psychology exam 2

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perceptual sets

After hearing that Bryce had served a prison sentence, Janet began to view his genuinely friendly behavior as insincere and manipulative. This BEST illustrates the impact of:

sensorineural hearing loss

After many years of playing extremely loud rock music, David has suffered significant hearing loss, which cannot be corrected with a hearing aid. David is suffering from:

external consequences

. B. F. Skinner's critics have claimed that he overemphasized the importance of

humans can see differences among more than______

1 million variations

some females can see up too _________, this is a condition thanks to genetic condition known as

100 million colors, tetrachromatic color vision

warmth, cold, pressure, pain

4 distinct skin senses

acquisition extinction spontaneous recovery generalization discrimination

5 major conditioning processes -

1)punished behavior is suppressed, not forgotten 2) physical punishment does not replace the unwanted behavior 3) punishment teaches discrimination among situations 4) punishment can teach fear 5) physical punishment may increase aggression by modeling violence as a way to cope with problems

5 major drawbacks of physical punishment

sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami

5 sensations of taste

one in _________ males are color blind

50

Although he is unaware of moving lights in his right visual field, Graham correctly reports the direction of their movement ______ percent of the time.

90

convergence

A binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object

retinal disparity

A famous Hollywood director has decided to present his latest film in 3-D. This will create a great moviegoing experience for viewers as 3-D movies exaggerate:

punisher

A medieval proverb notes that "a burnt child dreads the fire." In operant conditioning, the burning would be an example of a

context effect

A neutral facial expression may be perceived as sadder at a funeral than at a circus. This BEST illustrates

absolute threshold

A person can detect a single drop of perfume diffused in an area the size of a one-bedroom apartment. This is

fixed-ratio schedule

A restaurant is running a special deal. After you buy four meals at full price, your fifth meal will be free. This is an example of a ________ schedule of reinforcement.

basilar membrane

A structure that runs the length of the cochlea in the inner ear and holds the auditory receptors, called hair cells.

moon illusion

A visual illusion involving the misperception that the moon is larger when it is on the horizon than when it is directly overhead.

repeated pairing of coffee with the immune-enhancing drug

According to Ader and Cohen classical conditioning even works on the body's disease-fighting immune system. According to this research which of these would be the MOST likely to produce this response?

Continuity

According to the Gestalt psychologists, people perceive smooth, flowing patterns rather than disjointed or broken ones. This is called the principle of _____.

hair cells of the basilar membrane

After a rap concert, as Jamie walks out into the fresh air, she notices her ears are ringing. This ringing indicates possible damage to the: Please choose the correct answer from the following choices, and then select the submit answer button.

Discrimination

After being bitten by his neighbor's dog, Miguel experienced fear at the sight of that dog but not at the sight of other dogs. This BEST illustrates the process of:

top-down processing

Malik glances at his doctor's scrawl on a handwritten prescription. He draws on his knowledge of common medications to distinguish among a's, o's, and u's. Malik's experience BEST illustrates:

Hallucinations

Manny suffers from diabetes and lost his vision two months ago. He experiences phantom sights called:

Preparedness

The species-specific biological predisposition to learn in certain ways but not others.

parasychology

The study of out-of-the-ordinary phenomena is known as _____.

Iris

As one walks into a brightly lit room, the black structure in the center of one's eye seems to shrink to a tiny black dot. This response is caused by the action of the eye structure called the:

Blindsight

a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it - cant see sticks but know they are all horizontal

operant conditioning

Children often learn to associate pushing a vending machine button with the delivery of a candy bar. This best illustrates the process underlying

Rescorla and Wagner

Classical conditioning involves cognitive processing, showed that an animal can learn the predictability of an event

learning assoications

Conditioning is the process of:

*unconditioned stimulus; Neutral Stimulus*

Conditioning seldom occurs when an _________________ repeatedly comes before an __________________

adaption

Human sensory systems are designed to detect changes in stimulation rather than to detect constancies. This is demonstrated by the process of sensory _____.

operant conditioning

Macy gave her dog a treat each time she came to Macy when she called her by name. Soon, the dog came every time Macy called the dog by name. This is an example of:

cochlear implant

a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea

visual cliff

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals - Eleanor Gibson

taste aversion

a learned avoidance of a particular food

Decibels

a measure of how loud a sound is every 10 correspond to a tenfold increase in sound intensity

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment

reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

motives and emotions

can bias our interpretations of neutral stimuli

drug cravings, food cravings, immune responses

classical Conditioned responses elicited by exposure to cues associated with drug-using behavior

iris

colored muscle that surrounds the pupil and dilates or constricts in response to light intensity

learned behavior

conditioned =

survive and reproduce by responding to cues that help it gain food avoid danger and locate mates/produce offspring

conditioning helps an animal -

operant

conditioning is a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.

Chorus

cones are to soloists as rods are to ______

Transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret.

As one watches a dog play in the park, light reflected from the dog's fur first passes through three structures of one's eye. In what order does the light pass through these structures?

cornea, pupil, lens

variable-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses ex- slot machines

cornea

light enters the eye through the __________ in which bends light to help provide focus

it's intensity

light waves: amplitude (height) determines

associative learning

linking two stimuli, or events, that occur together

John B. Watson, 1920, classical conditioning -hammer sound when there is a rat

little albert experiment

long waves

low frequency and low pitch

placebo, distraction, hypnosis

maximize pain relief by combining __________ and __________and amplifying their effects with _______

perceptual illusions

mechanisms that normally give us an accurate experience of the world can, under special conditions, fool us - spinning

biopsychosocial

pain is what type of phenomenon

Our senses

receive sensory stimulation, transform stimulation into neural impulses, and deliver neural info to our brain

Dissociation

refers to a split in consciousness.

intensity

refers to the level of energy in a light wave, which we perceive as brightness, as determined by the wave's amplitude.

successive approximations

small steps in behavior, one after the other, that lead to a particular goal behavior

inner ear

snail shaped tube and the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs

variable-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals - checking our phone untill we get that message

fixed-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses ex- free drink every 10 purchases

fixed-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed people check for mail more frequently as delivery time approaches

Reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

eardrum

sound waves strike what part of your ear?

hair cells

specialized auditory receptor neurons embedded in the basilar membrane - like wheat stalks bending in the wind - quivering bundles that let us hear

*embodied cognition*

in psychological science, the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgments -physical warmth promotes social warmth

grandmother cells

super cells that appear to respond selectively to 1-2 faces in 100

retina

the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

oval window

the membrane that separates the middle ear from the inner ear - vibrations cause it to vibrate

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time

ganglion

the specialized cells which lie behind the bipolar cells whose axons form the optic nerve which takes the information to the brain

*parapsychology*

the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis

psychological state

our experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness

Endorphins

"morphine within"—natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

the difference threshold

As she was trying to study, Tanisha asked her roommate to lower the radio. Her roommate had turned the radio up originally from a volume level of 14 to 15, which was just enough for Tanisha to detect. Tanisha's roommate turned the radio back down to 14 after Tanisha asked her to lower it, which satisfied Tanisha. This is probably the result of: Please choose the correct answer from the following choices, and then select the submit answer button. Correct: the difference threshold.

individualized learning and immediate reinforcment

B. F. Skinner believed that future "machines and textbooks" could promote effective learning because they would allow for both:

sensory adaption

Barbara stubbed her toe last night. It hurt and all day today she has been aware of her toe. She says, "This is so weird. I usually don't think about my toe." Barbara's typical unawareness of her toe BEST reflects:

variable interval

Because she is responsible for overseeing the servicing and repair of her company's fleet of cars, Rhonda frequently calls the garage mechanic to inquire whether service on various cars has been completed. Because service completion times are unpredictable, she is likely to be reinforced with positive responses to her inquiries on a _____ schedule.

cognitive learning

Because we are human, language allows us to learn things we have neither experienced nor observed. This type of learning is called:

low frequency colors

Bees can see ultraviolet light, but cannot see the color red. This means that bees cannot see:

Unconditioned

Before the tone ever sounded, Pavlov's dog salivated each time food was presented, exemplifying a(n) _____ response.

B.F. Skinner

Behaviorist that developed the theory of operant conditioning by training pigeons and rats

Gregory Kimble

Believed that any activity of an organism can be conditioned to any perceived stimulus. (proven wrong)

unconditoned response

Blinking in response to a puff of air directed into one's eye is a(n):

objective; observable

Both Watson and Pavlov believed that psychology should study only _____ and _____ psychological phenomena.

14 months

By age _____ months, infants will imitate acts modeled on television. Please choose the correct answer from the following choices, and then select the submit answer button. This was demonstrated in the Meltzoff and Moore study.

inaccessible to conscious awareness

By definition, stimuli that are perceived subliminally are:

reynold crying

Carl takes his 1-year-old son, Reynold, out for a walk. Reynold reaches over to touch a red flower and is stung by a bumblebee sitting on the petals. The next day, Reynold's mother brings home some red flowers. She removes a flower from the arrangement and takes it over for her baby to smell. Reynold cries loudly as soon as he sees it. According to the principles of classical conditioning, what is the conditioned response in this example?

volley principle

Cells taking turns firing will increase the maximum firing rate for a group of cells.

Associative and Cognitive

Connecting events is to acquiring mental information as _____ learning is to _____ learning.

taste aversion

Coyotes who have been fed sheep carcasses that have been laced with a nausea-inducing poison are less likely to prey on sheep in the wild. This phenomenon is best explained by the classical conditioning phenomenon called _____.

Red apples on a tree seem to be the same color as the surrounding green leaves

Damon, who is among the 8 percent of males with colorblindness, suffers from the most common form of color blindness. Which statement BEST illustrates Damon's experience of color?

operant conditioning

Dan wanted to train his dog, Rocket, to come to him when called. Every time Dan called Rocket and he came, Dan would give him a treat and pet him. Soon Rocket would come every time he was called. Which type of learning is Dan using?

signal detection theory

Dennis, a nurse, notes that some parents of children with asthma respond to very small changes in their children's breathing, and seek care accordingly. However, other parents do not notice the same small changes. This type of difference in reaction to stimuli is BEST explained by the:

Garcia and Koelling

Discovered taste aversion when looking at effects of radiation on rats. Rats became nauseous from the radiation, but since the taste of water from a plastic bottle was accidentally paired with this radiation, the rats developed an aversion for this water.

Placebos

Dosage form that contains no pharmacologically active ingredients but may relieve pain through psychological effects.

parapsychology

Dr. Frasier conducts empirical research to investigate the claims for such abilities as clairvoyance and telepathy. Dr. Frasier's research reflects a field called _____.

fixed-interval

During a typical morning, Colin will check the clock more frequently as the time for his regularly scheduled lunch break approaches. In this case, Colin's clock checking behavior is reinforced on a _____ schedule.

motion

Eleanor suffered severe stroke damage near the rear of both sides of her brain. Based on the case study of Mrs. M. described in the textbook, the stroke is MOST likely to impair Eleanor's ability to perceive:

pitch

Enrico is having trouble telling the difference between the sound of a tuba and the sound of a piccolo. Even though a piccolo produces much briefer, faster sound waves than does a tuba, he has trouble picking out the differences in the _____ of these sounds.

associative learning

Every time Martin opens the cabinet door where he stores his dog's treats, his dog begins to bark in anticipation of getting a treat. This is an example of:

sensation, perception

Experiencing sudden pain is to _____ as recognizing that you are suffering a heart attack is to _____.

the bacteria that caused the illness

Fabian ordered chicken from a national chicken chain restaurant and became very ill immediately after eating it. Years later, Fabian still feels queasy when he sees an advertisement for the chicken chain or drives by one of its establishments. In this example, the unconditioned stimulus is the:

inner ear

Franklin has problems with his balance. His problems are probably caused by difficulties with his:

there is too much information in the world, some information is more important than other information and it facilitates survival. D. All of these choices are correct

From an evolutionary perspective, attention is important because:

mirror neurons

Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy.

variable-ratio

Gamblers and fisherman have a difficult time controlling their need to gamble and fish because of the _____ schedule of reinforcement.

biological predispositions

Garcia and Koelling's studies of taste aversion in rats demonstrated that classical conditioning is constrained by:

webers law

Giulio's bag of marbles is twice as heavy as Jim's. If it takes 5 extra marbles to make Jim's bag feel heavier, it will take 10 extra marbles to make Giulio's bag feel heavier. This BEST illustrate

Absolute threshold research

Gustav Fechner

middle ear is to inner ear

Hammer, anvil, and stirrup are to hair cells as _____ is to _____.

combined frequency

Hearing different frequencies by neural cells firing in rapid succession

biological predispositions

If Georgia gets violently ill a couple of hours after eating contaminated food, she will probably develop an aversion to the taste of that food but not to the sight of the restaurant where she ate or to the sound of the music she heard there. This BEST illustrates that associative learning is constrained by:

operant conditioning

If Jamal wants to train his dog to sit and lie down when he commands the behavior, which type of conditioning should he utilize to train his dog?

operant conditioning

If children get attention for doing cartwheels, they will repeat the trick if they find this attention to be enjoyable. This BEST illustrates:

sensory adaption

If one moves one's watchband up one's wrist an inch or so, one will feel it for only a few moments. This BEST illustrates:

Kant believed knowledge comes from inborn ways of organizing sensory experience, Locke argued we acquire knowledge from learned experience nature vs. nurture

Immanuel Kant vs John Locke

dependent

In an experiment described in the textbook, bar patrons preferred the taste of vinegar-laced beer in a glass labeled "MIT brew" to the taste of identical beer served in an unlabeled glass. Taste preference is a(n) _____ variable in this study.

control group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

conditioned stimulus

In classical conditioning, the _____ is an irrelevant event that comes to trigger a conditioned response after association with an unconditioned stimulus

who use consistent actions and words.

In observational learning, the most effective models are those:

shaping

In teaching her son to play basketball, Mrs. Richards initially reinforces him with praise for simply dribbling while standing still, then only for walking while dribbling, and finally only for running while dribbling. She is using a procedure known as:

Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment

In this experiment children watched a model attack a doll and then the children were put in a room with toys including the same doll and children it was found that the kids who watched the model were much more likely to imitate the actions.

positive reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

negative reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

an iris scanning machine can confirm an identity

Iris are so distinctive that

cones; fovea

James is threading a needle under a bright light bulb. During this task, James' vision is driven mainly by the _____ in his _____.

are always turned on

Janet suffers from arthritis and is in constant pain. It is likely that her nociceptors:

she might have trouble recognizing familiar faces

Jasmine was in a serious car accident. She suffered damage to her temporal lobe, just behind her right ear. What kind of problems might this cause for her?

*the medication dampened the central nervous system's attention and response to her back pain*

Judith suffers from painful arthritis. Judith's physician gave her medication to help ease her pain. The medication Judith was given contained water, rather than actual medicine. However, Judith reported that her pain reduced. The BEST explanation for this is that:

linear perspective

Julio is working on a series of landscape paintings. He wants to create a realistic depiction of the English countryside. To turn the flat surface of the canvas into a three-dimensional painting, he might use the technique of:

*60*

Justina wishes to make a 10-minute meditation session part of her morning routine. Based on research described in the textbook, Justina should meditate every day for just over _____ days to ensure that meditation becomes a habit.

prosopagnosia.

Lana cannot recognize faces. She has to fake knowing or recognizing people she has already met. Lana MOST likely suffers from:

classical

Lightning is associated with thunder and regularly precedes it. Thus, when people see lightning, they often anticipate that they will hear thunder soon afterward. This is an example of _____ conditioning.

sensation, perception

Marc is driving his 12-year-old car. He notices a sound coming from the engine, which involves _____ processing. He immediately starts thinking that the sound is similar to the sound his car made the last time he had it repaired, which involves _____ processing. Please choose the correct answer from the following choices, and then select the submit answer button.

conditioned stimulus

Marina feels a rush of love and nostalgia at the scent of honeysuckle; the fragrant scent is similar to that of the perfume her mother wore when Marina was little. The perfume's fragrance is an:

pain

Marla has a persistent itch on her arm. This is MOST likely caused by the stimulation of _____ receptors

sensory interaction

Marty and Becky are in the mood to have a hamburger for lunch. Marty wants to grill the hamburger outside instead of cooking it on top of the stove because he says he likes the taste of a grilled hamburger more than one cooked on top of the stove. The difference in taste Marty prefers is actually caused by the smell of the charcoal embedded into the hamburger. This is an example of sensory _____.

pupils are dilating

Mia is attracted to a man she is chatting with in a nightclub. What is probably happening to her eyes?

*Synesthesia*

Mila sees the sound of a drum as a large round shape. Mila's experience BEST exemplifies a condition called

not recognize objects by sight that were familiar to him by touch.

Monte was born with cataracts. He had surgery when he was 30 years old, which restored his sight. After his surgery, he could:

David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel

Nobel-prize-winning researchers who discovered "feature detectors" within the brain

linear perspective (monocular cue)

One reads about an accident at a railroad crossing and wonders about the cause. Perhaps the car's driver overestimated the distance of the train because the parallel tracks stimulated the monocular depth cue of

clairvoyance

One type of extrasensory perception involves the ability to perceive remote events, an ability called _____

experiences, assumption, and expectations

Our perceptual set influences what we perceive. This mental tendency reflects our

grouping

Our tendencies to fill in the gaps and to perceive a pattern as continuous are two different examples of the organizing principle called

their words and actions are consistent

Parents are most effective in getting their children to imitate them if

Fovea

Pat turns to look directly at a brightly colored bird her friend has spotted in the garden. Pat is ensuring that the bird's image falls directly on her:

clairvoyance, precognition

Perceiving remote events is to perceiving future events as _____ is to _____.

perceptual sets

Professor Brandt shows his study participants a picture of an adult-child pair. He tells half of the participants that they are looking at a parent and her child. He tells the other half that they are looking at a day-care worker and a child in the day-care center. The group that thinks the pair are related rates them as looking more alike than the group that thinks they are not related. Professor Brandt is MOST likely conducting a study on:

lower frequency

Randy is playing the piano. His left hand plays notes that are _____ in _____ than does his right hand.

latent learning

Rats that explored a maze without any reward were later able to run the maze as well as the other rats that had received food rewards for running the maze. The rats that had learned without reinforcement demonstrated __________ _____________.

lightness constancy

Relative luminance MOST clearly contributes to: linear perspective. the phi phenomenon. the Moon illusion. lightness constancy.

automatic; deliberate

Respondent behavior is to operant behavior as _____ is to _____

conduction hearing loss

Ricardo has been suffering from a lengthy battle with the flu. His ears are painfully plugged with fluid. One morning his right ear pops from all of the pressure and fluid comes out. He screams in pain because the eardrum has punctured. This will result in:

bottom-up processing; top- down processing

Sensation is to ________ as perception is to ________

somatosensory cortex

Sensory messages from nociceptors ultimately travel to the _____ cortex.

Endorphins

Several days ago, Ravi fell and hurt his ankle. Although it bothered him a little, he continued to walk on it. When he finally went to the doctor for X-rays, he found out he has a broken bone. It is likely that Ravi carries a gene that boosts the availability of: Please choose the correct answer from the following choices, and then select the submit answer button.

guide an organism to exhibit a complex behavior using successive approximations.

Shaping was a method used by Skinner to:

chemical

Smell is a(n) _____ sense

two explanations for how hypnosis works

Social influence theory and dissociation theory

unconditioned stimulus

Sonya had leukemia as a child and had to undergo numerous bouts of chemotherapy. The chemotherapy always made her nauseous. As she underwent a year of treatment, the waiting room started to make her nauseous. The chemotherapy is the:

binocular cues

Stacy is participating in a local psychology experiment in which the research assistant asks Stacy to hold two pencils in front of her and touch the tips together. She then asks Stacy to do this with one eye closed. Stacy finds this terribly difficult, which demonstrates the importance of:

positive

Stan has been working nights and weekends to get a project completed at work. He is successful, and a couple of weeks later he comes into work and his boss presents him with a bonus check. This BEST illustrates the value of _____ reinforcement.

lenses of her eyes are less able to *accomodate*

Talia is 45 years old. She has started to notice that newspaper print is too small for her to read. Talia needs reading glasses because the:

relative height

Tammy draws a picture in which the mountains are closer to the top of her paper than the nearby trees in her picture. This is an example of the monocular distance cue known as: Please choose the correct answer from the following choices, and then select the submit answer button.

iris

The FBI is considering a new identification method. Instead of using old-fashioned fingerprints, they have decided to scan the eye's _____ to confirm people's identity.

closure

The Gestalt principle of _____________ helps us fill in gaps to create complete, whole objects.

size constancy

The ability to accurately perceive distances MOST clearly underlies one's capacity for:

parallel processing

The brain's ability to process many aspects of an object or a problem simultaneously is called

operant conditioning; classical conditioning

The cognitive processes in _____ involve the organism developing an expectation that a response will be reinforced or punished with or without reinforcement, whereas in _____ an organism develops an expectation that the conditioned stimulus signals the arrival of an unconditioned stimulus.

retina

The function of the basilar membrane is MOST similar to that of the _____ in vision.

cochlea

The hammer, anvil and stirrup are three tiny bones that transmit vibrations to the

loudness

The height of a sound wave (for example, the amplitude of the wave) determines what aspect of hearing?

*Keller and Marian Breland*

The idea that an animal's natural behavior patterns did not matter and had little or no effect on the effectiveness of operant conditioning principles was challenged by research conducted by:

stroboscopic motion

The illusion of movement is produced by showing the rapid progression of images or objects that are not moving at all

acquisition

The initial stage in classical conditioning; the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

gate-control

The practice of acupuncture is based on the theory that one way to block pain messages is to create competing stimulation. This in turn is based on _____ theory.

overimitation

The tendency of children to copy an action that is not a relevant part of the behavior to be learned; common among 2- to 6-year-olds when they imitate adult actions that are irrelevant and inefficient.

proximity

The way in which you quickly group the individual letters in this test item into separate words best illustrates the principle of:

law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

Classical confitioning

Three-year-old Kirsten was playing with a balloon she was given by her father. While playing with the balloon, it popped in her face, which frightened her and caused her to cry loudly. That weekend, she was attending a birthday party and saw some balloons and began to cry and ran out of the room. This is an example of:

Skinner

Throndike's law of effect was the basis for _____________ work on operant conditioning and the behavior control

Associative Learning

Through direct experience with animals, people come to anticipate that dogs will bark and that birds will chirp. This BEST illustrates:

In the dim light, the cones in his eyes are ineffectual.

Tomas wakes up early in the morning and his room is fairly dark. He looks over and sees his shirt hanging on a hook. He knows it is his red shirt because he hung it up there before he went to bed, but in the dark he cannot see its color. It looks dark gray to him. Why is that?

signal detection theory

Two TSA officers are scanning bags at the airport. One of the officers lets a bag go through, but the other officer yells, "Wait, didn't you see that?" Why one officer saw a weapon and the other did not is best explained by:

two or more stimuli; a response and consequence

Two forms of associative learning are classical conditioning, in which the organism associates ________, and operant conditioning, in which the organism associates ________.

three types of color receptors; opponent-process cells

Two theories together account for color vision. The Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory shows that the eye contains _______, and the opponent-process theory accounts for the nervous system's having _______.

cognitive learning

We learn new behaviors by observing events and by watching others, and through language we learn things we have neither experienced nor observed

perception

When Sanjay recognizes line segments and areas of light and dark as his friend's face at an airport gate, he is demonstrating:

60

When two friends talk over lunch, the amplitude of their conversation is about _____ decibels.

*Bandura*

Which pioneering learning researcher highlighted the antisocial effects of aggressive models on children's behavior?

so that they detect important changes in what is going on

Why do human's sensory systems adapt after prolonged exposure to a constant stimulus?

negative reinforcer

Your dog is barking so loudly that it's making your ears ring. You clap your hands, the dog stops barking, your ears stop ringing, and you think to yourself, "I'll have to do that when he barks again." The end of the barking was for you a

place, frequency, volley

_______ theory explains how we hear high-pitched sounds, and ________theory, extended by _____________ principle, explains how we hear low-pitched sounds

retinal disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object. - 3D movie!!

cochlea

a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses

fusiform face area

a region in the temporal lobe of the brain that helps us recognize the people we know

perceptual set

a set of mental tendencies and assumptions that greatly affects what we perceive (top-down)

dissociation theory

a split in consciousness in which one part of the mind operates independently of the rest of consciousness

Dissociation

a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others

conditioned reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer, learned

posthypnotic suggestion

a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

vicarious; vicarious

according to Bandura, we learn by watching models because we experience _____________ reinforcement or ________________ punishment

antisocial behavior

actions that are deliberately hurtful or destructive to another person

recognizing objects by sight

after surgery to restore vision, adults who have been blind from birth had difficulty

violence-viewing effect

after you view so much violence you become de-sensitized to it and you begin to imitate it

McGurk Effect

an error in perception that occurs when we misperceive sounds because the audio and visual parts of the speech are mismatched.

punishment

an event that decreases the behavior that it follows

the reality of sexual orientation - where straight men guessed more accurately if a nude women appeared and vice versa

an experiment using subliminal stimuli revealed

phi phenomenon

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession

primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need, unlearned

Shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

Gestalt

an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.

bottom-up processing

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information -enables u to detect the lines, angles and colors

Punisher

any stimulus or event that functions to decrease the likelihood of the behavior that led to it

oder molecules slip into receptors

as a key is to a lock

temporal theory

asserts that frequency is coded by the activity level of a sensory neuron

subliminal

below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness

the number of activated hair cells

brain determines loudness from _____________

monocular cues

depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone

binocular cues

depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes - two pens touching

Schemas

determines our perceptual set

Frequency

determines pitch

sensation - bottom up process perception - top-down process

difference between sensation and perception

sensory adaptation

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation

experimental group

exposed to independent variable

bipolar

eye neurons that receive information from the retinal cells and distribute information to the ganglion cells

30 percent of the cortex

face recognition process requires tremendous brain power of

smell + texture + taste

flavor =

Cones are found

fovea - the central focus point in the retina - have a hotline to the brain

The parts of the brain that enable consciousness and our ability to communicate that awareness are located in the:

frontal lobes

20 mins or more

full adaption of your eyes takes

sensorineural hearing loss

hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness

*conduction hearing loss*

hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea - less common

short waves

high frequency and high pitch

16000

how many hair cell's does the cochlea have?

associative learning

if a sea slug receives an electric shock just after being squirted with water, its protective withdrawal response to a squirt of water grows stronger. This best illustrates:

cake (including taste) - US aroma - CS salvation to aroma - CR

if the aroma of a baking cake sets your mouth to water, what is the US? CS? CR?

Fear of white rat

in Watson and Rayner's experiment with Little Albert, the __________ was the conditioned response.

neutral stimulus (NS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

unconditioned stimulus (US)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.

condtioned stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, triggers a conditioned response. - example - the tone that triggers the salvation

uncondtioned response (UR)

in classical conditioning, an unlearned, anturally occuring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (such as food in mouth)

Discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

conditioned response (CR)

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS) example - salvation in response to a tone

place theory

in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated - explains how we hear high pitch sounds not low pitch sounds

frequency theory

in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch

operant chamber

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

perceptual adaptation

in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field - glasses

Independent variable: causes or influences the dependent variable. Dependent variable: hypothesized to depend on or be caused by the independent variable. EXAMPLE: In a study of how different doses of a drug affect the severity of symptoms, a researcher could compare the frequency and intensity of symptoms when different doses are administered. Here the independent variable is the dose and the dependent variable is the frequency/intensity of symptoms.

independent vs dependent

top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations - you interpret what you detect

your cognitive and emotional states, dark room - dilate sunny sky - constrict

iris respond to

embodied cognition

judgement of others mimic body sensations example of

joints, tendons and muscles

kinesthetic receptors are located in

operant conditioning

learn to repeat acts based on rewards and to avoid acts that bring unwanted results

observational learning (social learning)

learning by observing others

Biological, psychological and social-cultural influences

learning is the product of

*latent learning*

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

association

mind naturally connects events that occur in sequence

*telepathy*

mind-to-mind communication

myopia

nearsightedness

feature detectors

nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement

The visual cortex is located in the

occipital lobe - back of the brain

Pheromones

odorless chemicals that serve as social signals to members of one's species

Prefrontal cortex - working memory thalamus - filter

parts of the brain that are most active in attention

mentalistic concepts

pavlov and Watson shared a disdain for

dog digestive system, found that they salivated at not just the taste of food but smell and even sound or sound of someone walk over

pavlov studied

the worst part and the end

people remember two parts about pain

theory of mind

people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.

color constancy

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object

*precognition*

perceiving future events, such as a political leader's death or a sporting event's outcome

perceptual constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging even as illumination and retinal images change

*clairvoyance*

perceiving remote events, such as sensing that a friend's house is on fire

Cats are able to open their ______________ much wider than we can, which allows more light into their eyes so they can see better at night.

pupils

embodied cognition

physical warmth promotes social warmth is an example of

embodied cognition

pose your fingers, prime your mind - people more quickly identify a number when they hear it after they have seen it on finger

presocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior

*signal detection theory*

predicts when we will detect weak signals, measured as our ratio of "hits" to "false alarms"

vicarious reinforcement

process where the observer sees the model rewarded, making the observer more likely to imitate the model's behavior

parallel processing

processing many things at once - dividing a visual scene into sub dimensions - motion, form, depth and color

85

prolonged exposure to sounds above _________ decibels can produce hearing loss

George Stratton

proved that kittens, monkeys, and humans can adapt to an inverted world by wearing an optical headgear for 8 days that flipped left to right and up to down, making him the first person to experience a right-side-up retinal image while standing upright

partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

automatic

respondent behavior is BEST described

unpredictable - (variable schedule); predictable - (fixed schedule)

responding is more consistent when reinforcement is ____________________- ( ) than when it is ________-( )

a number of responses - ratio schedule; time -interval schedule

response rates are higher when reinforcement is linked to the ________________-(____________________) rather than to ________ - (__________________)

Rods are found in the __________.

retina's outer regions - DONT have a hotline to

Retinal

retinal disparity is an example of ___________ cue to depth perception

cones

retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.

rods and cones

retinal receptors known as photoreceptors

rods

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond

bleeding of the ears

ringing in the ears is equivalent to

tinnitus

ringing in the ears that many deaf people hear

Some nocturnal animals, such as toads, mice, rats, and bats, have impressive night vision thanks to having many more ______________ (rods/cones) than ______________ (rods/cones) in their retinas. These creatures probably have very poor ______________ (color/black-and-white) vision.

rods, cones, color

Olfaction

sense of smell

Gustation

sense of taste

concentrate on more important things

sensory adaption helps people

important changes in the environment

sensory adaption helps us focus on

sensory receptors

sensory nerve endings that respond to stimuli

*Nociceptors*

sensory receptors that enable the perception of pain in response to potentially harmful stimuli

one to two weeks

taste receptors reproduce themselves every

1 in 5

teen hearing loss affects __________ teens

instinctive drift

tendency for an animal's behavior to revert to genetically controlled patterns

depth perception

the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance

pupil

the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters

*intensity*

the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude

relative luminance

the amount of light an object reflects relative to its surroundings

auditory cortex

the area of the temporal lobe responsible for processing sound information - carries neural messages to the thalamus and then to auditory cortex in brain's temporal lobe

semicircular canals and vestibular sacs

the biological gyroscopes for vestibular sense

*middle ear*

the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window

Wavelength

the characteristic of light that determines the color we experience, such as blue or green is

principle of proximity

the closer two figures are to each other, the more likely we are to group them and see them as part of the same object

*extrasensory perception (ESP)*

the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition

hue

the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth

Extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

wavelength

the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission

acquisition, extinction

the first step of classic conditioning, when an NS becomes a CS, is called ____________________ When a US no longer follows the CS, and the CR becomes weakened, this is called__________________-

selective attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

small spinal cord nerve fibers conduct most pain signals, but large-fiber activity can close access to those pain signals

the gate-control theory of pain proposes that

optic nerve

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain - information highway from eye to brain - can send nearly 1 million messages at once

figure-ground

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground). -applies to hearing too - can be reversible

grouping

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups - also indentified by gestalt psychologists

blind spot

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there

sensory interaction

the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste

Weber's Law

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount) two lights must differ by 8%, objects by 2% and tones by 0.3%

sensation

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

accommodation

the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina

*learning*

the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

Modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance of a learned response after extinction has occurred

*vestibular sense*

the sense of balance and equilibrium - monitors head movement and position - super fast

audtion

the sense or act of hearing

*difference threshold*

the smallest detectable difference between two stimuli 50% of the time "just noticeable difference"

sweet - energy source salty - sodium, essential to physiological processes sour - potentially toxic acid bitter - potential poisons Unami - proteins to grow and repair tissue

the survival functions of the 5 basic tastes - what they indicate

kinesthesia

the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts

shape constancy

the tendency to interpret the shape of an object as being constant, even when its shape changes on the retina

brightness constancy

the tendency to perceive the apparent brightness of an object as the same even when the light conditions change

Generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

*Hering's opponent-process theory*

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green

gate control

the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain. - proposed by Wall and Melzack

Behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

social influence theory

theory that hypnotic subjects are just role-playing; so caught up in hypnotized role that they convince themselves it's real; trying to be a "good subject"; imaginative acting

straw

those who have lost their sense of taste have reported that food taste like

stereophonic

three-dimensional hearing

1. State a realistic goal in measurable terms 2. Decide how, when and where you will work toward your goal 3. Monitor how often you engage in your desired behavior 4. Reinforce the desired behavior 5. Reduce the rewards gradually

to use operant conditioning in our own lives

Young and von Helmholtz

trichromatic theory - three color theory - eye has 3 corresponding types of color receptors (red, green and blue)

monocular depth cues

two examples of _________________________ depth cues are interposition and linear perspective

unlearned behavior

unconditioned =

brains have a _____________ distributed as specialized cells

vast visual encyclopedia - these cells respond to one type of stimuli

inner ear

vestibular sense receptors are located in

hue

wavelength determines

used to describe our perceptual tendency to organize clusters or sensations into meaninful forms or coherent groups

what do we mean when we say "The whole may exceed the sum of its parts"

after 66 days

when do behaviors become habitual

*Synesthesia*

when one kind of sensory stimulus evokes the subjective experience of another

after image effect

when the eye sees the complementary color of something that the viewer has spent an extended time viewing (also known as successive contrasts) green cells inhibited by red cells

William Molyneux

wondered whether A man born blind who is taught by touch to distinguish a ball to a cube - no


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