psychology exam 2
perceptual sets
After hearing that Bryce had served a prison sentence, Janet began to view his genuinely friendly behavior as insincere and manipulative. This BEST illustrates the impact of:
sensorineural hearing loss
After many years of playing extremely loud rock music, David has suffered significant hearing loss, which cannot be corrected with a hearing aid. David is suffering from:
external consequences
. B. F. Skinner's critics have claimed that he overemphasized the importance of
humans can see differences among more than______
1 million variations
some females can see up too _________, this is a condition thanks to genetic condition known as
100 million colors, tetrachromatic color vision
warmth, cold, pressure, pain
4 distinct skin senses
acquisition extinction spontaneous recovery generalization discrimination
5 major conditioning processes -
1)punished behavior is suppressed, not forgotten 2) physical punishment does not replace the unwanted behavior 3) punishment teaches discrimination among situations 4) punishment can teach fear 5) physical punishment may increase aggression by modeling violence as a way to cope with problems
5 major drawbacks of physical punishment
sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami
5 sensations of taste
one in _________ males are color blind
50
Although he is unaware of moving lights in his right visual field, Graham correctly reports the direction of their movement ______ percent of the time.
90
convergence
A binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object
retinal disparity
A famous Hollywood director has decided to present his latest film in 3-D. This will create a great moviegoing experience for viewers as 3-D movies exaggerate:
punisher
A medieval proverb notes that "a burnt child dreads the fire." In operant conditioning, the burning would be an example of a
context effect
A neutral facial expression may be perceived as sadder at a funeral than at a circus. This BEST illustrates
absolute threshold
A person can detect a single drop of perfume diffused in an area the size of a one-bedroom apartment. This is
fixed-ratio schedule
A restaurant is running a special deal. After you buy four meals at full price, your fifth meal will be free. This is an example of a ________ schedule of reinforcement.
basilar membrane
A structure that runs the length of the cochlea in the inner ear and holds the auditory receptors, called hair cells.
moon illusion
A visual illusion involving the misperception that the moon is larger when it is on the horizon than when it is directly overhead.
repeated pairing of coffee with the immune-enhancing drug
According to Ader and Cohen classical conditioning even works on the body's disease-fighting immune system. According to this research which of these would be the MOST likely to produce this response?
Continuity
According to the Gestalt psychologists, people perceive smooth, flowing patterns rather than disjointed or broken ones. This is called the principle of _____.
hair cells of the basilar membrane
After a rap concert, as Jamie walks out into the fresh air, she notices her ears are ringing. This ringing indicates possible damage to the: Please choose the correct answer from the following choices, and then select the submit answer button.
Discrimination
After being bitten by his neighbor's dog, Miguel experienced fear at the sight of that dog but not at the sight of other dogs. This BEST illustrates the process of:
top-down processing
Malik glances at his doctor's scrawl on a handwritten prescription. He draws on his knowledge of common medications to distinguish among a's, o's, and u's. Malik's experience BEST illustrates:
Hallucinations
Manny suffers from diabetes and lost his vision two months ago. He experiences phantom sights called:
Preparedness
The species-specific biological predisposition to learn in certain ways but not others.
parasychology
The study of out-of-the-ordinary phenomena is known as _____.
Iris
As one walks into a brightly lit room, the black structure in the center of one's eye seems to shrink to a tiny black dot. This response is caused by the action of the eye structure called the:
Blindsight
a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it - cant see sticks but know they are all horizontal
operant conditioning
Children often learn to associate pushing a vending machine button with the delivery of a candy bar. This best illustrates the process underlying
Rescorla and Wagner
Classical conditioning involves cognitive processing, showed that an animal can learn the predictability of an event
learning assoications
Conditioning is the process of:
*unconditioned stimulus; Neutral Stimulus*
Conditioning seldom occurs when an _________________ repeatedly comes before an __________________
adaption
Human sensory systems are designed to detect changes in stimulation rather than to detect constancies. This is demonstrated by the process of sensory _____.
operant conditioning
Macy gave her dog a treat each time she came to Macy when she called her by name. Soon, the dog came every time Macy called the dog by name. This is an example of:
cochlear implant
a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea
visual cliff
a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals - Eleanor Gibson
taste aversion
a learned avoidance of a particular food
Decibels
a measure of how loud a sound is every 10 correspond to a tenfold increase in sound intensity
cognitive map
a mental representation of the layout of one's environment
reinforcement schedule
a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced
motives and emotions
can bias our interpretations of neutral stimuli
drug cravings, food cravings, immune responses
classical Conditioned responses elicited by exposure to cues associated with drug-using behavior
iris
colored muscle that surrounds the pupil and dilates or constricts in response to light intensity
learned behavior
conditioned =
survive and reproduce by responding to cues that help it gain food avoid danger and locate mates/produce offspring
conditioning helps an animal -
operant
conditioning is a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.
Chorus
cones are to soloists as rods are to ______
Transduction
conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret.
As one watches a dog play in the park, light reflected from the dog's fur first passes through three structures of one's eye. In what order does the light pass through these structures?
cornea, pupil, lens
variable-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses ex- slot machines
cornea
light enters the eye through the __________ in which bends light to help provide focus
it's intensity
light waves: amplitude (height) determines
associative learning
linking two stimuli, or events, that occur together
John B. Watson, 1920, classical conditioning -hammer sound when there is a rat
little albert experiment
long waves
low frequency and low pitch
placebo, distraction, hypnosis
maximize pain relief by combining __________ and __________and amplifying their effects with _______
perceptual illusions
mechanisms that normally give us an accurate experience of the world can, under special conditions, fool us - spinning
biopsychosocial
pain is what type of phenomenon
Our senses
receive sensory stimulation, transform stimulation into neural impulses, and deliver neural info to our brain
Dissociation
refers to a split in consciousness.
intensity
refers to the level of energy in a light wave, which we perceive as brightness, as determined by the wave's amplitude.
successive approximations
small steps in behavior, one after the other, that lead to a particular goal behavior
inner ear
snail shaped tube and the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs
variable-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals - checking our phone untill we get that message
fixed-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses ex- free drink every 10 purchases
fixed-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed people check for mail more frequently as delivery time approaches
Reinforcement
in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
eardrum
sound waves strike what part of your ear?
hair cells
specialized auditory receptor neurons embedded in the basilar membrane - like wheat stalks bending in the wind - quivering bundles that let us hear
*embodied cognition*
in psychological science, the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgments -physical warmth promotes social warmth
grandmother cells
super cells that appear to respond selectively to 1-2 faces in 100
retina
the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information
oval window
the membrane that separates the middle ear from the inner ear - vibrations cause it to vibrate
absolute threshold
the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time
ganglion
the specialized cells which lie behind the bipolar cells whose axons form the optic nerve which takes the information to the brain
*parapsychology*
the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis
psychological state
our experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness
Endorphins
"morphine within"—natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.
the difference threshold
As she was trying to study, Tanisha asked her roommate to lower the radio. Her roommate had turned the radio up originally from a volume level of 14 to 15, which was just enough for Tanisha to detect. Tanisha's roommate turned the radio back down to 14 after Tanisha asked her to lower it, which satisfied Tanisha. This is probably the result of: Please choose the correct answer from the following choices, and then select the submit answer button. Correct: the difference threshold.
individualized learning and immediate reinforcment
B. F. Skinner believed that future "machines and textbooks" could promote effective learning because they would allow for both:
sensory adaption
Barbara stubbed her toe last night. It hurt and all day today she has been aware of her toe. She says, "This is so weird. I usually don't think about my toe." Barbara's typical unawareness of her toe BEST reflects:
variable interval
Because she is responsible for overseeing the servicing and repair of her company's fleet of cars, Rhonda frequently calls the garage mechanic to inquire whether service on various cars has been completed. Because service completion times are unpredictable, she is likely to be reinforced with positive responses to her inquiries on a _____ schedule.
cognitive learning
Because we are human, language allows us to learn things we have neither experienced nor observed. This type of learning is called:
low frequency colors
Bees can see ultraviolet light, but cannot see the color red. This means that bees cannot see:
Unconditioned
Before the tone ever sounded, Pavlov's dog salivated each time food was presented, exemplifying a(n) _____ response.
B.F. Skinner
Behaviorist that developed the theory of operant conditioning by training pigeons and rats
Gregory Kimble
Believed that any activity of an organism can be conditioned to any perceived stimulus. (proven wrong)
unconditoned response
Blinking in response to a puff of air directed into one's eye is a(n):
objective; observable
Both Watson and Pavlov believed that psychology should study only _____ and _____ psychological phenomena.
14 months
By age _____ months, infants will imitate acts modeled on television. Please choose the correct answer from the following choices, and then select the submit answer button. This was demonstrated in the Meltzoff and Moore study.
inaccessible to conscious awareness
By definition, stimuli that are perceived subliminally are:
reynold crying
Carl takes his 1-year-old son, Reynold, out for a walk. Reynold reaches over to touch a red flower and is stung by a bumblebee sitting on the petals. The next day, Reynold's mother brings home some red flowers. She removes a flower from the arrangement and takes it over for her baby to smell. Reynold cries loudly as soon as he sees it. According to the principles of classical conditioning, what is the conditioned response in this example?
volley principle
Cells taking turns firing will increase the maximum firing rate for a group of cells.
Associative and Cognitive
Connecting events is to acquiring mental information as _____ learning is to _____ learning.
taste aversion
Coyotes who have been fed sheep carcasses that have been laced with a nausea-inducing poison are less likely to prey on sheep in the wild. This phenomenon is best explained by the classical conditioning phenomenon called _____.
Red apples on a tree seem to be the same color as the surrounding green leaves
Damon, who is among the 8 percent of males with colorblindness, suffers from the most common form of color blindness. Which statement BEST illustrates Damon's experience of color?
operant conditioning
Dan wanted to train his dog, Rocket, to come to him when called. Every time Dan called Rocket and he came, Dan would give him a treat and pet him. Soon Rocket would come every time he was called. Which type of learning is Dan using?
signal detection theory
Dennis, a nurse, notes that some parents of children with asthma respond to very small changes in their children's breathing, and seek care accordingly. However, other parents do not notice the same small changes. This type of difference in reaction to stimuli is BEST explained by the:
Garcia and Koelling
Discovered taste aversion when looking at effects of radiation on rats. Rats became nauseous from the radiation, but since the taste of water from a plastic bottle was accidentally paired with this radiation, the rats developed an aversion for this water.
Placebos
Dosage form that contains no pharmacologically active ingredients but may relieve pain through psychological effects.
parapsychology
Dr. Frasier conducts empirical research to investigate the claims for such abilities as clairvoyance and telepathy. Dr. Frasier's research reflects a field called _____.
fixed-interval
During a typical morning, Colin will check the clock more frequently as the time for his regularly scheduled lunch break approaches. In this case, Colin's clock checking behavior is reinforced on a _____ schedule.
motion
Eleanor suffered severe stroke damage near the rear of both sides of her brain. Based on the case study of Mrs. M. described in the textbook, the stroke is MOST likely to impair Eleanor's ability to perceive:
pitch
Enrico is having trouble telling the difference between the sound of a tuba and the sound of a piccolo. Even though a piccolo produces much briefer, faster sound waves than does a tuba, he has trouble picking out the differences in the _____ of these sounds.
associative learning
Every time Martin opens the cabinet door where he stores his dog's treats, his dog begins to bark in anticipation of getting a treat. This is an example of:
sensation, perception
Experiencing sudden pain is to _____ as recognizing that you are suffering a heart attack is to _____.
the bacteria that caused the illness
Fabian ordered chicken from a national chicken chain restaurant and became very ill immediately after eating it. Years later, Fabian still feels queasy when he sees an advertisement for the chicken chain or drives by one of its establishments. In this example, the unconditioned stimulus is the:
inner ear
Franklin has problems with his balance. His problems are probably caused by difficulties with his:
there is too much information in the world, some information is more important than other information and it facilitates survival. D. All of these choices are correct
From an evolutionary perspective, attention is important because:
mirror neurons
Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy.
variable-ratio
Gamblers and fisherman have a difficult time controlling their need to gamble and fish because of the _____ schedule of reinforcement.
biological predispositions
Garcia and Koelling's studies of taste aversion in rats demonstrated that classical conditioning is constrained by:
webers law
Giulio's bag of marbles is twice as heavy as Jim's. If it takes 5 extra marbles to make Jim's bag feel heavier, it will take 10 extra marbles to make Giulio's bag feel heavier. This BEST illustrate
Absolute threshold research
Gustav Fechner
middle ear is to inner ear
Hammer, anvil, and stirrup are to hair cells as _____ is to _____.
combined frequency
Hearing different frequencies by neural cells firing in rapid succession
biological predispositions
If Georgia gets violently ill a couple of hours after eating contaminated food, she will probably develop an aversion to the taste of that food but not to the sight of the restaurant where she ate or to the sound of the music she heard there. This BEST illustrates that associative learning is constrained by:
operant conditioning
If Jamal wants to train his dog to sit and lie down when he commands the behavior, which type of conditioning should he utilize to train his dog?
operant conditioning
If children get attention for doing cartwheels, they will repeat the trick if they find this attention to be enjoyable. This BEST illustrates:
sensory adaption
If one moves one's watchband up one's wrist an inch or so, one will feel it for only a few moments. This BEST illustrates:
Kant believed knowledge comes from inborn ways of organizing sensory experience, Locke argued we acquire knowledge from learned experience nature vs. nurture
Immanuel Kant vs John Locke
dependent
In an experiment described in the textbook, bar patrons preferred the taste of vinegar-laced beer in a glass labeled "MIT brew" to the taste of identical beer served in an unlabeled glass. Taste preference is a(n) _____ variable in this study.
control group
In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.
conditioned stimulus
In classical conditioning, the _____ is an irrelevant event that comes to trigger a conditioned response after association with an unconditioned stimulus
who use consistent actions and words.
In observational learning, the most effective models are those:
shaping
In teaching her son to play basketball, Mrs. Richards initially reinforces him with praise for simply dribbling while standing still, then only for walking while dribbling, and finally only for running while dribbling. She is using a procedure known as:
Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment
In this experiment children watched a model attack a doll and then the children were put in a room with toys including the same doll and children it was found that the kids who watched the model were much more likely to imitate the actions.
positive reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.
negative reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)
an iris scanning machine can confirm an identity
Iris are so distinctive that
cones; fovea
James is threading a needle under a bright light bulb. During this task, James' vision is driven mainly by the _____ in his _____.
are always turned on
Janet suffers from arthritis and is in constant pain. It is likely that her nociceptors:
she might have trouble recognizing familiar faces
Jasmine was in a serious car accident. She suffered damage to her temporal lobe, just behind her right ear. What kind of problems might this cause for her?
*the medication dampened the central nervous system's attention and response to her back pain*
Judith suffers from painful arthritis. Judith's physician gave her medication to help ease her pain. The medication Judith was given contained water, rather than actual medicine. However, Judith reported that her pain reduced. The BEST explanation for this is that:
linear perspective
Julio is working on a series of landscape paintings. He wants to create a realistic depiction of the English countryside. To turn the flat surface of the canvas into a three-dimensional painting, he might use the technique of:
*60*
Justina wishes to make a 10-minute meditation session part of her morning routine. Based on research described in the textbook, Justina should meditate every day for just over _____ days to ensure that meditation becomes a habit.
prosopagnosia.
Lana cannot recognize faces. She has to fake knowing or recognizing people she has already met. Lana MOST likely suffers from:
classical
Lightning is associated with thunder and regularly precedes it. Thus, when people see lightning, they often anticipate that they will hear thunder soon afterward. This is an example of _____ conditioning.
sensation, perception
Marc is driving his 12-year-old car. He notices a sound coming from the engine, which involves _____ processing. He immediately starts thinking that the sound is similar to the sound his car made the last time he had it repaired, which involves _____ processing. Please choose the correct answer from the following choices, and then select the submit answer button.
conditioned stimulus
Marina feels a rush of love and nostalgia at the scent of honeysuckle; the fragrant scent is similar to that of the perfume her mother wore when Marina was little. The perfume's fragrance is an:
pain
Marla has a persistent itch on her arm. This is MOST likely caused by the stimulation of _____ receptors
sensory interaction
Marty and Becky are in the mood to have a hamburger for lunch. Marty wants to grill the hamburger outside instead of cooking it on top of the stove because he says he likes the taste of a grilled hamburger more than one cooked on top of the stove. The difference in taste Marty prefers is actually caused by the smell of the charcoal embedded into the hamburger. This is an example of sensory _____.
pupils are dilating
Mia is attracted to a man she is chatting with in a nightclub. What is probably happening to her eyes?
*Synesthesia*
Mila sees the sound of a drum as a large round shape. Mila's experience BEST exemplifies a condition called
not recognize objects by sight that were familiar to him by touch.
Monte was born with cataracts. He had surgery when he was 30 years old, which restored his sight. After his surgery, he could:
David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel
Nobel-prize-winning researchers who discovered "feature detectors" within the brain
linear perspective (monocular cue)
One reads about an accident at a railroad crossing and wonders about the cause. Perhaps the car's driver overestimated the distance of the train because the parallel tracks stimulated the monocular depth cue of
clairvoyance
One type of extrasensory perception involves the ability to perceive remote events, an ability called _____
experiences, assumption, and expectations
Our perceptual set influences what we perceive. This mental tendency reflects our
grouping
Our tendencies to fill in the gaps and to perceive a pattern as continuous are two different examples of the organizing principle called
their words and actions are consistent
Parents are most effective in getting their children to imitate them if
Fovea
Pat turns to look directly at a brightly colored bird her friend has spotted in the garden. Pat is ensuring that the bird's image falls directly on her:
clairvoyance, precognition
Perceiving remote events is to perceiving future events as _____ is to _____.
perceptual sets
Professor Brandt shows his study participants a picture of an adult-child pair. He tells half of the participants that they are looking at a parent and her child. He tells the other half that they are looking at a day-care worker and a child in the day-care center. The group that thinks the pair are related rates them as looking more alike than the group that thinks they are not related. Professor Brandt is MOST likely conducting a study on:
lower frequency
Randy is playing the piano. His left hand plays notes that are _____ in _____ than does his right hand.
latent learning
Rats that explored a maze without any reward were later able to run the maze as well as the other rats that had received food rewards for running the maze. The rats that had learned without reinforcement demonstrated __________ _____________.
lightness constancy
Relative luminance MOST clearly contributes to: linear perspective. the phi phenomenon. the Moon illusion. lightness constancy.
automatic; deliberate
Respondent behavior is to operant behavior as _____ is to _____
conduction hearing loss
Ricardo has been suffering from a lengthy battle with the flu. His ears are painfully plugged with fluid. One morning his right ear pops from all of the pressure and fluid comes out. He screams in pain because the eardrum has punctured. This will result in:
bottom-up processing; top- down processing
Sensation is to ________ as perception is to ________
somatosensory cortex
Sensory messages from nociceptors ultimately travel to the _____ cortex.
Endorphins
Several days ago, Ravi fell and hurt his ankle. Although it bothered him a little, he continued to walk on it. When he finally went to the doctor for X-rays, he found out he has a broken bone. It is likely that Ravi carries a gene that boosts the availability of: Please choose the correct answer from the following choices, and then select the submit answer button.
guide an organism to exhibit a complex behavior using successive approximations.
Shaping was a method used by Skinner to:
chemical
Smell is a(n) _____ sense
two explanations for how hypnosis works
Social influence theory and dissociation theory
unconditioned stimulus
Sonya had leukemia as a child and had to undergo numerous bouts of chemotherapy. The chemotherapy always made her nauseous. As she underwent a year of treatment, the waiting room started to make her nauseous. The chemotherapy is the:
binocular cues
Stacy is participating in a local psychology experiment in which the research assistant asks Stacy to hold two pencils in front of her and touch the tips together. She then asks Stacy to do this with one eye closed. Stacy finds this terribly difficult, which demonstrates the importance of:
positive
Stan has been working nights and weekends to get a project completed at work. He is successful, and a couple of weeks later he comes into work and his boss presents him with a bonus check. This BEST illustrates the value of _____ reinforcement.
lenses of her eyes are less able to *accomodate*
Talia is 45 years old. She has started to notice that newspaper print is too small for her to read. Talia needs reading glasses because the:
relative height
Tammy draws a picture in which the mountains are closer to the top of her paper than the nearby trees in her picture. This is an example of the monocular distance cue known as: Please choose the correct answer from the following choices, and then select the submit answer button.
iris
The FBI is considering a new identification method. Instead of using old-fashioned fingerprints, they have decided to scan the eye's _____ to confirm people's identity.
closure
The Gestalt principle of _____________ helps us fill in gaps to create complete, whole objects.
size constancy
The ability to accurately perceive distances MOST clearly underlies one's capacity for:
parallel processing
The brain's ability to process many aspects of an object or a problem simultaneously is called
operant conditioning; classical conditioning
The cognitive processes in _____ involve the organism developing an expectation that a response will be reinforced or punished with or without reinforcement, whereas in _____ an organism develops an expectation that the conditioned stimulus signals the arrival of an unconditioned stimulus.
retina
The function of the basilar membrane is MOST similar to that of the _____ in vision.
cochlea
The hammer, anvil and stirrup are three tiny bones that transmit vibrations to the
loudness
The height of a sound wave (for example, the amplitude of the wave) determines what aspect of hearing?
*Keller and Marian Breland*
The idea that an animal's natural behavior patterns did not matter and had little or no effect on the effectiveness of operant conditioning principles was challenged by research conducted by:
stroboscopic motion
The illusion of movement is produced by showing the rapid progression of images or objects that are not moving at all
acquisition
The initial stage in classical conditioning; the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.
gate-control
The practice of acupuncture is based on the theory that one way to block pain messages is to create competing stimulation. This in turn is based on _____ theory.
overimitation
The tendency of children to copy an action that is not a relevant part of the behavior to be learned; common among 2- to 6-year-olds when they imitate adult actions that are irrelevant and inefficient.
proximity
The way in which you quickly group the individual letters in this test item into separate words best illustrates the principle of:
law of effect
Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
Classical confitioning
Three-year-old Kirsten was playing with a balloon she was given by her father. While playing with the balloon, it popped in her face, which frightened her and caused her to cry loudly. That weekend, she was attending a birthday party and saw some balloons and began to cry and ran out of the room. This is an example of:
Skinner
Throndike's law of effect was the basis for _____________ work on operant conditioning and the behavior control
Associative Learning
Through direct experience with animals, people come to anticipate that dogs will bark and that birds will chirp. This BEST illustrates:
In the dim light, the cones in his eyes are ineffectual.
Tomas wakes up early in the morning and his room is fairly dark. He looks over and sees his shirt hanging on a hook. He knows it is his red shirt because he hung it up there before he went to bed, but in the dark he cannot see its color. It looks dark gray to him. Why is that?
signal detection theory
Two TSA officers are scanning bags at the airport. One of the officers lets a bag go through, but the other officer yells, "Wait, didn't you see that?" Why one officer saw a weapon and the other did not is best explained by:
two or more stimuli; a response and consequence
Two forms of associative learning are classical conditioning, in which the organism associates ________, and operant conditioning, in which the organism associates ________.
three types of color receptors; opponent-process cells
Two theories together account for color vision. The Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory shows that the eye contains _______, and the opponent-process theory accounts for the nervous system's having _______.
cognitive learning
We learn new behaviors by observing events and by watching others, and through language we learn things we have neither experienced nor observed
perception
When Sanjay recognizes line segments and areas of light and dark as his friend's face at an airport gate, he is demonstrating:
60
When two friends talk over lunch, the amplitude of their conversation is about _____ decibels.
*Bandura*
Which pioneering learning researcher highlighted the antisocial effects of aggressive models on children's behavior?
so that they detect important changes in what is going on
Why do human's sensory systems adapt after prolonged exposure to a constant stimulus?
negative reinforcer
Your dog is barking so loudly that it's making your ears ring. You clap your hands, the dog stops barking, your ears stop ringing, and you think to yourself, "I'll have to do that when he barks again." The end of the barking was for you a
place, frequency, volley
_______ theory explains how we hear high-pitched sounds, and ________theory, extended by _____________ principle, explains how we hear low-pitched sounds
retinal disparity
a binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object. - 3D movie!!
cochlea
a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses
fusiform face area
a region in the temporal lobe of the brain that helps us recognize the people we know
perceptual set
a set of mental tendencies and assumptions that greatly affects what we perceive (top-down)
dissociation theory
a split in consciousness in which one part of the mind operates independently of the rest of consciousness
Dissociation
a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others
conditioned reinforcer
a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer, learned
posthypnotic suggestion
a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors
classical conditioning
a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
vicarious; vicarious
according to Bandura, we learn by watching models because we experience _____________ reinforcement or ________________ punishment
antisocial behavior
actions that are deliberately hurtful or destructive to another person
recognizing objects by sight
after surgery to restore vision, adults who have been blind from birth had difficulty
violence-viewing effect
after you view so much violence you become de-sensitized to it and you begin to imitate it
McGurk Effect
an error in perception that occurs when we misperceive sounds because the audio and visual parts of the speech are mismatched.
punishment
an event that decreases the behavior that it follows
the reality of sexual orientation - where straight men guessed more accurately if a nude women appeared and vice versa
an experiment using subliminal stimuli revealed
phi phenomenon
an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession
primary reinforcer
an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need, unlearned
Shaping
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
Gestalt
an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.
bottom-up processing
analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information -enables u to detect the lines, angles and colors
Punisher
any stimulus or event that functions to decrease the likelihood of the behavior that led to it
oder molecules slip into receptors
as a key is to a lock
temporal theory
asserts that frequency is coded by the activity level of a sensory neuron
subliminal
below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness
the number of activated hair cells
brain determines loudness from _____________
monocular cues
depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone
binocular cues
depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes - two pens touching
Schemas
determines our perceptual set
Frequency
determines pitch
sensation - bottom up process perception - top-down process
difference between sensation and perception
sensory adaptation
diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation
experimental group
exposed to independent variable
bipolar
eye neurons that receive information from the retinal cells and distribute information to the ganglion cells
30 percent of the cortex
face recognition process requires tremendous brain power of
smell + texture + taste
flavor =
Cones are found
fovea - the central focus point in the retina - have a hotline to the brain
The parts of the brain that enable consciousness and our ability to communicate that awareness are located in the:
frontal lobes
20 mins or more
full adaption of your eyes takes
sensorineural hearing loss
hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness
*conduction hearing loss*
hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea - less common
short waves
high frequency and high pitch
16000
how many hair cell's does the cochlea have?
associative learning
if a sea slug receives an electric shock just after being squirted with water, its protective withdrawal response to a squirt of water grows stronger. This best illustrates:
cake (including taste) - US aroma - CS salvation to aroma - CR
if the aroma of a baking cake sets your mouth to water, what is the US? CS? CR?
Fear of white rat
in Watson and Rayner's experiment with Little Albert, the __________ was the conditioned response.
neutral stimulus (NS)
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning
unconditioned stimulus (US)
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.
condtioned stimulus (CS)
in classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, triggers a conditioned response. - example - the tone that triggers the salvation
uncondtioned response (UR)
in classical conditioning, an unlearned, anturally occuring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (such as food in mouth)
Discrimination
in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus
conditioned response (CR)
in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS) example - salvation in response to a tone
place theory
in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated - explains how we hear high pitch sounds not low pitch sounds
frequency theory
in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch
operant chamber
in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking.
perceptual adaptation
in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field - glasses
Independent variable: causes or influences the dependent variable. Dependent variable: hypothesized to depend on or be caused by the independent variable. EXAMPLE: In a study of how different doses of a drug affect the severity of symptoms, a researcher could compare the frequency and intensity of symptoms when different doses are administered. Here the independent variable is the dose and the dependent variable is the frequency/intensity of symptoms.
independent vs dependent
top-down processing
information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations - you interpret what you detect
your cognitive and emotional states, dark room - dilate sunny sky - constrict
iris respond to
embodied cognition
judgement of others mimic body sensations example of
joints, tendons and muscles
kinesthetic receptors are located in
operant conditioning
learn to repeat acts based on rewards and to avoid acts that bring unwanted results
observational learning (social learning)
learning by observing others
Biological, psychological and social-cultural influences
learning is the product of
*latent learning*
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
association
mind naturally connects events that occur in sequence
*telepathy*
mind-to-mind communication
myopia
nearsightedness
feature detectors
nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement
The visual cortex is located in the
occipital lobe - back of the brain
Pheromones
odorless chemicals that serve as social signals to members of one's species
Prefrontal cortex - working memory thalamus - filter
parts of the brain that are most active in attention
mentalistic concepts
pavlov and Watson shared a disdain for
dog digestive system, found that they salivated at not just the taste of food but smell and even sound or sound of someone walk over
pavlov studied
the worst part and the end
people remember two parts about pain
theory of mind
people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.
color constancy
perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object
*precognition*
perceiving future events, such as a political leader's death or a sporting event's outcome
perceptual constancy
perceiving objects as unchanging even as illumination and retinal images change
*clairvoyance*
perceiving remote events, such as sensing that a friend's house is on fire
Cats are able to open their ______________ much wider than we can, which allows more light into their eyes so they can see better at night.
pupils
embodied cognition
physical warmth promotes social warmth is an example of
embodied cognition
pose your fingers, prime your mind - people more quickly identify a number when they hear it after they have seen it on finger
presocial behavior
positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior
*signal detection theory*
predicts when we will detect weak signals, measured as our ratio of "hits" to "false alarms"
vicarious reinforcement
process where the observer sees the model rewarded, making the observer more likely to imitate the model's behavior
parallel processing
processing many things at once - dividing a visual scene into sub dimensions - motion, form, depth and color
85
prolonged exposure to sounds above _________ decibels can produce hearing loss
George Stratton
proved that kittens, monkeys, and humans can adapt to an inverted world by wearing an optical headgear for 8 days that flipped left to right and up to down, making him the first person to experience a right-side-up retinal image while standing upright
partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule
reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement
automatic
respondent behavior is BEST described
unpredictable - (variable schedule); predictable - (fixed schedule)
responding is more consistent when reinforcement is ____________________- ( ) than when it is ________-( )
a number of responses - ratio schedule; time -interval schedule
response rates are higher when reinforcement is linked to the ________________-(____________________) rather than to ________ - (__________________)
Rods are found in the __________.
retina's outer regions - DONT have a hotline to
Retinal
retinal disparity is an example of ___________ cue to depth perception
cones
retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.
rods and cones
retinal receptors known as photoreceptors
rods
retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond
bleeding of the ears
ringing in the ears is equivalent to
tinnitus
ringing in the ears that many deaf people hear
Some nocturnal animals, such as toads, mice, rats, and bats, have impressive night vision thanks to having many more ______________ (rods/cones) than ______________ (rods/cones) in their retinas. These creatures probably have very poor ______________ (color/black-and-white) vision.
rods, cones, color
Olfaction
sense of smell
Gustation
sense of taste
concentrate on more important things
sensory adaption helps people
important changes in the environment
sensory adaption helps us focus on
sensory receptors
sensory nerve endings that respond to stimuli
*Nociceptors*
sensory receptors that enable the perception of pain in response to potentially harmful stimuli
one to two weeks
taste receptors reproduce themselves every
1 in 5
teen hearing loss affects __________ teens
instinctive drift
tendency for an animal's behavior to revert to genetically controlled patterns
depth perception
the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance
pupil
the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters
*intensity*
the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude
relative luminance
the amount of light an object reflects relative to its surroundings
auditory cortex
the area of the temporal lobe responsible for processing sound information - carries neural messages to the thalamus and then to auditory cortex in brain's temporal lobe
semicircular canals and vestibular sacs
the biological gyroscopes for vestibular sense
*middle ear*
the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window
Wavelength
the characteristic of light that determines the color we experience, such as blue or green is
principle of proximity
the closer two figures are to each other, the more likely we are to group them and see them as part of the same object
*extrasensory perception (ESP)*
the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition
hue
the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth
Extinction
the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.
wavelength
the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission
acquisition, extinction
the first step of classic conditioning, when an NS becomes a CS, is called ____________________ When a US no longer follows the CS, and the CR becomes weakened, this is called__________________-
selective attention
the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus
small spinal cord nerve fibers conduct most pain signals, but large-fiber activity can close access to those pain signals
the gate-control theory of pain proposes that
optic nerve
the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain - information highway from eye to brain - can send nearly 1 million messages at once
figure-ground
the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground). -applies to hearing too - can be reversible
grouping
the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups - also indentified by gestalt psychologists
blind spot
the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there
sensory interaction
the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste
Weber's Law
the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount) two lights must differ by 8%, objects by 2% and tones by 0.3%
sensation
the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment
accommodation
the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina
*learning*
the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors
Modeling
the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
Perception
the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
spontaneous recovery
the reappearance of a learned response after extinction has occurred
*vestibular sense*
the sense of balance and equilibrium - monitors head movement and position - super fast
audtion
the sense or act of hearing
*difference threshold*
the smallest detectable difference between two stimuli 50% of the time "just noticeable difference"
sweet - energy source salty - sodium, essential to physiological processes sour - potentially toxic acid bitter - potential poisons Unami - proteins to grow and repair tissue
the survival functions of the 5 basic tastes - what they indicate
kinesthesia
the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts
shape constancy
the tendency to interpret the shape of an object as being constant, even when its shape changes on the retina
brightness constancy
the tendency to perceive the apparent brightness of an object as the same even when the light conditions change
Generalization
the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses
*Hering's opponent-process theory*
the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green
gate control
the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain. - proposed by Wall and Melzack
Behaviorism
the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).
social influence theory
theory that hypnotic subjects are just role-playing; so caught up in hypnotized role that they convince themselves it's real; trying to be a "good subject"; imaginative acting
straw
those who have lost their sense of taste have reported that food taste like
stereophonic
three-dimensional hearing
1. State a realistic goal in measurable terms 2. Decide how, when and where you will work toward your goal 3. Monitor how often you engage in your desired behavior 4. Reinforce the desired behavior 5. Reduce the rewards gradually
to use operant conditioning in our own lives
Young and von Helmholtz
trichromatic theory - three color theory - eye has 3 corresponding types of color receptors (red, green and blue)
monocular depth cues
two examples of _________________________ depth cues are interposition and linear perspective
unlearned behavior
unconditioned =
brains have a _____________ distributed as specialized cells
vast visual encyclopedia - these cells respond to one type of stimuli
inner ear
vestibular sense receptors are located in
hue
wavelength determines
used to describe our perceptual tendency to organize clusters or sensations into meaninful forms or coherent groups
what do we mean when we say "The whole may exceed the sum of its parts"
after 66 days
when do behaviors become habitual
*Synesthesia*
when one kind of sensory stimulus evokes the subjective experience of another
after image effect
when the eye sees the complementary color of something that the viewer has spent an extended time viewing (also known as successive contrasts) green cells inhibited by red cells
William Molyneux
wondered whether A man born blind who is taught by touch to distinguish a ball to a cube - no