during retrieval matched his or her mood during encoding. Describe Morris et al's (1977) study on transfer-appropriate processing.

Procedure Part 1 encoding that included 2 conditions: meaningful condition & rhyming condition Part 2 retrieval that included taking a rhyming test to answer "yes" if the test word rhymed with one of the target words and "no" if it didn't. Results Subject's retrieval performance depended on whether the retrieval task matched the encoding task. What does this tell us about transfer-appropriate processing? Retrieval is better if the same cognitive tasks are involved during encoding and retrieval.

Describe Godden and Baddely's (1975) study on encoding specificity.

Procedure: One group of subjects put on diving equipment and studied a list of words underwater, and another group studied the words on land. The groups were then divided so that half the subjects in the land and water groups were tested for recall on land and half were tested underwater. Results: The best recall occurred when encoding and retrieval occurred in the same location. What does this tell us about encoding specificity? Suggests that a good strategy for test taking would be to study in an environment similar to the environment in which you'll be tested in. Anything in the environment can be a retrieval cue.

How do retrieval cues influence memory?

Retrieval cues provide extremely effective information for retrieving memories.

Explain synaptic consolidation.

Takes place over minutes or hours, involves structural changes at synapses.

Describe the Bower and Winzenz (1970) study. What is paired-associate learning? Does creating visual images affect retrieval of information?

Tested whether using visual imagery - "images in the head" that connect to words visually - can create connections that enhance memory. Paired-associate learning: a list of word pairs is presented and later the first word of each pair is presented, and the subject's task is to remember the word it was paired with. yes

Cued recall:

The subject is presented with retrieval cues to ain in recall of the previously experienced stimuli (multiple choice question)

Define retrieval .

Transferring information from long term memory to working memory

What role does sleep play in memory consolidation?

While the reactivation process associated with consolidation may begin as soon as a memory is formed, it is particularly strong during sleep.Some memories are more likely to be consolidated than others during sleep.

Can we use the reconsolidation process to alter our memories?

Yes, when the memory becomes fragile again, and before it had become reconsolidated, it can be changed or eliminated.

What is a retrieval cue?

provide extremely effective information for retrieving memories.