Psychology Cumulative terms
PhD vs PsyD
- Ph.D. ( doctor of philosophy ) - Psy.D. ( doctor of psychology )
examples of population
-all families of newborn infants -all older adults at risk for falls -everyone who drink well water -all children at risk for vaccine preventative diseases
example of case study
Curtis studied Genie who was found at 13 having been locked in her bedroom and tied to a potty chair her entire life.
example of random assignment
Tom, a grad assistant, tosses a coin to determine whether a participant will be in the control or experimental group
Forensic psychology
a branch of psychology that deals questions of psychology as they arise in the context of the justice system
operational definition
a description of how we will measure our variables
confounding variable
a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment
inter-rater reliability
a measure of reliability that assesses the consistency of observations by different observers
correlation coefficient
a number between -1 and +1 expressing the degree of relationship between two variables
Longitudinal research
a research design in which data-gathering is administered repeatedly over an extended period of time
cross-sectional research
a researcher compares multiple segments of the population at the same time
Hypothesis
a testable prediction
empirical method
acquiring knowledge based on observation, including experimentation, rather than a method based only on forms of logical argument or previous authorities
peer-reviewed journal articles
aimed at an audience of professionals and scholars who are actively involved in research themselves
random assignment
all subjects have an equal chance of being assigned to any group or condition in the study
behaviorism
an approach that advocates that psychologists restrict themselves to the scientific study of objectively observable behavior
structuralism
an attempt to analyze conscious experience by breaking it down into basic elements, and to understand how these elements work together
double-blind study
both the observer and the participants are unaware of which participants received which treatment
falsifiable
capable of being shown to be incorrect
examples of independent variables
concentration, time, volume of titrant
inductive reasoning
conclusions are drawn from observations
statistical analysis
conducted to find out if there are meaningful differences between the two groups
examples of personality traits
depression, trait anxiety, trait confidence, neuroticism, stability, extroversion, introversion, trait anger, stimulus seeking
control group
does not receive treatment
Generalizing
the ability to apply the findings of a particular research project to larger segments of society
Cognitive Psychology
the area of psychology that focuses on studying cognitions, or thoughts, and their relationship to our experiences and our actions.
Validity
the extent to which a given instrument or tool accurately measures what it's supposed to measure
positive correlation example
the more time you spend on a treadmill, the more calories you burn.
Population
the overall group of individuals that the researchers are interested in.
introspection
the process by which a person examines the contents of his or her mind and mental states
independent variable
the variable that is manipulated, or changed, in an experiment
Examples of random sampling
throwing a dice, drawing names out of a hat, lotteries
negative correlation
variables move in opposite directions
positive correlation
variables move in the same direction
Theory
well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena
observer bias
when observations may be skewed to align with observer expectations
cause and effect
when one variable affects another
clinical or case study
when they focus on one person or just a few individuals
examples of facts
witnesses, medications, what you were doing
confirmation bias
Individuals tend to value new info that support a belief they already hold, while disregarding info that goes against preconceived notions. In groups, group members seek out information that support the majority view
example of naturalistic observation
Jane Goodall observed gorillas, monkeys
examples of deductive reasoning
Major premise-keeping schools in good repair extends the number of years that school building can be used Minor premise- the proposed school bond issue provides money for school repairs Conclusion: the proposed school bond issue will extend the number of years that we can use our current school buildings
Examples of inductive reasoning
Mandatory rear seatbelt laws in Texas saved lives so Tennessee should do that too
Experimenter bias
refers to the possibility that a researcher's expectations might skew the results of the study
Correlation
relationship between two or more variables
personality traits
relatively consistent patterns of thought and behavior
archival research
relies on looking at past records or data sets to look for interesting patterns or relationships
deductive reasoning
results are predicted based on a general premise
-ology
scientific study of
Developmental psychology
scientific study of development across a lifespan
psychology
scientific study of the mind
example of confirmation bias
search engines
psyche
soul, mind
sport and exercise psychology
study the psychological aspects of sport performance, including motivation and performance anxiety, and the effects of sport on mental and emotional wellbeing
Participants
subjects of psychological research
random sample
subset of a larger population in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected
Examples of Generalization
1. We teach a client to say "Hello" at the center, and the client then says "Hello" at home during similar situations. 2. We teach a client potty training in the center, and the client is able to generalize that skill at home as well and can use them independently.
examples of hypothesis
1. salt and soil affects the growth of plants 2. chocolate causes pimples 3. colder temperatures cause leaves to change color 4. lung cancer is caused by smoking
Fact vs. Opinion
A fact is a statement that can be proven true or false. An opinion is an expression of a person's feelings that cannot be proven.
Theory vs. Hypothesis
A hypothesis is either a suggested explanation for an observable phenomenon, or a reasoned prediction of a possible causal correlation among multiple phenomena. In science, a theory is a tested, well-substantiated, unifying explanation for a set of verified, proven factors.
example of operational definition
A researcher measuring happiness and depression in college students decides to use a ten-question happiness scale to measure positive outlook in her subjects. In other words, her operational definition of happiness in this case is a given subject's score on the test.
functionalism.
A school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish.
example of survey research
A study in which people complete a questionnaire about how they feel about people of different ethnic groups.
sample
A subset of individuals selected from the population.
Example of introspection
Asked people to describe the brightness or loudness of a color
Examples of theories
Big Bang Theory, Evolution
Example of opinion
Brian makes the best cheeseburgers.
PhD
Doctor of Philosophy
PsyD
Doctor of Psychology
experimental group vs. control group
EXPERIMENTAL GROUP is the group receiving the independent variable CONTROL GROUP does not receive anything, in order to act as a comparison
Cause and Effect (Example)
Example: Many people think that they can get sick by going into cold weather improperly dressed; however, illnesses are not caused by temperature- they are caused by germs. So while shivering outside in the cold probably won't strengthen your immune system, you're more likely to contract an illness indoors because you will have a greater exposure to germs. In the above example, the paragraph explains how germs cause illnesses. The germs are the cause in the paragraph and the illness is the effect.
negative correlation example
More stress the worse you do on a test Less sleep, more tired
single-blind study
Only the researcher, and not the participants, knows who is in either the experimental or control group
Examples of cross sectional studies
Population surveillance analyses, and questionnaires
Sample vs. Population
Population: entire group of people about which information is wanted (e.g. American adults). Sample: a part or subset of the population that is used to gain information about the whole population.
Single Blind Study vs. Double Blind Study
SBS: participants do not know what treatment they are receiving DBS: neither the participants nor the researchers working directly with those participants know who is getting the real treatment or the pretend treatment
biopsychology
explores how our biology influences our behavior
Illusory correlations
false correlations, occur when people believe that relationships exist between two things when no such relationship exists
Clinical psychology
focuses on diagnosing and treating mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders
counseling psychology
focuses on emotional, social, vocational, and health-related outcomes in individuals who are considered psychologically healthy
Personality psychology
focuses on patterns of thoughts and behaviors that make each individual unique
Psychoanalytic theory
focuses on the role of a person's unconscious, as well as early childhood experiences
example of reliability
for a particular type of automobile tire with an expected life of 40,000 miles, if only 1 percent of the tires fail within that span, we would say that a tire has a reliability of 0.99.
experimental group
in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable
Surveys
lists of questions to be answered by research participants
dissertation
long research paper about research that was conducted as a part of the candidate's doctoral training
dependent variable
measured variable
Facts
observable realities
naturalistic observation
observing behavior in its natural setting
placebo effect
occurs when people's expectations or beliefs influence or determine their experience in a given situation
Examples of dependent variables
pH, temp, absorbency reading
opinions
personal judgements, conclusions, or attitudes that may or may not be accurate
Humanism
perspective within psychology that emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans
American Psychological Association (APA)
professional organization representing psychologists in the United States
example of sample
prototype
example of psychology
psych; soul, spirit, mind
deductive reasoning vs inductive reasoning
reasoning from the general to the particular (or from cause to effect) vs reverse, one builds from specific idea or actions to conclusions about general ideas
attrition
reduction in number of research participants as some drop out of the study over time
Reliability
refers to the ability to consistently produce a give result