psychology exam 4

biopsychosocial model

This model disputed the long-held scientific assumption that treatment of health and disease were limited solely to biological factors. -The model includes not only biological factor, but also psychological and social factors to be considered in assessing health. -Health and illness result from a combination of psychological factors (e.g., stress, life style, fear/avoidance, coping methods, attribution), biological characteristics (genetic predisposition, physiological pathology), and social conditions (culture, family relationships/circumstances, social support)

affects of drive

To paraphrase a bit about this slide, we are essentially saying "drive" "affect (emotion)" "behavior" Let's go back to our example: midnight snacking. Drive =desire/arousal to satiate hunger; Affect = anger because you're hangry; sadness because you're hungry; disappointment because you didn't eat enough earlier on...etc; Behavior = gorge at nighttime.

barriers to mental health care

Treatment is expensive. Group Therapy There is a lack of mental health professionals. 700,000 in the US 25% of the US population may need treatment at any given time. Rural settings are underserved. Development of remote technology treatments? Stigma. -The professional they are working with needs to make a living, they probably spent years in school to attain their expertise and degree and need to be compensated. -Where possible, group therapy can offset costs. However, for more severe disorders individualized therapy may be needed. And, many disorders are more common for low SES individuals (often due to stress in their lives), further exacerbating disparities in care.

circumplex model

emotions that are very arousing produce a strong phsiological response. for example, you can see that feeling excited or nervous are very arousing states because they evoke a strong heart rate, tense muscles, etc, with differing valences. excitement is positively valanced high arousal and nervousness is negatively valanced high arousal. in contrast, things like calmness and depression are low in arousal with differing valences

can you think of ways that these emotions may help aid survival?

anger and fear might keep you safe by letting you attack the opponent or hide; happiness can inform you what you should be striving for

subjective feelings

cognitive appraisal of the situation -"I feel upset when I see my boyfriend talking to my friend, so I must feel jealous" -"I feel tense when I give speeches in front of the entire class, so I must feel nervous"

moods

diffuse, long-lasting emotional states. rather than interrupting what is happening, they influence thought and behavior

esteem

good self-opinion, accomplishments, reputation

what about self-conscious emotions?

helps strengthen social bonds

physiological

hunger, thirst, warmth, air, sleep

emotion

immediate, specific negative or positive response to environmental events or internal thoughts

what do these 5 basic emotions remind you of?

inside out! they actually get a lot of things about emotions right in the film, and much of that is due to the fact that they consulted long-time emotion expert Paul Ekman on the project. Ekman suggests that these five basic emotions are innate to humans and are universal in that they are shared across cultures. they are also adaptable and functional

how do you know when you're experiencing an emotion?

it can involve all three components, or just simply one

self actualization

living to full potential achieving personal dreams and aspirations

what other info do we need to know about emotions?

you can be a generally happy person with a positive mood, but have one negative thing happen to you and be experiencing a negative emotion. this negative emotion is a simple reaction and probably an abnormality for a person with a positive mood in general

general adaptation syndrome

• Alarm : emergency reaction that prepares the body to fight or flee. body rallies its defenses, hormones such as cortisol released to boost immunity • Resistance - Some stressful situations continue for extended periods of time. body sustains its immunity and resistance to stress. So body prepares for longer, sustained defense from the stressor. -Signs of the resistance stage include: Frustration, poor concentration • Exhaustion - body's immunity and physiological systems begin to fail/shut down. You may give up or feel your situation is hopeless. -Signs of exhaustion include: fatigue, burnout, depression, anxiety, decreased stress tolerance

example: addiction

• Biological factor: some people have an increased likelihood of developing an addiction than others, such as family history of addiction. • Psychological factor: A person may attempt to relieve negative thoughts by engaging in self-rewarding but ultimately harmful behaviors (e.g., drinking, smoking, overeating, drugs) • Social factor: The availability of an addictive substance in the environment or having a peer group consisting of people that drink heavily or do drugs can increase the chance of addiction. -We would combine all 3 factors to have more personalized analyses of a person's health status/behaviors to develop a more thorough and comprehensive treatment.

types of stress

• Distress: the stress of negative events. • Examples: being late for a meeting, getting stuck in traffic, losing a loved one, losing a job, coronavirus!! • Eustress: the stress of positive events • Examples: Wedding, having a child, getting admitted to your top choice college, preparing for a party -We often only think about the negatives when we think about stress, but both distress and eustress can put strains on the body

impact of stress

• Immune system : the body's mechanism for dealing with invading micro-organisms • There is evidence that perceived stress influences our immune system . People that reported more desirable events had greater antibody in their spit compared to people that reported more undesirable events. • Some stress (short term stress) is good for health, but too much is bad. • Prolonged, chronic stress alters functioning of immune system and is related to decreased health and increased risk for illness. Chronic stress, especially psychosocial stress, is linked to the initiation and progression of many diseases (Cardiac disease, cancer, AIDS) .

humanistic therapies

Client-centered therapy: an empathic approach to therapy; it encourages people to fulfill their individual potentials for personal growth through greater self understanding -Therapists strive to create a safe and comforting setting for clients to access their true feelings, to be empathic, and to accept the client through unconditional positive regard.

how do everyday behaviors shape health? what can people do to live healthier lives? how do larger social and economic systems impact health (race, gender and poverty)?

Basically, studying these kinds of topics is health psychology. Health psychologists study and apply the impact of exercise, eating, chronic disease, public health, stress, and sleep on health and well-being. • Well-being: a positive state that includes striving for optimal health and life satisfaction

history of psychological disorders

"Madness" arising from possession by evil spirits. Treatments: Bloodletting, exorcism, potions Middle Ages: Rise of Asylums Reform: Philippe Pinel -Throughout most early cultures, religious and spiritual beliefs shaped the treatment of the mentally ill-we didn't know what was causing these problems, and so evil spirits were the culprit. This may have been demons, witchcraft, the gods, etc. -During the middle ages, the best strategies for dealing with the mentally ill became to separate them from the rest of society. They were put into Asylums, overcrowded and understaffed. They were subjected to horrible "treatments", but mostly just chained or drugged to sedate them. -Pinel took over at an asylum in France in the late 1700's, where a former patient Jean Baptiste Pussin was helping to take care of the mentally ill. He noticed that Pussin was treating the patients with kindness, patience, and compassion, and that the ones treated by him seemed to be doing better. He began to advocate for the humane treatment of patients, including removing them from chains, and helped push reform of mental health care to a kinder place.

prevalence of mental illness

1 in 4 Americans has a diagnosable disorder. About half of Americans will suffer from a disorder at some point in their lifetimes. Many will not seek treatment. Only about 7% of people are severely affected by their disorder(s). -The first two stats seem like a lot. This is the number of people who COULD be diagnosed, which doesn't necessarily mean they are diagnosed or receive treatment. Many insurance companies do not cover certain mental illnesses, and so it is difficult to get access to care unless you can afford to pay hourly rates for private practice. -Additionally, many people function while dealing with a mood or anxiety disorder, and manage not to allow it to affect their lives. Many people go through depressive episodes that eventually subside without treatment. But, people can better THRIVE and recover more quickly and effectively with treatment. -Now, as we talk about these disorders, you may be tempted to self-diagnose and think that those things are characteristic of you. If you think that it is a legitimate concern towards something like depression or anxiety, you can visit the counseling center to address the need. But, (especially for more severe disorders), you probably do not have these disorders.

physical basis of mental disorders

Advocated by Hippocrates Melancholia (depression): too much black bile While his exact ideas were not correct, the idea that physical medical conditions can affect mental health is correct.

standards for diagnosing mental illness

Emil Kraepelin - began to categorize mental illnesses Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) 1952 Current version is DSM-5 (2013) -As technology and our understanding of mental disorders advance, we develop a new version of DSM. The current version, DSM-5, emphasizes the neurological foundation of mental disorders, and categorized them accordingly. -As you can see from the excerpt, there is a code 295.70 (F25.0) for specific cases for each disorder. Usually we use codes that starts with an alphabet letter, for this case, F25.0, in order to specify the type and category of a mental disorder. F25.0 is ICD-10 code, which is used within medical fields. ICD-10 stands for "10th revision of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems". There are actually no DSM codes. The first code "295.70" is the previous version of ICD, which is ICD-9.

schizophrenia

Alterations in thoughts and perceptions Usually diagnosed in late teens - early 20s May be comorbid with other mental disorders 5% die by suicide - Schizophrenia is one of the top 15 leading causes of disability worldwide. - Those with schizophrenia are not overall violent; they may have some violent episodes especially if the disorder is not treated but they are much more likely to be harmed by others or to harm themselves (14x more likely to be a victim than a perp) - More subtle changes in cognition and social relationships may precede the actual diagnosis, often by years. - Comorbid, not only with mental disorders (depression, anxiety, personality disorder), but also with physical disorders like diabetes, cardiovascular disease, HIV) - To be diagnosed, must have at least two symptoms (either positive or negative or mix of both) for at least a month, it has to affect their daily functioning (impairment) Characterized by a combination of motor, cognitive, behavioral, and perceptual abnormalities. Positive symptoms: excesses in functioning, such as delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized speech or behavior Negative symptoms: deficits in functioning, such as apathy, lack of emotion, and slowed speech and movement -Disorganized speech: speaking in an incoherent fashion that involves frequently changing topics and saying strange or inappropriate things -Deficits may include lack of responsiveness to the environment, lack of taking care of oneself (bathing or clothing) -If one identical twin develops schizophrenia, the likelihood of the other twin's succumbing is almost 50 percent; it is 14 percent if the twins are fraternal. -Remember how we talked about positive and negative reinforcement? Just like that ,when we say positive symptoms, there is additional behavior that's expressed, whereas negative symptoms mean there is withdrawn and absence of expressions.

neurodevelopmental disorders

Autism Spectrum Disorder Deficits in social relatedness and communication skills that are often accompanied by repetitive behaviors Can be seen as early as infancy Lack of eye contact Lack of enjoyment from reciprocal games Have theory of mind deficits Usually diagnosed around 2 years old 1 in 59 children - ASD encompasses Autistic disorder, Asperger's syndrome, Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified -Symptoms may include not sharing in enjoyment of objects by others, having difficulties beginning or maintaining conversations (may not know when to stop talking), may have facial expressions that don't match with what they're saying, have restricted activities and interests, do not like change, - Repetitive behaviors may be repeating words or phrases, having intense interests in certain topics, getting upset by slight changes in routine, and being sensitive to things like sight, sound, temperature, or clothing - Strengths: - Long and detailed memory - Strong visual and auditory learners - Can exhibit excelling in one particular subject such as math, music, or art - Autism can be detected during child check ups. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends 30 that all children be screened for developmental delays at their 9-, 18-, and 24- or 30-month well-child visits and specifically for autism at their 18- and 24- month well-child visits. - If a doc thinks autism is present, second evaluation is with a team of doctors and other health professionals who are experienced in diagnosing ASD: - Developmental pediatrician - Child psychiatrist/psychologist - Neurospychologist - Speech-language pathologist - Some people are better able to function than others. High functioning autism is not an official diagnosis and there are disagreements about what is considered high functioning. May be less severe symptoms, higher IQs (above 70), and who can function on a day-today basis Causes Having a sibling with ASD Having older parents Very low birth weight Abnormal brain development There is strong evidence that vaccines do not cause Autism. - Still not sure what actually causes autism. - The brains of those who develop autism spectrum disorder show unusually large growth beginning as early as 6 months of age. Fragile X syndrome, down syndrome, Rett syndrome at risk for ASD - Back in 1998 a physician published a paper that the MMR vaccine (Measle, Mumps, and Rubella) where he said that 8 kids out of 12 had intestinal complaints and then "got" Autism after being vaccinated. One flaw is that he didn't look at the rates of autism in vaccinated vs non-vaccinated groups. No control group. Another flaw is that he concluded that the intestinal problems from the vaccine were what proceeded the autism, but in all cases, the intestinal issues came after the autism. On top of that, he changed medical records and lied about aspects of his study. The paper was eventually retracted . - There have been much more studies demonstrating no link between autism and vaccines. One meta analysis which looked at 95,000 kids both vaccinated and unvaccinated and did not find a link. Kids who were unvaccinated were equally likely to develop autism than those who were not. The only difference between the groups is that one group is at a higher risk now for preventable childhood illnesses

cluster b

Borderline Personality Disorder Unstable relationships, self-image, and emotions "Borderline" between normal and psychotic May be manipulative in relationships Affective disturbances Impulsivity May be the result of poor home environments - People lack a strong sense of self (often they report the feeling of "emptiness", as if there is a hole or void inside them), because they constantly feel they need someone, they are often controlling or manipulative in relationships - Book talks about a patient who would rent a hotel room and have a bunch of pills, would call her therapist and say she would kill herself, he would talk her down. He had to always be on call for this patient. One day when she couldn't reach him, she OD'd - May have episodes of depression, anxiety, anger, irritability, or mix of those - They may cut themselves, may threaten suicide, may get into physical fights, may binge/purge - Homes where children cannot rely on caregiver or were too dependent on caregiver - Also brain areas (frontal lobes) are diminished - The presentation of symptoms can be vastly different depending on the patient's gender. Often women tend to show aforementioned symptoms, whereas men with this order may exhibit emotional sensitivity (perceives everything as personal attacks), boundary issues, and narcissistic behaviors. Sounds like someone you know? That's exactly why it is so tricky to diagnose borderline personality disorder, and often can be misdiagnosed. -Where do we draw the line of...a somewhat unpleasant personality vs. borderline personality disorder? The key to remember is whether their tendencies/ behaviors are maladaptive to the point it interferes their daily life...(but then again, isn't that also a somewhat vague criteria...?). Within clinical mental health professions, this disorder is probably one of the most controversial one. Many of the counselors/ therapists I know 26 dislike this diagnosis "tag" because of the ambiguity and stigma that follows. Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD) Unusual lack of remorse, empathy, or regard for social rules and conventions APD with psychopathic traits (extreme) Willing to hurt others Grandiose sense of self-worth Manipulative 1-4% of the population Diagnosed in late adolescence to early adulthood - These are individuals who act in socially undesirable ways such as breaking the law, being deceitful or irresponsible, and feeling unremorseful for their actions. They are usually also hedonistic, meaning they seek immediate gratification - ASPD was once known as psychopathy or sociopathy, but these were eventually put under the umbrella term of APD - ASPD cannot be diagnosed before the age of 18 but in order to be diagnosed they must have shown symptoms of antisocial conduct before 15. This can usually be seen with things like performing illegal acts repeatedly, constantly lying, and showing complete disregard for others or self. - Often serial killers tend to exhibit some or many of the symptoms (of course, not all serial killers exhibit ASPD symptoms) Causes Brain deficits Lower levels of arousal Poor frontal lobe functioning Smaller amygdala Abuse/neglect Low SES - People with ASPD have slower brain waves meaning they have lower levels of arousal when presented with emotionally arousing stimuli. This might help explain why they are constantly seeking out dangerous activities. They usually harm animals and damage properties. - They also don't respond to punishment normally because they don't see punishment as aversive which is why they continue to act. - Smaller amygdala is also related to being less responsive to emotional stimuli; they are less likely to experience empathy when presented with a picture of someone in pain or who is afraid (in other words, they generally feel fear less; therefore their ability to empathize fear is also limited). - Children who are malnourished are more likely to develop APD; having structured nutrition regiment can be very helpful in reducing some of the traits. - Positive reinforcement for children can be helpful in reducing callous/unemotional traits in childhood.

depression: components

Causes of depression Genes Biological factors Neurotransmitters Situational factors Negative life events Relationships Cognitive factors Cognitive triad Learned helplessness - Studies of twins, of families, and of adoptions support the notion that depression has a genetic component. Identical twins are generally around two to three times more likely to both be depressed than fraternal twins. - Depression has been linked to a deficiency in monoamines, which is a type of neurotransmitter. Serotonin is categorized as monoamine. - Brain Structure may play a role. Diminished functioning of the left prefrontal cortex is associated with depression. - Negative views of self: "I am worthless" , negative views of the world "the world is unfair", negative views of the future " Things are hopeless". An interplay between the person's negative thoughts about themselves, lack of hope for the future, and negative thoughts about their current situation/ world create a vicious cycle that is hard to get oneself out of.

personality disorders

Cluster A Odd or eccentric behaviors Cluster B Dramatic, emotional, erratic behaviors Cluster C Anxious or fearful -Cluster A: characterized by odd, eccentric thinking or behavior. Includes Paranoia Personality Disorder: extreme distrust of others, and Schizoid/Schizotypal Personality Disorder: detachment from others -Cluster B: characterized by dramatic, overly emotional or unpredictable thinking or behavior. Includes Narcissistic, Borderline personality disorder, Histrionic, and Anti-social personality disorder -Cluster C: characterized by anxious, fearful thinking or behavior. Includes obsessive compulsive personality disorder (different from OCD), avoidant/dependent personality disorder: person feels that they need someone to tell them what to do at all times, fear abandonment

delusions

Delusions: false beliefs based on incorrect inferences about reality Persecutory: others are spying on or persecuting them Referential: believe that objects, events, or other people have personal significance Grandiose: belief that they have great power, knowledge, or talent Identity: belief that one is someone else (usually important) Guilt: belief that they have committed a terrible sin Control: belief that they are being controlled by external forces -Persist in their beliefs despite evidence that contradicts those beliefs. -For identity, people may commonly believe they are Jesus Christ or the President of the US

models of psychopathology

Diathesis Stress Model: focus on genes x environment interaction Family Systems Model: focus on problems within a family Sociocultural Model: focus on culture's effects Cognitive-Behavioral Model: abnormal behavior is learned - Diathesis (underlying vulnerability), stressful circumstances added to vulnerability may influence development of mental disorder - Genetic factors can also affect the size of brain structures and their level of connectivity. Structural imaging and postmortem studies have revealed differences in brain anatomy, perhaps it is due to genetics, that distinguishes the difference between those with psychological disorders and those without. Biological Factors like exposure to toxins, malnutrition, and maternal illness can also contribute to psychological disorders. - Family systems: problems in person arise because of problems in family. Developing profile for person's family is important. - Sociocultural model: the differences in lifestyles, expectations, and opportunities between classes; Eccentric behavior in wealthy people is not viewed the same as those in lower SES. - Cognitive model: if it's learned, it can be unlearned. The premise of this approach is that thoughts can become distorted and produce malad aptive behaviors and maladaptive emotions.

dissociative disorders

Dissociative disorders: disorders that involve disruptions of identity, of memory, or of conscious awareness Dissociative Amnesia Dissociative Fugue - loss of identity Dissociative Identity Disorder - two or more distinct identities within the same person. -We talked about this with PTSD-where a person forgets a traumatic event and can't remember it but may recall some details/emotions. Often times this avoidant behavior can be extreme to the point where people need to forget the event and escape/hide behind another "identity". This means most dissociative disorders (DD) stem from traumatic events, especially in early childhood, and treatment for DD resembles that of PTSD. -Dissociative Fugue- the rarest and most extreme form of dissociative amnesia that involves a loss of identity; involves travel to another location and sometimes the assumption of a new identity. Usually ends suddenly with the person having no memory of the time that they were in Fugue states -You probably have heard of dissociative identity disorder because it used to be called "multiple Personalities". Most people with this disorder are women who report being severely abused as children. According to the most common theory, children cope with abuse by pretending it is happening to someone else, and over time, this dissociated state takes on its own identity.

mood disorders

Emotional disturbances are central to these disorders. Types of Mood Disorders: Anxiety Obsessive-Compulsive PTSD Depression Bipolar -Having extreme emotional experiences is normal-we experience a broad range of emotions in the human experience, and at times that means we have intense negative or positive reactions to events. -BUT, it is important to keep in mind that when these become MALADAPTIVE (like we talked about earlier), they may be classified as a disorder that is interfering with our lives.

bipolar disorder

Episodes of mood swings characterized by manic and depressive episodes Manic episodes Persistent elevated mood Lasts ~1 week May partake in dangerous activities Bipolar I Disorder More manic than depressive episodes Thought disturbances and hallucinations Bipolar II Disorder Hypomania: mild mania Family history is strongest risk factor - Bipolar disorder, also known as manic-depressive illness, is a brain disorder that causes unusual shifts in mood, energy, activity levels, and the ability to carry out day-to-day tasks. - Risky buying decisions, risky sexual decisions, things that are out of character = manic episodes. - Hypomania may result in more episodes of creativity and productivity - so extremely pleasurable. These less extreme positive moods usually are not as impairing -Bipolar I Disorder— defined by manic episodes that last at least 7 days, or by manic symptoms that are so severe that the person needs immediate hospital care. Very often depressive episodes follows after manic episodes, typically lasting at least 2 weeks. Episodes of depression with mixed features (having depression and manic symptoms at the same time) are also possible. -Bipolar II Disorder— defined by a pattern of depressive episodes and hypomanic episodes, but not the full-blown manic episodes. Depression often lasts longer and occurs more frequently compared to bipolar I disorder. -Full-blown manic episode symptoms: - Feel very "up," "high," or elated - Have a lot of energy - Have increased activity levels - Feel "jumpy" or "wired" 16 - Have trouble sleeping - Become more active than usual - Talk really fast about a lot of different things - Be agitated, irritable, or "touchy" - Feel like their thoughts are going very fast - Think they can do a lot of things at once

anxiety disorders

Excessive fear and anxiety in the absence of true danger. Affects physiological arousal, which can lead to impairments in sleep, cognition, concentration, and physical health.

hallucinations

Hallucinations: false sensory perceptions that are experienced without an external source, usually auditory but can be from other senses

major depressive disorders

Major depression: characterized by severe negative moods or lack of interest in normally pleasurable activities Symptoms: Loss of interest in pleasurable activities Appetite and weight changes Sleep disturbances Loss of energy Difficulty concentrating Feelings of guilt Suicidal behavior Affects about 6 percent to 7 percent of Americans in a given 12-month period Leading risk factor for suicide. - Feelings of depression are common, but in order to be diagnosed as a disorder, it has to last for at least 2 weeks - Countries where there is a lot of stigma about mental health care experience a lot of depression - More common among women, and particularly high among women in developing countries. Why? Women in these countries have lower education and lack of control over their economic and family situations. Some theorize that it's because women have multiple roles in society (wage earners and caregivers), some say those roles can be beneficial, but others say that overwork and lack of support that contribute to the manifestation of Major Depressive Disorder.

what do the experts say?

Medication should be supplemental to psychological therapies. Medication should be replaced by other treatment options when possible. -Ritalin CAN be effective in the short term and may help boost academic performance and social skills. But, in order to develop appropriate behavioral techniques and coping strategies, psychological treatment should be used with the hope that it will eventually replace the drugs.

obsessive compulsive disorder

Obsession with an idea or thought & compulsion to repeatedly act in a certain way. Compulsions often include cleaning, checking, and counting. People know their behavior is irrational, but can't stop it. "I'm so OCD about this!" - uncool and inaccurate -These compulsive actions reduce their anxiety about the unwanted thought. Unhealthy pattern/cycle. - -People who chronically pick at their skin or pull out their hair (known as trichotillomania) and people with hoarding disorders also fit into a similar category. -Using this disorder as a description of your own particular behaviors is insulting to those for whom this disorder wreaks havoc on their lives. It is also inaccurate-you wanting to keep your desk organized is not OCD, it is just you being organized and conscientious. Please have consideration for the impact of mental health disorders and don't trivialize them.

cluster c

Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder Excessive need for order, rules, control, and perfection OCD vs OCPD OCPD is not controlled by thoughts or irrational behaviors People with OCD may be aware that their thoughts and behaviors are irrational; people with OCPD think their behavior has aim and purpose Symptoms of OCD fluctuate; symptoms of OCPD are fixated People with OCD usually try to seek help, people with OCPD don't - People with OCPD often are very rigid in their way of thinking and so do not yield to what others want or to give responsibility to others in fear they may not do it the "right" way - They may develop a fixation for lists and their perfectionist tendencies may prevent them from finishing tasks - They may hoard items and spend more time working than spending time with family and friends

yerkes-dodson law

-Drives motivate behavior, through creating arousal - There is an optimal level of arousal that helps you perform better - Too much arousal or too little is not conducive - Difficult tasks will be affected negatively when arousal is too high. - Easy tasks tend show improved performance

changes in thoughts

-Generating and savoring positive events in your life is also a way to accomplish more positive thinking • Positive reappraisal - focus on possible good things in situation. Someone drop your sandwich off on the ground. • Downward comparisons - compare yourself to other people who seem worse! (Before you judge, keep in mind that it's effective) • Creation of positive events - learn to savor and give meaning to positive everyday events. For example, riding a bike, watching sunset whatever you like to do can help you to focus on positive aspects of your life and deal with your negative stress.

james-lange theory

-william james and carl lange -how we interpret a situation determines what we feel -people perceive their body responding and as a result of perceiving the body change, they feel an emotion

cluster a

Schizoid Personality Disorder Social isolation and indifference to others Different from social anxiety and schizophrenia No anxiety In touch with reality May be caused by genes and home environment (low warmth) - People with SPD usually avoid others, they prefer to work alone, they avoid sexual and/or romantic relationships, have difficulty expressing emotions, and may appear humorless - This is different than social anxiety because people with SPD don't have anxiety about interacting with others, they simply don't want to - Unlike schizophrenia, people are in touch with reality, even though they may lack emotion expression (which is a similar negative symptom of schizophrenia) - A higher risk for schizoid personality disorder in families of schizophrenics suggests that there is genetic susceptibility to developing this disorder. Discomfort with close relationships, eccentric behavior, paranoid Different from schizophrenia Less intense paranoia episodes Can sometimes be swayed from delusions Family history of schizophrenia Comorbid with MDD (30-50%) -They typically have few, if any, close friends, and feel nervous around strangers although they may marry and maintain jobs. The disorder, which may appear more frequently in males, surfaces by early adulthood and can exacerbate anxiety and depression. -Speech may be odd. It may be excessively abstract or concrete or contain odd phrases or use phrases or words in odd ways. Patients with schizotypal personality disorder often dress oddly or in an unkempt way (eg, wearing ill-fitting or dirty clothes) and have odd mannerisms. They may ignore ordinary social conventions (eg, not make eye contact), and because they do not understand usual social cues, they may interact with others inappropriately or stiffly. -While people with schizotypal personality disorder may experience brief psychotic episodes with delusions or hallucinations, the episodes are not as frequent, prolonged or intense as in schizophrenia. Another key distinction is that people with schizotypal personality disorder usually can be made aware of the difference between their distorted ideas and reality. Those with schizophrenia generally can't be swayed away from their delusions.

types of anxiety disorders

Social Anxiety Disorder Fear of negative evaluation, judgement, and rejection by others Generalized Anxiety Disorder Persistent worrying where worrying is unwarranted Specific Phobia Unrealistic fears toward an object or person Panic Disorder Repeated panic attacks and fear of future attacks - People with social anxiety disorder may worry about acting or appearing visibly anxious (e.g., blushing, stumbling over words), or being viewed as stupid, awkward, or boring. As a result, they often avoid social or performance situations, and when a situation cannot be avoided, they experience significant anxiety and distress. - Symptoms of social anxiety may be so extreme that they disrupt daily life and can interfere significantly with daily routines, occupational performance, or social life, making it difficult to complete school, interview and get a job, and have friendships and romantic relationships. People with social anxiety disorder are also at an increased risk for developing major depressive disorder and alcohol use disorders. - Social anxiety disorder is different from being introverts! - People with generalized anxiety disorder may anticipate disaster and may be overly concerned about money, health, family, work, or any other issues. Individuals with GAD find it difficult to control their worry. They may worry more than seems warranted about actual events or may expect the worst even when there is no apparent reason for concern. - At times, people can struggle with physical symptoms such as stomachaches and headaches. - Phobias are usually directed toward some object that poses some threat. If someone has a phobia of spiders, they may even have a strong reaction to 11 something like a picture of a spider -Hippopotomonstrosesquipedaliophobia: fear of long words (ironically).

attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (adhd)

Unusual inattentiveness, hyperactivity with impulsivity, or both Inattentive Type (the least common) Can't pay attention, forgetful Hyperactive-Impulsive Type Fidgeting, can't stay seated Combined Type (the most common) All of the above Affects ~ 7% of the US population Causes Genes Reduced brain volume May struggle with symptoms into adulthood - In order to be diagnosed, they must have at least 6 symptoms of hyperactivity or impulsivity that occur for at least 6 months and that interfere with daily functioning - Several symptoms must show up before age 12 and occur in multiple setting (school, home) - Areas that involve motor control, attention, emotion regulation, and motivation are usually affected. This is known as the delayed maturation hypothesis. And in support of this hypothesis this reduced brain volume does mostly disappear by adulthood as does some of the other symptoms

post traumatic stress disorder

frequent and recurring unwanted thoughts related to trauma Nightmares Intrusive thoughts Flashbacks Avoid areas associated with the trauma -PTSD is in a way, a very rapid classical conditioning; unconditioned response (fear) is quickly associated with unconditioned stimulus (traumatic experience), so that any situation that can remotely resemble the traumatic situation will trigger fear (conditioned response). -Persons with PTSD may forget a traumatic event and can't remember it but may recall some details/emotions. -It is more common in women than men. Why do you think that is? One reason might be because women tend to have lower base level for arousal (think personality chapter, and how introverts tend to have lower base level arousal, so they tend to avoid stressful situation in order to raise their arousal level way beyond they feel comfortable? I'm not saying women are all introverts, but they tend to show higher neuroticism than men, which is related to higher arousal level).

theres always an exception to the rule....

- Children from low SES backgrounds tend not to delay gratification. - But, this might be adaptive... - Higher vagal tone (one type of nerves in the brain) is an indicator of better regulation. - High SES and High Vagal Tone = wait for the second marshmallow - Low SES and High Vagal Tone = eat the first marshmallow

self determination theory

- Extrinsic Motivation can undermine Intrinsic Motivation - We like feeling autonomous and competent. - Being rewarded for doing something we inherently like makes us feel like we aren't choosing to do this on our own.

motivation can be external

- Incentives: external objects or goals that motivate our behavior - Intrinsic Motivation: Do something because it brings us joy or pleasure on its own - Extrinsic Motivation: Do something to achieve an external reward like a goal or a paycheck.

drives regulate basic behaviors

- Person is deprived of some need -- Water, food, sex, sleep - Drive state creates appropriate arousal - Drive motivates some behavior to satisfy the need - That behavior is reinforced. - Over time, these drive-reduction behaviors can form habits.

long term goals

- We need self-regulation - the process by which people change their behavior to attain personal goals. - Part of self-regulation is delayed gratification.

cannon-bard theory

-walter cannon and philip bard -our mind and body respond independently in an emotional state -information is sent to the body and to the brain separately--emotional reactions and bodily reactions are separate.

traditional biomedical model

-Goal: Prolong life expectancy at all costs -The human body is a machine to be fixed -Doctor functions like a mechanic ◦ Diagnosis - biomarkers of illness, status of organ systems ◦ Treatment - surgeries, medications, hospital stays -Patient is a passive entity to be serviced (like a car) -Limits treatment of poor health/illness exclusively to medicinal remedies. -Nothing's wrong with medical approach, however, after studying the human mind, now we know that there are also psychological and social processes involved in our health. -The resulting model that integrates all 3 components in the Biopsychosocial model.

coping with stress

-Just noting that there are risks involved in both strategies. -It is best to assess your personal resources and the unique situational factors to pick out the best coping strategy. -For instance, if your S.O is in a bad mood, ignoring him/her until their bad mood passes may the be best option (emotion-focused coping). -However, ignoring your partner's drinking problems would nor work. In this case, problem focused coping strategies would work better/more needed.

perceived discrepancy between demands and resources

-When too much is expected of us or when events are worrisome or scary, we perceive a discrepancy between the demands of the situation and our resources to cope with/overcome them. -Basically, if you want to jump from one tall building to another tall building like the guy did in the first video, but lack the parkouring ability of graceful mountain goats, the difference between the skills you need to achieve your goal and your actual skill will cause stress. -Another example more relevant to current events, the demand (what we want/need) is to go outside to enjoy this beautiful spring and hang out with friends. However, there's a restriction on the amount of social interaction we can have right now (resources). Thus, this pandemic is causing us stress!

5 basic emotions

-anger -fear -sadness -disgust -happiness

motivational direction

-approach motivation: go towards -avoidance motivation: move away

facial feedback hypothesis

-changing facial expression change emotional state (james lange theory)

drive reduction theory

-drive: psychological state that creates arousal in order to motivate an organism to satisfy a need -drives exist to help organisms maintain homeostasis, or equilibrium of bodily functions

what is motivation?

-energizes us, and guides our behavior towards a goal -helps us maintain behavior towards a goal

behavioral components

-facial expressions -body language

secondary emotions

-guilt -anticipation -embarrassment -disappointment -caring -curiosity -frustration -jealousy -regret

embarassment

-happens when we violate a norm, mess up or our self-image is threatened -realization of interpersonal errors -nonverbal apology that elicits forgiveness in others

physiological components

-heart rate -sweating

major theories of emotion

-james lange theory -the cannon-bard theory -the schachter-singer two-factor theory

maslows hierarchy

-lacks strong empirical support -still an influential theory in education and business -represent an ideal to be followed

what makes an emotion?

-physiological component -behavioral component -subjective feelings

effects of chronic stress

-repeated and prolonged stress leads to physical deterioration and aging -production of new neurons declines -early cognitive aging, slowed healing and death

health psychology

-researching and applying psychology principals about health and well-being -exercise -eating -chronic disease -public health -stress and sleep

what is stress?

-response to something in your life that involves an unpleasant state of anxiety or tension. -subjective

guilt

-shows others you care -stops you from doing things that will hurt others -excessive guilt: bad and can be used to manipulate

schachter-singer two-factor theory

-stanley schachter and jerome singer -a label applied to physiological arousal results in the experience of an emotion

what are other emotions we feel that are not the basic?

-surprise -contempt

fast route

-thalamus to amygdala

effect of hormone

-the hormone oxytocin appears to increase trust -one way that oxytocin might increase both trust and well-being is by increasing social bonds -Of course, to have a quality relationship, trust is essential. Trust is also important in maintaining physical and psychological health. -Trust has been associated with better health and a longer life. People that think people cannot be trusted also think that their health was fair to poor. -Oxytocin is the hormone that increases trust, so it's important for mothers in bonding with their newborns. -Oxytocin also may encourage affiliation during social stress. -Oxytocin is also released when people feel empathy towards others, feel love and also in the tend-to-befriend response.

social support

-trust is associated with better health and a longer life -Social interaction is good for both physical and mental health. -People with a strong social connection/network that have many good friends are higher in well-being and also live longer. -People that have social support available tend to experience less stress in general. -Also, knowing that there are people that care about you can decrease the negative impact of stress. -According to the buffering hypothesis, receiving emotional support from others help coping stressful events

do we always get the label right?

-when people misidentify the source of their arousal it is called "misattribution of arousal" -dutton and aron, 1974

what is considered psychopathology?

1. Is the person acting in a way that deviates from cultural norms for acceptable behavior? Hearing Voices Native American Culture vs. Mainstream American Culture 2. Is the behavior maladaptive? 3. Is the behavior destructive to the self or others? 4. Does the behavior cause discomfort and concern for others in the social environment? -Culture can be drastically different for each individuals and some of the extraordinary experiences can be common for a particular culture. For instance, Native Americans tend to hear voices during their spiritual experiences which is considered abnormal in mainstream American culture. It has been pointed out that it is vitally important to consider individual's culture (this doesn't just include national culture, but family culture, religious culture- example, speaking tongue--, culture related to sexual orientation...etc). -Maladaptive means that this behavior is interfering with the person's ability to function normally - hold a job, have a social life, etc. Remember that you need to consider all of these things together. Alone, someone doing a behavior that makes others uncomfortable (e.g. listening to metal music) is not psychopathology. -It is hard to sometimes draw the line between a behavior that is different than the average person, but not quite maladaptive. Focus on whether it is interfering with their life.

psychological treatment: biological models

Anti-Anxiety Drugs: commonly called tranquilizers Benzodiazepines Increase GABA Anti-Depressants: often also used for anxiety disorders Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRI's) Anti-Psychotics: reduce hallucinations and delusions Used for Schizophrenia Negative side effect: Tardive Dyskinesia Lithium: effective for Bipolar Disorder -SSRIs were not the first antidepressants developed - but they are most commonly used nowadays because they have less side effects compared to past drugs Tardive Dyskinesia refers to involuntary twitching of muscles, usually in the face and neck. *Does not treat negative symptoms of schizophrenia. *difficult to get people to adhere to medications -The caveat with using medications is that we don't know a lot about WHY they work. We can figure out for most which neurotransmitter we are blocking or facilitating, but the effects on behavior are unclear and they don't work for some people. More research is needed to fully understand what is going on.

cognitive and behavioral therapies

Behavior therapy: behavior can be unlearned through the use of classical and operant conditioning. Social skills training: The client learns appropriate ways to act in specific social situations. Exposure: a behavioral therapy technique that involves repeated exposure to an anxiety-producing stimulus or situation Cognitive therapy: treatment based on the idea that distorted thoughts produce maladaptive behaviors and emotions; treatment strategies attempt to modify these thought patterns. Cognitive therapy: treatment based on the idea that distorted thoughts produce maladaptive behaviors and emotions; treatment strategies attempt to modify these thought patterns. -"Gold standard" for therapy because it includes change in both thought and behavior. Its effectiveness is well proven both anecdotally and scientifically (behavior part sure does make it easier to measure the outcome). CBT is subsumed under CT (cognitive therapy).

pros and cons of guilt and embarrassment

Guilt is negative to feel but produces positive consequences for the group. When one feels responsible for another person's negative emotion, they feel guilt in turn. Guilt shows the other person you care about them and [prevents you from doing things to harm the relationship. Both these things are negative to experience, but are socially helpful and generally promote positive outcomes.

illness/wellness continuum

Health Psychologists attempt to understand "health" along an illness/Wellness Continuum. According to this conceptualization, health and sickness are not entirely separate concepts they overlap. On the continuum, death is at one end and optimal wellness is at the other. At the wellness end of the continuum, health is the dominant state and at the other end, the dominant state is illness or injury in which destructive processes produce characteristic signs, symptoms, or disabilities

the placebo effect

Is the therapy working, or is the expectation that you should be getting better working? The person must BELIEVE they are receiving the treatment. NOT Double Blind with therapy. -You've probably heard of a placebo effect for a drug trial where one group takes a pill with inactive ingredients. In order for a drug to be successful, it needs to work above and beyond the placebo group. -But what does that look like for therapy? This is where one group is receiving a targeted treatment or course of action from a therapist, whereas the placebo group would simply meet weekly with a therapist and talk without any directed action from the therapist. -Placebo drugs that are most successful produce some physical symptoms like a dry mouth that convince someone they are taking a drug -For a drug study, the person won't know which drug they are taking and the doctor can not know what drug they are taking, so there is no effect of expectation. -But, therapists tend to know when they aren't giving a real therapy. So, those therapists in control groups may have minor influences on the patient through subconscious facial expressions or body language.

what happens when we don't confirm the effectiveness of our treatments?

One example of treatments gone wrong is the DARE program from the 90's. Children who went through DARE were more likely to drink alcohol and smoke cigarettes than those who didn't-it turns out that telling kids to just say no to drugs doesn't actually work-but we didn't find this out until after it had been implemented all over the country. -This is why it is important to test the effectiveness of programs. They might not just be ineffective, but counterproductive. -Additionally, alternative therapies or medical treatments might not just be harmful, but prevent someone from getting the help they actually need because they aren't seeking legitimate treatments.

how are psychological disorders treated?

Psychologists use two basic categories of techniques to treat psychological disorders: psychological and biological. Psychotherapy: the generic name given to formal psychological treatment Biological therapies: treatment of psychological disorders based on medical approaches to disease (what is wrong with the body) and to illness (what a person feels as a result). -The particular techniques used may depend on the practitioner's training, but all forms of psychotherapy involve interactions between practitioner and client. Psychopharmacology is the use of medications that affect brain or body functions. For many disorders, the recent focus has been on combining biological therapies with other approaches to find the best treatment for each client. Psychotherapy generally is aimed at changing patterns of thought, emotion, or behavior It has been estimated that there are more than 400 approaches to treatment. One factor known to affect the outcome of therapy is the relationship between the therapist and the client. -The therapeutic relationship between the therapist and client is known to be one of the most effective element in therapy, regardless of the types of actual therapy provided.

differences between all three theories

Schachter-singer theory is a good compromise between the previous two theories. Like the James-Lange theory, the physiological arousal is an important early part, and the label we give to an emotion is important in the determination of what emotion we are feeling. But, it isn't necessarily sequential-if we see a bear we know we are scared right away and we automatically get aroused. Like the Cannon-Bard theory, they happen at the same time. But, they are not independent. We are labeling our physiological arousal, which produces the feeling component of an emotion. Schachter-singer theory suggests that physiological response to some emotional stimuli can be the same, but the arousal will be interpreted differently, depending upon the situation, and given a label. So, with this theory, we see the bear, and automatically respond with our heart beat and sweating, but we are also very quickly able to label our emotion as fear, based on the situation. Your knowledge that bears are dangerous leads you to attribute the arousal to the bear and label the arousal "fear."

pharmacological treatment of adhd

Side Effects: Sleep problems, reduced appetite, body twitches, growth suppression Abuse Selling Ritalin/Adderall Self-Perception If I am taking this drug, my behavior must be out of my control. Failure to develop coping strategies

dealing with stress

Social support : -People with social support experience less stress overall. -beneficial for physical and mental health -helps people cope and maintain good health * More on this in the next slide. Stress resistant: -greater emotional flexibility to meet stressful and unexpected situations (bounce back from threats) -capable of adapting to life changes by appraising events constructively -"hardiness" has three components 1. commitment to daily activities 2. see threats as challenges 3. view themselves as in control

psychodynamic therapy

Started by Freud Aimed at uncovering hidden desires and motives -People would sit on his couch and talk to him, aimed at uncovering the unconscious (like his personality theory), not the most effective nowadays, but got the ball rolling. It is still being done, and CAN be rather effective in detecting subconscious thoughts that the clients themselves may not be aware of. Its effectiveness is alleged by some clinicians who used psychodynamic (or psychoanalytic) therapy and treatment to successfully detect people with pedophilic and psychopathic (antisocial personality) tendencies while other cognitive based therapies could not. -All in all, its effectiveness is very hard to be scientifically proven (how do you know whether you've "correctly" identified subconscious thoughts when no one can prove what it is to begin with?).

major life vs daily stressors

Stressors: Something in environment we perceive as overwhelming/ threatening/demanding → Produces stress • Major life stressors: changes or disruptions that strain central areas of people's lives • can be choices made by people (having a child, divorce) • Or unpredictable and uncontrollable catastrophic events (e.g., hurricane, floods, wars, pandemic...) • Daily stressors/hassles: small. Day-to-day irritations and annoyances • E.g., driving in heavy traffic

motivators

The motivators we have talked about so far have been pretty basic - we need food and water to survive, and we need to get away from poisonous snakes to stay alive. But, motivation, like most of human behavior, grows more complex. Wanting to survive isn't enough to push people to succeed in school, or go after their dream job. Abraham Maslow proposed a hierarchy of needs that motivate us in the 1940's. The basic needs at the bottom of the pyramid have to be met before we can achieve the top needs. Self-actualization: a state that is achieved when one's personal dreams and aspirations have been attained. We can't do things like live to our full potential, experience personal growth, and feel fulfillment of our dreams without meeting our basic needs first.

diagnosing disorders

The predominant way we have determined mental disorders is through a categorical approach where you either have a disorder or you don't. You can think of this like a light switch that is either on or off. But, it is hard to determine the cutoff. Is someone that is just one criteria off from a generalized anxiety disorder not at least somewhat anxious? So, researcher have begun to move towards more of a continuum approach when determining mental illness.

experiment for misattribution of arousal

The researchers had male participants walk across one of two bridges. They then did some phony questionnaire at the end of the bridge, given to them by an attractive female experimenter. After they took the test, the experimenter gave them her number, and said to call if they had any more questions about the experiment. Men who walked across the scary bridge! They were higher in physiological arousal from the fear of the unsteady bridge. They misattributed this to being caused by attraction to the researcher.

types of coping strategies

The two general coping categories: • Emotion-focused coping: a type of coping in which people try to prevent having an emotional response to a stressor --Or try to avoid or distance themselves from the problem (stress eating/drinking would be an example) • Problem-focused coping: a type of coping in which people take direct steps to confront or minimize a stressor (e.g., Getting a tutor to help boost grade) -Most people report using both emotion-focused coping and problem-focused coping

how to reduce stress

When we are facing stressful events, we evaluate the situation to better manage our feelings more objectively. This involves 2 steps: 1. Primary appraisals: decide whether stimuli(events) are stressful, not stressful, or irrelevant. 2. Secondary appraisals: if the event is determined to be stressful, evaluate your response options and choose coping strategies.

example of james lange theory

a bear comes running at you. according to james-lange your heart starts beating fast and you start sweating. you notice these bodily changes and realize you are scared

health

a positive state of physical, mental, and social well-being—not simply the absence of injury or disease—that varies over time along a continuum

belonging and love

acceptance, friendship

primary emotions developed by who?

paul ekman

arousal

physiological response

valence

positive or negative

which emotions rely on the fast route?

primary

describe primary and secondary emotions

primary emotions are usually intense responses to an event or stimulus in our environment, but secondary emotions usually come later and are more of a cognitive response to a situation

safety

security, protection, freedom from threats

motivational intensity

some things are a strong motivation, some are weak

slow route

thalamus to visual cortex to amygdala

stress response

• We do see some sex difference in how people respond to stress. • You may be familiar with the term Fight or Flight response which describes animals and human's physiological preparation to deal with an attack(stressor). -When you face an attack or a stressor, your body directs all energy to whichever strategy you decide to take (fight or flee) by increasing heart rate, redistributing blood to muscles and brain, dilation of the pupils, etc. Less critical activities such as food digestion, that can be done after the stressor is removed is postponed. • However, because the majority of the fight or flight research has been done using males, whether we can generalize this response to females also is arguable. • Research suggests that in general, females respond to stress by protecting and caring for their offspring and form alliances with social groups to reduce risks. This response pattern is called Tend and Befriend response. -Evolutionarily this approach makes sense. Let's say a pregnant mother with 3 children are getting attacked by a bear. Would she try to fight the bear? Or try to run away from it with her 4 children? It would be more effective to gather her children and hide somewhere to avoid harm.