Psychology Exam II

2. Absentmindedness

" a lapse in attention that reulsts in memory failure What makes people absentimidned? o One common cause is lack of attention Attention plaus a vital role in encoding ifno into long temr emmroy

Aurora

(Kluver and Baycy?) • After doing some brain surgery on a onakey named Aurora they noticed that she would eat just about anything and have sex with hyst about anyone-as though she could no longer distinguished between good and bad food or good and bad mates • The most striking thing about Aurora was that she did all this with an extraoridcinary lack of fear

why survival encoding more effective?

(results:Experiment findings:psrticpants recalled more words after the surval encoding taks than after either the moving or pleasantsness taks) What about srvial encding produces such high levels of meory? o Survival encoding draws on elements of elaborative, imagery and organizational encoding which may give it an advantage overy any of of the three o Also more itnering or emotionally arusing than other kids of encoding

Proactive interference

(situations in which) earlier learning impairs memory for information acquired later

When an organism generalizes to a new stimulus two things are happening

1. by responding to the new stimulus used during generalization testing, the rognaism demonstrates that it recognizes the similarity vetween the orginal CS and the ne stimulus 2. by displaying diminished responding to that new stimulus it also tells us that it notices a difference between the two stimulu a. the rognaism shows discrimination

Cannon-Bard Theory

: a stimulus simultaneously tiggers acitivity in the autonomic nervous system and emotional experience in the brain

Expectancy theory

: alcohol effects are produced by people's expectations of how alcohol will influence them in particular situations • The belief that one has had alcohol can influence behavior as strongly as the ingestion of alcohol itself

Ecstasy

: known for making users feel empathetic and close to those around them, but has an unpleasant side effects such as interfering with the regulation of body temperature, making users highly susceptible to heatstroke and exhaustion.

Polygraph

: measures a variety of physiological resposnes that are associated with stress which people often feel when they are afraid of being caught in a lie (valid source, but not a lot of basis for accuracy)

Experience sampling technique

: people me asked to report their conscious experiences at particular times. o Show that consciousness is dominated by the immediate environment

Alcohol myopia

: proposes that alcohol hampers attention, leading people to respond in simple ways to complex situations • Recognizes that life is filled with complicated pushes and pulls and our behavior is often a balancing act. • Holds that when you drink alcohol, your fine judgement is impaired.

Motivation

: the purpose for or psychological cause of an action

intermittent reifnrocement

: when only some of the responses made are followed by reifnromcenets o →prduces interesting bahrior

4. Memory Misattribution

:assigning a recollection or an idea to the wrong source Part of memory is knowing where our memories came from

how do we tell similar pshysiological sympotoms of different emotions apart?

:context o the context in which a facial expression occurs often tells su what that expression means

trauma therapy + false memories

A number of techniques used by psychotherpaistd to tory to pull up forgotten childhood memres are clearly suggesting, such as encouraging clients to imagine incidents that might or might not have happened • Memroies of trauma also show unsually high rates of false memories on alb test • While some recovered memories—especially those that peope remember on their own—are probably accurate those recovered using rhese tecnhqieus that are known to create falseamories in the lab are sucpect

Purposes of emotions

Ac-vate appropriate behaviors Communica-on: Implicit Decision Making Memory Forma-on

Second-Order Conditioning

After conditioning has been established second-order conditioning can be demonstrated

amnesia patients

Amnesia patienrs are characterized by lesions to the hippocampus and neabrly structures in the medial temporal lobe: accordingly these regions are ot necessary for implicit learning

activate appropiate behaviors

Approach, avoid, affiliative, etc.

brains activites vs. activites of the conscious mind

Benjamin Libert Experiment: One telling set of studies suggests that the brain's activities precede the activities of the conscious mind procedure: told inviduals to relax and to move their fingers needed to figure out when the person made their decusion to move the finger; indivudals recorded when they decided to make decision to move finger recorded brain signaling from EEG when did partietal cortex fire? when did the decusion to move finger occur? The brain becomes active more than 300 milliseconds before participants report that they are consciously trying to move

Implicit Decision Making:

Bias our decision making in particular "adaptive" directions

when is blocking most common?

Blocking occurs eepcially foten for the names of people and pleces before their links to related concets and knwoedlge are weaker sthan those for common terms

DHEA

Both males anf females begin rpdocuing this slow acting hormone at the age of six which may explain why boys anf grisl both experience their itnial sexual interest at about the age of ten

Hypnotic Effects

Can also be used for a memory loss cure

what if we need the info for longer?

Can use a trick that allows us to get around the natural limistaions of short term emories: rehearsal

This question has been addressed using two prodcuedres for condiing eyeblink response

Delay conditing and trace conditioning

rate of learning in classical conditioning

During the inisital phase of classical conditioning there is a gradual increase in learning o It starts slow, rises rapidly and then slowly tapers off

1970's Long-Term Potentiation Research

Early 1970's researhcers applied a brief electial stimulus to a neural pathway in a rats hippocampus o Found that the electrical current procuded a stronger connection betwe synapses that lay along the pathway and that the sgtnegthed lasted for hours or even weeks o Called this long-term potentiation

The Cogntivie Elements of Operant Conditioning (Tolman)

Edward Chace Tolman was the strongest early advocate of a cogntivie approach to operant leanring o Tolman argued tha thtere was more to learning that just knowing the cirucmsances in the environment and being able to osberce a particular otuomce o Instread tolman proposed that the conditioning epxeirence produces knowledge or a belief tha, tin this particular situation, a specific reward will appear if a specific response is made

emotion as a primitive system

Emotion is a primvitive system that prepares us to react rapidly and on the basis of little ifnromation to things that are relevant to our survival and well being

Episodic Memory and Imagining the Future

Episodic memory alos plays a role in allowing to us to travel forward in time

Pavlov (ex of second-order conditioning)

Ex: in an early study Pavlov repeatedly paried a new CS- a black sque- with the now-relieable tone→after anumber of trainignt trials his dogs produced a salivary response to the black square ven though the swaure itself has nevr been directly associated with the food

Two theories have been offered to account for these variable effects

Expectancy theory + alchohol myopia

Freud Dream Theories

Freud proposed that dreams are confusing an obscure because the dynamic unconscious creates them precisely to be confusing. o Dreams represent wishes and some of these are so unacceptable taboo and anxiety producing they can only be in dreams o Dreams feature the return of suppressed thoughts

Emotional Functions

However, unlike motivations emotions are more situationally ambiguous and also serve a mulitude of pruposes...

how emotions move people to act

Human beings act because their emotions move them and emotions do this in two different ways: o Emotions provide people with information about the world o Emotions are the objective toward which people strive

orexigenic signal

If your body needs energy it send an orezigenic signal to trll you brain to swtich hunger on

Memory Formation

Influence recall (e.g., flashbulb memories, state-dependent memories)

communication

Inform / manipulate other group members (e.g., Universality hypothesis)

what purpose does mimicry serve?

Its main function: help us figer out what others are feeling because of the expression-causes-eotion effect when we miic someones facial expression we also feel their emotions

NMDA receptors

LTPin the hippocampus appears to depend on a nueral repcepted called the NMDA :inflcuences the flow of info between neurons by controlling the intiation of LTP in most hippocampal pathways

what good is the map?

Maps don't just show how close things are to one another but reveal the dimensions on which those things vary o ex: the map reveals that emotional experiences differ on two dimensions: valence and arousal

Relatedness

Meaningful social contact with others

psychologists perception (mental events ties with brain events)

Most psychologists assume that mental events are intimately tied to brain events, such that every thought perception or feeling is associated with a particular pattern of activation of neurons in the brain

the face and emotional expression

No part of the body is more exquislely designed forcommunicating emotion that the face o 43 muscles that are capable of creating more than 10,000 unique confugrations

Darwins book "The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals"

Noted the human and nonhuman anilasa share certain facial and postural exressions nas suggested that these expressions were meant to communicate finromation about the internal stages

Diffusion chain

Observational learning is well stied to seeding behaviors that can spread widely across a cylture through a process called a diffusion chain definition: individual initially learn a behavior by observing another individual perfrom that behavior and then serve as a model from which other individuals learn the behavior

Reappraisal

One of the most effective strategies for emotion regulation is reappraisal :changing ones emotional experience by changing the meaning of the emotion-elicting stimulus

Emtoional Communication: Msgs w/o Wrds

One of the reasons why people who interact with Leonardo the robot find it so hard to think of him as a machine is that Leonardo expresses emoions that he doesn't actually have

what brain areas are used for visual imagery encoding?

Organizational encoding activats the upper surface of the left frontal lve

bodily activity and mental acitivty--> emotional experience

Our bodily activity and our mental activiry are both the causes and the consequences of our emotional experience

emotional states

Our emotional states influence just about everythingwe do: from the way we talk—intonation, infletion, loudness—to the way we walk, stand or slump

Pavlov and Classical Conditioning

Pavolv showed that dogs learned to salivate to neutral stimuli such as a bell or a tone afer that stimulus has been associated with another stimulus that naturally evokes salivation, such as food

amygdala damage and emotional recongition

People with amygdala damge who have trouble experience fear and anger are typicall poor at tecognizing the expressions of those emotions in others

Competence

Perception of improvement or mastery of skills

autonomy

Percepton of control and being a causal agent in one's life.

Dreams

Pioneer sleep researcher William C. Dement said "Dreaming permits each and every one of us to be quietly and safely insane every night of our lives

pain + pleasure relaitonship

Pleasure is not just the lack of pain and pain is not just the lack of pleasure; they are independent experience

• Will a whloe new round of cndtioning need to be established with this modiefied CS?

Probably not o It wouldn't be very adaptive for an organism if each little change in the CS-US pariing required an extensive regimne of new learning o The phenomnena of generalization tends to take place

Descarte's theory of mind vs. body

Rene Decartes posed that the human body is a machine made of physical matter but the mind or soul is a separate entity made of a "thinking substance".

misunderstood attraction

Research has shown that when people are aroused they subsewently find attractive people more attratictive, annoying people more annoying, etc as if they were inteepreting their excersise-induced arousal as attraction, annoyance or amusement

The Nature of Consciousness

Researchers have suggested that consciousness can be described based on its properties, its levels, and its contents.

Motivation for Sex

Sex is essential to our survival—or eat least to the survival of our dna—and so evoltuon has ensured that a desire for sex is wired eep into the brian of almost every one of us

Sleep and Dreaming: Good Night, Mind

Sleep can produce a state of unconsciousness in which the mind and brain apparently turn off the functions that create experience

sleep + learning

Sleep following learning appears to be ssential for memory consolidation

conclusion

Students should spend more time testing themselves on the to-be-learned material than simply studying it over and over

implicit vs. explicit learning

The brain structures that underlie implicit learning are distact from those that underlie explicit learning

where is long term memory located in the brain? (HM)

The clues to answing this question comes from patient who are unable to store long-term emories o i.e. HM o HM's doctors removed parts of his temporal loves including the hippocampus and some surrounding regions o He could concerse easily use and understand language and perfrom well on intelligence tests but could not remeebr anting that had happened to him after the operation o After info left the short-term store it was gone forever o HM lacked the ability to hang on to the new memories hae created • Studies of HM and other shave shown that the hippocampal region of the brain is ciital for putting new info into the long-term store o When this region is damaged patients suffer from a condition known as anterograde amnesia

A Modern View of the Cognitive Unconscious

The current study of the unconscious mind views it as the factory that builds the products of conscious thought and behavior

implicit learning + dyslexic patients

The dyslexix children by constrast exhbit dificint in implicit learning of artificial grammaers and motor and spatial sewuences on the serial reaction time task

Skinner Bird Example -Why?

The pigeons were simply repeating behaviros that had been accidentally reifnroced: a pigenous that just happened to have packed randomly in the conrer when the food showed up had connected the delivery of food to that ebahior o because this pecking bejaior was "reinforced" by the delivery of food the pegen was likely ro repeat it o skinners peigen acted as though there was a asual relationship between their behavior and the appearance of food when it was merely an accidental correlation

Cogntive Explanation of Pavlov's Experiment

The sound of a tone because of its systematic pariing with food s up this expectation for the labo dogs: pavolv because he has no reliable link with food did not o In situations as with pavlovs dogs many responses are actually being conditing: when the sound goes of the dogs wag their tails, make beiging sounds and look toward the food source

difference between two dream theories

These theories differ in the significance they place on the meaning of dreams: o Freud thinks that dreams begin with meaning whereas in the activation-synthesis, dreams begin randomly but meaning can be added as the mind lends interpretations in the process of dreaming.

drive + survival

To survive an organism needs to main precise levels of nutrion, warmth and so on and when these levels depart from an optimal point the ornganism receives a signal to take corrective action

toxic inhalants

Toxic inhalants are the most alarming. Easily accessible.

Approach vs. Avoidance

Two conceptually distinct motivations: a motivation to "run to" pleasure and a motivation to "run from" pain o These motivations are called approach motivation and avoidance motivation

unconscious minds vs. conscious minds

Unconscious minds seemed better able than conscious minds to sort out the complex information and arrive at the best choice.

What brain areas are used for visual imagery encoding?

Visual encodinging activates visual processing regions in the occipital lobe which suggests that people actually enlist the visual system when forming memroies based on mental images

Little Albert Experiment

Watson presented little albert with a varity of stimulus: a white rat, a dog, a rabit, various makss, and a burning newspaper o Alberts reactions in most cases were curiosity or indifference eh showed no fear of any of the tiems o Watlson also established that soething could make albert afrain o Watson unexpectedly atrug a large steel bar with a hammer-produceing a loud noice and Albert began to cry →classical cndiing o Aler presented with a white rat so that every time he went to tocuhe it the steel bar was stuck→occred again and again over several trials o Eventually the sight of the rat alone caused alber tot recoul in terror, crying and clamoring to get away from it

explanation of Aurora

What explained Auroras behavior? o During surgery kluber and bucy has accidentally damged the amygdala o Before an animal can feel fear its brain must first decide that there is something to be afraid of

muscles used for smiling

When we feel happy our ygomatic major and our orbicular occuli produce a unique facial expression: smiling

difference between reinforcer and punisher

Whether a particular stimulus acts as a reifnofcer or a punisher depends in part on wheehter it increases or decreases the likelihood of a behavior

"reward" center + dopamine

a "reward center" in which dopamine plaus a key role increased opamine secretion or areas in which dopamine prevalent when pleasure is involved

stimulus control

a aprtcular response only occurs when an approrpaite discriminative stimulus is present • in the presence of a dismicninitive stimulus a response produces a reifncorce o the same response in a different context would most likely produce a very different outcome

Leptin

a chemical secrrted by fat cells appears to be a signal that tells the brian to swtich hunger off; seems to do this by making food less rewarding

Anorexia nervosa

a diroder characterized by an intesen fear of ebing fat and severe restriction of food intake o Tend to have a distorted body image that leads them to believe they are fat when they are actually emaciated and they tend to be high achieving perfectionists who see their severe control of eating as a triumph of will over impuse o Peope with anorexia have extremely high levels of ghrelin in their blood which suggests that their bodies are tryinf depsepartely to switch hunger on but that hungers call is being suppressed irgnored or overwridden

Bulimia nervosa

a disorder characterized by bing eating followed by purging o People with builimia typically ingest large quanities of food in a relatively short period and then tskee laxatives or induce vomiting to pruge the food from their bodies o These people are caight in a cycle: they eat to ease negative mtoins such as sadness and anciety but then concern about wueght gain leads them to expeirnce engative emotions such as guilt ans self-loathing and these mtoins then lead them to prurge

Nrcolepsy

a disorder in which sudden sleep attacks occur in the middle of waking activities. o Involves the intrusion of a dreaming state of sleep into waking and is often accompanied by unrelenting excessive sleepiness and uncontrollable sleep attacks lasting from 30 seconds to 30 minutes o May be genetic

Sleep Apnea

a disorder in which the person stops breathing for brief periods while asleep o Snores o When they last over ten seconds, they may cause awakenings and sleep loss and insomnia o Occurs most often in middle-aged overweight men o Therapies including weight loss, drugs, or external breathing aids may solve the problem.

Consciousness meter

a failed measurement of consciousness that only prediccts whether patients will say they are conscious

3. Blocking

a failure to retive information that is available in memory even thought you are trying to rpduce it • The sght after information has beeneocnded and stored an d a cuse is abaible that would ordinarily trigger recall of it • The firnoamtion has not faded from memory and you aren't forgetting to retirive it • Rather you are epxeringin a full blown retrival filure which makes this memory breakdown especially frustrating

ionic memory

a fast-decaying store of visual info

echoic memory

a fast-decyaung store of audotry info o when you have difficulty recalling what someone just said you find yourself replaying their wordsl you are accesing info that is being held in your echoic memory sotre

false recognition

a feeling of familiarity about something that hasn't been ecnoutnered before

altered state of consciousness

a form of experience that departs significantly from the normal subjective experience of the world and the mind

habituation

a general process in which repreated or prolonged exposure to a stimulus results in a gradual reduction in responding

grehlin

a hormone that is produced in the stomach and appears ot be a signal that tells the brain to swtcih hunger on Ghrelin also binds to nerons in the hippocampus and temporaility imporves learning and memeory so that we become just a little bit better at locateing food when our bodies need it most

Repression

a mental process that removes unacceptable thoughts and memories from consciousness and keeps them in the unconscious. • Without it a person might think, do , or say every unconscious impulse or animal urge, no matter how selfish or immoral.

cogntivie map

a metanl trepresentaiton of the physical feats of the environment

Avoidance motivation

a motivation not to experience a negative outcome

extrinisic motivation

a motivation to take actiions that lead to reward o when we flows our reeth so we can avoid gum disease we are extrinsicially mtoviated o this doesn't directly bring pleasure but may lead to pleasure in the long run

intrinsic motivation: (definition and example)

a motivation to take actions that are themselves reward o ex: when we eat a French fry it we eat it because it takes good, we are itnrisicnally mtoviated; these activirs don't have a payff because they are a pay off

Approach motivation

a motiviation to experience a positive outcome

Orbicular occuli

a muscle that crinkles the outside edges of our eyes

Zygomatic major

a muscle that pulls our lip corners up

consolidation

a process by which memories become stable in the brain • shortly after encoding memories exist in a fragile state in whch they can be easuly disrupted; nce coldidations has occurred they are more resitant to disrtuon

Retrieval-induced forgetting

a process by which retrieving an tiem from long-term emory impairs ssbeqeunt recall of related item o Its as if our emmory impleemnts a kind of survival of the fittest: when we try to recall some itsm but not other the ones that are not recalled arw wekeaned in emmory

Long-term potentiation

a process whereby communication across the synapse between neurons stengths the connection, making further communication easier

biological preparedness

a propensity fr learning articular kinds of asssociations over others, so that some vehauors are relatively easy to condition in some species but no in others

Conditioned response

a reaction that resembles an unconditional response but is produced by a conditional stimulus

Unconditional respose

a reflective reaction that is realiably produced by an unconditional stimulus (dogs salivation)

Encoding speicfity principle

a retirval cue can serve as an effective reminder whnen it helps re-create the specific way in which info was initially encoded

Circadian Rhythm

a set of naturally occuring 24-hour cycle from the Latin circa "about" and dies "day"

cultural worldview

a shared set of belifes about what is good and right and true • beliefs allow people to see themselves as more than mortal animals because they inhabit a world of meaning in which they can achieve symbolic immportality and pehas even literal immprotanlity • →our cultural worlddivew is a shild that buffers us against the anxiety that knwoeldge of our own mortality creates

Conditioned stimulus

a stimulus that is initially neutral and produces no reliebale response in an organism

psychological dependence:

a strong desire to return to the drug even when physical withdrawal symptoms are gone

operant conditioning (definition)

a type of learning in which the sonsequnces of an orgnamis behavior determing whether it will be repreasted in the future o the stud of operant conditioning the exploration ofbehaviora that are active

short-term memory

a type of storage that holds nonsenory info for more than a few seconds but less than a minute o ex: if someone tells you a phone number you can usually say it back with ease but only for a few minutes

sensory memory

a type of storage that holds sensory info for a few seconds or less

Drug Overdose Example

a. Individual takes drug in a "safe" space. Does so repeatedly. b. US = physiological effect of the drug, this will correlate with a particular feeling. But the feeling is NOT the true US, it is the increase in opiates, increase in cocaine, etc. c. UR = compensatory response of the body. This is the homeostatic changes in the body that bring your body back to a set point (e.g., temperature of ~98.8). In this case the homeostatic response is designed to get rid of / block the increase in opiates, cocaine, etc. This correlates with a particular feeling. d. The "safe space" is the NS / CS. Over time it is paired with the US. This will cause it to produce a CR. The CR in this case is basically the same as the UR à a decrease in opiate, cocaine, etc. e. Therefore, as soon as the individual enters their safe room, they are triggering a CR. That CR combats the UR à producing tolerance. I.e., in order to get the same "feeling" the individual will have to start taking more drug. f. Now, if the individual takes the drug in a NEW location, then they will not have the "protective" CR being produced. This can cause an accidental overdose.

Night Terrors

abrupt awakenings with panic and intense emotional arousal o Occur mainly in boys ages 3-7 and happen in NREM sleep o Do notusualy have dream content

Working memory

active maintenance of information in short-term storage o Differs from the traditional view that short-term memory is simply a place to hold info and instead includes the operations and processes we use to work with info in short-term memory

reflex

adaptaitve, permitted by natural selection and is not learned

Learning

adapting behavior in the current environemnt-->reflexive system (brought upon by natural selection)

Kinner's System

all of these emitted behavior "iterated" on the environment in some manner and the environment responsed by prodviing events that either strengrhed those bahviors or made them less likely to occur • In order to study operant behavior scientifically skinner developed a variation on Thorndikes puzzle boz

• The operant conditioning chamber of Skinner box

allows a research to stuy the bahvior f sall organism in a controlled enviromennt

the map

allows every emotional experience to be precisely the right "distance" from every other

children learning (explicit)

although children are often givien explicit rules of social conduct they leanr how to behave in a civilized way through experience; theyre porbably not aware of when o how they learned a particular course of action and may not even be able to stat the general principle underlying their behavior

extrinsic motivaiton (reality)

americans tend ot bleive that people should follow their hearts and do what they love but the fact is that our ability to engage in behaviors that are unrewarding in the present because we believe they will rbign greater reward in the furture is one of our species most significant talents and no toher species can do it wuite as well as we can

Hypnosis

an altered state of consciousness characterized by suggestibility and the feeling that one's actions are occurring involuntarily

priming

an enhanced ability to think of a stimulus, such as a word orobject, as a result of a recent exporsure t the stimulus

Appraisal:

an evaluation of the emotion-relevant acpsts of a stimulus • The amygdala is critical to making these appraisals

drive

an internal state caused by physiological needs

Emotional expression

an observable sign of an emotional state

universal emotional expressions

anger, digusts, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise

remember to remember

another common causes of absentminded is forgetting tocarry out acitons that we pllaned to do in the future • →have to remember to remeer

Instincs and Drives

answers why we push the needle or what pushes the needle of our emotional gauge

Punisher

any stimulus or event that functions to ddecrease the likelihood of the behavior that led to it

Reinforcer

any stimulus or event that functions to increase the likelihood of the bahvior that led to it

Antonio Demasio Patient: Emotional Decision Making

asked to examine a patient whith an unsual form of brain damage o He asked the patient to chose between two dates for an appointment o The enxt half hour the paitent anumeated reasons for and against each of the two possible dates completely unable to deice in favor of one option or the other o He couldn't feel: the patients injury had left him unable to experiemce emotion thus when the enteraited one option he didn't feel any better or worse than when he enterainted the other o Because he felt nothing when the though about an option he couldn't dediece which was better

Think aloud

asking people what is on their minds

Maslow (hierarchy of needs)

attempted to organiz the list of huan dreives or needs in a meaniful way o Some needs such as the need to eat must be satisfied before others such as the the need to have friends and built a hriechary of needs that has the most immediante needs and the bottom and the most deferrable needa at the top o As a rule: people will not experience a need until all the needs below it are ment • Akthough many aspects of Maslows theory have fiailed to win empricial support-scuhas a person on hunger strike—the ideas that some needs take precendece over others is clearly right • Although there are expcentions the needs that typically take recendence are those realted to our biolody

Operant behavior

behavior than an organism produces that has some impact on the environemt

law of effect (definition)

behaviors that are followed by a satisfying state of affairs tend to be repreated and those that produce an unpleasant state of affairs are less likely to be repeated

A Deeper Understanding of Operant Conditioning (Watson and Skinner Assumption of Behavior)

behavirolaist such as Watson and skinner an orgnamism behaved in a certainw ay as a response to sitmulu in the environment bot because there was any wanting.wishing or willing the the animal in question

example: Peigeons and movement

bodies are a bit like thermostats o When thermostated detect that the room is too cold they send signals that itniate corrective actions such as turning on a furncace o Simmiliarily when bodies detect that they are underfed they send signlas that intiate corrective actions such as heating

fixed interval schedule and variable intervalschedule

both ficed interval schedules and variable interval scedules tend to prduce slow, methodocial responding because the reifnrocement follow a time profession that is idepedent of hw many respnses occur

intermittent reinforcement

both vairbale and raitonschedales are ecpeamples of intermimittent reifnrocement

Psychoactive drugs

chemicals that influence consciousness or behavior by altering the brain's chemical message system. o Exert influence either by increasing the activity of neurotransmitters (agonists) or decreasing their activity (antagonists)

associative learning

classical conditioning and operant conditiing

two major approaches to learning

classical conditioning and operant conditioning o Some important kinds of learning occur siply by watching others and that such observational learning plays an important role in the cultureal transmission of behavionr

The Evolutionary Elements of Operant Conditioning

classical conditioning has an addpative value tha has been fine-tuned by evolution

chunking

combining small peicies of information into larger clusters or chunkers

Minimal consciousness

consciousness that occurs when the mind inputs sensations and may output behavior. • More an awareness and responsiveness • Could happen when you turn over in your sleep • Even plants have minimal consciousness

• secondary reifnrocers

derive their effectiveness from their associations with primary reinforcers through classical conditioning o ex: money starts out as a ntueral CS that through its association with primary USs like acquiring food or shelter takes on a conditioning emotional element

Cocaine:

derived from eaves of the coca plant. o Produce exhilaration and euphoria and are seriously addictive, both for humans and rats. o Withdrawal takes the form of an unpleasant crash, cravings, and antisocial affects

Flashbulb memories

detailed recollections of when and where we heard about shocking events •Several studied have shown that flashbublb memroeis are not always entirely accurte but they are genrally better remembered than mundance news events from the same time • Enhanced retention of flshabublb memroies is partly attributable to the emotional rousal eleicited by events such as 9/11 and partly attributed to the fact that we tend to talk and think a lot baut rhse expeirnces • When we talk about flashbublb experiences we elabore on them and thus further incrae the meorabiltiy of those aspects of the expericne that we discuss

insomnia

difficulty in falling asleep or staying asleep o 15 percent of adults claim to have insomnia o Another 15 claim to have mild or occasional insomnia

facial feedback hypothesis

emotional expression can cause the emotional experience they signify

Universality hypothesis

emotional expressions have the same meaning for everyone o Every human being naturally expresses happiness with a smule and every human ebing naturally understands that a smile signficies happiness

Two-factor theory

emotions are inferences about the cause of physiological arousal

Fear Goggles (case study/experiment)

emotions can actually affect our vision. ! In an experiment, when participants were shown fearful faces, their detection of orientation of thin lines suffered. o Their perception of thick lines remained intact. Evolutionary theories explain that our survival depends on low spatial frequency (we don't need to see fine detail in a split-second decision for survival). Certain stmuli are more readily conditioned with particular emotional outcomes. !Masked vs. Unmasked refers to the conscious awareness that the stimuli are present. Groups refer to an indicated phobia.

The Cause and Effect of Expression

emtoonal expreince can cause emotional expressions but interstinly it also works the other way ariud

The Evolutionary Elements of Classical Conditoning (evolution and natural selection and adaptiveness)

evoltuon and natural selection go hand in hand with adaptivness: hevaiors that are adaptive allow an organism to sruvie and thrive in its environment

positive or negative experience

experience that is associated with a particular pattern of physiological activity

retrieval cue

external information that is associated with sotred ifnromation and helps bring it to mind o Can be incredibly effective • Information si sometimes available in memory even when it is momenrarily inaccessible and that retrval cues help us bring inaccessible ifno to mind

Joseph DeLouz: mapped the rout that info about a stimulus takes through the brian and found that is is transmitted sumulatatnoulsy along two distinc routes

fast pathways vs. slow pathway

bottom up

feed forward the assembly of perception via the aggregation of simple outputs into more complex outpits

Robert Rescorla and Allan Wagner

first to theorize that classical conditing occurs only when an animal has learned to set up an expectation

James-Lange Theory (bear example)

first you see the bear then your heart starts pounding and your leg muscles contract and then you experience fear, which is nothing more or less than your experience of your physiological response

Shacter and Singer Experiment

giving pariticapnts an injeuct of epinephrine which caueses increase in blood pressure, heart rate, blood flow to the brain, blood sugar levels and respiration o The idnividuals then intereacted with someone, who they didn't know was, a part of the experiment o Particiapnts who experience epinephrine indicued arousal but who hasn't been informed of the ibjecitons effects would seek an expelantionfor their arousal o When the confederate acted goofy the particapnts condlucded that they themselves were feeling happy but when the conferedated acted nasty they concluded they themselves were feeling angry

fast pathway

goes from the thalamus directly to the amyfdla

slow pathway

goes from the thalamus to the cortex and then to the amygdala

long-term memory

holding info for hours, days, weeks, or years o Has no known capacity limites

sensory memory

holds sensory ifnromation for a few seconds or less

arousal

how active or passive the experience is

valence

how positive or negative the experience is

phenomenoloy

how things seem to the conscious person

Casmides Experiment

if p then q theories attached to the choice of neccesary" cards within each task

Rescodrlas and Tolman

in both rescordlas and tolmans theories the stimulus does not directly evoke a reponse, rather it esablshes an internal cognitive state which then rpduces the behavior

display rules (example)

in many asiant societies there is a cutluran normagainst diplaying negative emotions in the presence of a respected person and people in these societies may amsk of neutralize their expressions

punishments-->intirnisc motivaiton (examples)

in one study children who has no instinsic interest in playing with a toy suddenly gained an interest when the experimenter threated to punish them if the touched it o ex: finciancial penality caused in increase in late arrivals of parents because parents are intrinsically mtoviated to fetch their jkids and they genrally do their best to be on time but when the day care centers imposed a fine for late arrival the parents because extrnsivally mtoviated to fetch their children and becuas the fine not large they just depleted to paying it instrad

extrinisic rewards can undermine intrinsic interests (puzzle case study)

in one study college students who were intirisncially interested in a puzzle tiehr were paid to complete it or completed if for free and those who were paid were less likely to play with the puzzle later on o →under some cirrucstances peoppel take reward to indicate that an activity isn't inherently pleasurable: thus rewards can cause people to lose their intrinsic moticaiton

James-Lange Validity

in stating that patterns of physiligcal response not the same for all emotions

Cognitive unconscious

includes all the mental processes that are not experienced by a person but that give rise to the person's thoughts, choices, emotions, and behavior

non-associative learning

increase or decrease the stength of the reflex (increase-sensitization) + (decrease- habituation)

classical conditioning in trauma therapy

induced fears is based direcly on principles of classical conditong: patients are repewatedly exponsed to conditioned stimulu associated with their trauma ina safe setting in an attempt to extinguish the conditioned fear response

The four Basic Properties

intentionality unity selectivity transcience

Nicotine:

involves inhaling smoke that doesn't smell great and there is not usually a high • The positive effects from people smoking include relaxation, improved concentration (come from withdrawal symptoms)

Theory of ironic processes of mental control

ironic errors occur because the mental process that monitors errors can itself produce them.

amygdala- "threat detector"

is activated even when potentially threatening stimulu are shown at speeds so fast that people are unwaware of having seen them

validity of two-factor model

it suggests that people make inferences about the causes of their arousal and that these inferences influence their emotional ecxpeiremce

Retroactive interference

later learning imapris memory for information acquired earlier

gesalt laws

law of simmilarity, prxomity and closure

observational learning

learning takes place by watching the actions of others

implicit learning

learning that takes place largely independent of aeareness of both the process and the prodcuts of information acqueistion o implicit learning is knwoeldge that sneakes in "under the wires"

Transfer-aaporrate processing

memory is likely to transfer form one sitation to another when the encoding context of the situations match

unconscious motivations

motivations of which people are not aware

conscious motivaitons

mtoivations of which people are aware

reflexes

needs both a trigger and a response ex: flinch (trigger)-->response threat stimulus-->pull away

Semantic memory

netowkr of associated facts and cocnets that make up our genral knwoeldge of the world

Diplay rules

norms for the control of emotional expression

law of closure

notion of taking objects with simmiliar characteristics and completing them if they are not completed

law of proximity

notion that things that are close together will be grouped together and those not close will be seperate

law of simmilarity

notion that we group objects that have similiar characteristics together

Why do our brains succumb to perisstance?

o A key player is the amygdala o The amydala infleucned hormonal systems that kick into gear when we experience an arousing event; these stress related hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol movile the body in the face of threat and they also enhance emmory fr the experience o Such amygdala activating during encoding of emotional events is one reason why people normally remember highly emotil events better than mduane ones

false memories (hallbrooks example)

o After a few months in psychotherapy she began recalling disturbing incdients from her childhood- for example that her mother had tried to kill her and her father had abused her secually o Ahlthught her parients dieneid these veent had ever occurred her therapist encouraged her to belivieve in the rality of her memories o Evtually she stopped thwrapy and came to relalize that the mroues she has receovered qeere innacurate

causes of anorexia

o Anorexia may have both cutlrual and biological causes: women with anorexia tend to belive that thinness euals beauty but anorexia is not just vanity run amok, bioligcal may be the fact that men who have a twin with anorexia have a higher change of ftting it →prenatal hormone exposure

testosterone and estrogen

o Bth males and females produce testosterone and estrogen but maes produce more of the former and females produce more of the latter o These two hormons are largely responsible for the physical and psyhophological changes that characterize puberty

Ebbingus

o Charted his recall of nosnes syllable over time creating the forgetting curve o Ntoed a rapid drop-off in tetention during the first few tests followed by a slower rate of forgetting on later tests

three types of encoding processes

o Elaborative encoding o Visual imagery encoding o Organizational encoding

Dream Consciousness (five major characterists of dream consciousness)

o Emotion: bliss or terror or awe o Thought is illogical o Sensation is fully formed and meaningfu o Uncritical acceptance as though the images and events were perfectly normal rather than bizarre o Difficulty remembering the dream when it is over

key functions of memory

o Encoding o Storage o Retreiebal

External conctexts often make powerful retrival cues (examples)

o Es: divers leanred some words on land and some other words underwater: recalled the words best when they were tasted in the same dry or wert ienviroment in which they had itnially elrned them because the environemt itself served as a retrieval cue o Ex: acoholics often expeirnece a renewed urge to drink when visiting palcyes in which they once drank becas rthes epalces serve asretriveal cuses o Fidning a seat in calss, leanring mateirla in seat, sutdiying in seat, taking exam in that seat

organizational encoding (example-orgnaization of words)

o Ex: had to memorize the words: peach, cow, chair, apple. Table, cherry, lion, couch, horse, desk the task is diffuclt onto you put them itno the categories of fruits, animals and furtnitre • Insturcitng people to sort tiems into categories is an effective way to enhance their susbewuent recall of those items

consiteincy bias (case study example-couples)

o Ex: most of us would like to believe that our romatinc attachemnts grow storng over time o In one study couples were askec once a year for four years to asses the present wuality of their relationships ands to recall how they felt in past years; couples who stayed ogether for the four years recalled that the strength of their love had increased sincd they last reported on it yet their actual ratings at the time did not show any increases in love and attachment

freudian slips and extrapolation of meaning

o He looked at speech errors and lapses of consciousness (Freudian slips) o Believed errors are not random but instead have some surplus meaning that appear to have been created by an intelligent unconscious mind.

anorexigenic signal

o If your body has sufficient energy it sends an anorexigenic signal to tell your brian to swtich hunger off

Shacter and Singer Answers (divergence and accordance of James-Lange + Cannon-Bard Hypothesis)

o James and lange were right to equate emotions with the perception of ones bodily reacitons but cannon and bard were right to note that there are not nearly enough distinct bodily reactions to account for the wide ariety of emotions that human beings can experience o Whereas james and lange suggested that different emotions are different experiences of different patterns of bodily activirty shacter and Singer created the two-factor theory

priming (college student case study)

o Later explicit memory was tested by showing paricitapnts some of these words along with enw oens they hadn't sen asnd asking them which words were n the list o Implicit memory was tested by shoing paritcants word fragemtns and asking them to come up with a word that dit the fragments o Sieing ocutops and climate on the roginal list made those words more accesble later; during the fill in the blank test o Similar rpiming effects orbatined from visual material such as when paritcants first stud drawings of obecjts and are later asked to identify the objcts in a fragmernts drawing

What determines wheteher we are concsicous of our motivations?

o Most actions have more than one motivation and Vallach and Wegenr have suggested that the ease or dfifculty of perfmoring the action determins which of thrdse motivionations we will be aware of • When acitons are easy we are aware of our most general motivations • When actions are difficult we are aware of our more specific motivaitons

emotional experiences as a gague

o Our emotianl experience can be thought of as a gague that ranges from bad to good and our primary motivation is to keep the needle of the gauge as close to good as possible • Even wehen we volutnaryily do things that tilt the needle in the opposite direction we are doing this things because we veleive that they will nudge the needle toward the good in the future and keep it there in the long run

Why do we overeat? (3 Main Reasons)

o Overeating can result from biochemical abornlaites: for example obese people are foten leptin-resistant so that their braind do not respond to the chemical message that shufts hunger off and even letpin injections do not help them ; they cant just decide to stop eating o We often eat even when we aren't really hungry: for example we many eat to reduce negative emotions such as sadness or anxiety we may eat oout of social obliegations and sometimes we eat becausr the clock tells us to o Nature desgined us to overight: we developed a strong attraction to foods that provide large emtounts of energy (calories) per bite. We also developed an ability to sotre excess food energy in the form of fat which enabled us to eat more than we needed when food was plentiful and then live off our resevres when food was scarce

D.B. Mitchell Study Drawings (Fragmentation-->Larger Conclusion/Understanding)

o Particpants first studied black and white line dawings depciteing everythday objects o Late h eparicpants were shown fragmented versons of the drawing that are difficult to identiy; some of them depicted objects that had been studied earlier in the experiment whereas others depicted nw objects that has noto been studied o Correctly idnetied more fragmented draings og studed than of new obejcts and identified more sutide objtsts than did particpants in the control group who had benever seen the picture→clear example of priming

what part of the brain is involved for priming?

o Parts of the occipital lob inolvined in visuali processing o Parts of the frntal lobe involbed in word reteivla become active o If the people perform e the same task aftver being primied by seing two words theres less acitivty in these same regions o Seems to make is easier for the parts of the cortex that are involved in perceing a work

Evidence for Darwins universal theory:

o People are quite accurate at judging the emotional epxressions of member of their cultures • 1950's: Experiment: photopgrahs of people expressing anger, digusts, fear, happiness, sadness and surprise and showed them to members of the South Fore a people who lived a Stone age existence in the highlands of Paoaula New Guiniea wand whad little contact with the outside world →Fore could recognize the emtoinal expressions of americans abot as accurately as americans could and vice versa; but fore had trouble distinguishing expressions of suprrise from expression of fear o people who have never seen a human fakce makes the same facial expressions as those who have • congentally blind people make all the facial expressions associated with the six emotions mentioned above and two year old infant react to sweet tastes with a smile and to bitter tastes with an expression of disgust

how can we explain the rat example?

o Rats are forgarers and they have ebeovled a higjly adaptive strategy for surfival-they move around in their environment looking for food • If they find it somehweere they eat it or store it and then go look wosmhwere else for more • If they do not find food they orage in another part fo the enrivoement o So if rats just found food in the right arm fo the T maze the obvious place to look net time is the eft arm o The rat know that there is ny anymore food in the right arm because it just at it o Foraging aminals have well-developed spatial rpesentations that alow them to search their environment efficialny

Brelands (training of animals)

o Rats are forgarers and they have ebeovled a higjly adaptive strategy for surfival-they move around in their environment looking for food • If they find it somehweere they eat it or store it and then go look wosmhwere else for more • If they do not find food they orage in another part fo the enrivoement o So if rats just found food in the right arm fo the T maze the obvious place to look net time is the eft arm o The rat know that there is ny anymore food in the right arm because it just at it o Foraging aminals have well-developed spatial rpesentations that alow them to search their environment efficialny • Habing learned the association btweem the coins and food the naimals began to reat the cppins as stand-ins for food o The [ogs are bipogically predisposed to root out there food and raccoons have evolved to clean their food by rubbing it with their paws-that is eacatly what each species of animal did with the cpins • The brendans rok shows that each speicies, including humans, is biological rediposed to elarn some thing more readily than other and to respond to stimulu in ways that are consistent with its evolutionary hisrpy

what would happen if they contined to present the CS (tone) but stopped presenting the US (food)?

o Repeatedly presenting the CS withut the US: behavior declines abruptly (extinguishes) and continues to drop until eventually the dog ceases to salivate o the sound of the tone→extincition

can people with amnesia create new semantic memories?

o Researchers have studied three young adults who suffered damage ot the hippocampus dring birth as a result od fficult ddelviers that interrupted the oxygen supply to their brsins o Parents noticed the children could not recall what happended during a typcal day and had to be constantly reminded o All three children elarned to read, write, and spell, develp normal vocab, and acire other kidns of semantic knwoeldge that allowed them to perform well in school • The hipocamus is not necessary for acquiring new semantic memories

Strategies for regulation emotion (behavioral + cognitive)

o Some of these are behavioral strategies—avoiding sutuations that tiggger unwatnted emotions, doing distractivity acitivites or taking drugs o Some are cognitive strateges—trying not to think about the cause of the unwanted emotion or recruiting memories that trigger the desired emotion

What takes place in the brian during elaborative encoding

o Stdies reveal tha elaborative oding is uniquely associated with increased activity in the lower left part of the frontal love and the inner part of the left temporal lobe o The amount of acitivty in eache of these two regions during encoding is directly realted to wheter peole later remember an item

But why would amnesica paitents exhibit impaired trace donitoning? (study)

o Study: healthy volunterers given etiher delay or trace donitining followed by a true-false test with questions that pobed their awanress of the contingency between the tone and thee air puff o Participants who scoared signicianctly above change on the tst were classified as "aware"; those who did not score signfiicalty above chance were classified as "unaware" o Only aware patients shwed trace codnitining whereas both aware and unaware pariticpatns showed delay conditioning o Delayed condioning does not reuire awareness of the contingency between the tone and their air puff, whereas trace conditioning does

how does a memory become consolidated?

o The act or recalling a meory, thinking about it, and talking about it with others probably continued to consolidation o Seep always plays an important role

Cannon-Bard>James Lange Theory

o The autonomic nervous system reacts too sloewly to account for the rapid onset of emotiona experience: ex blushing o People often have difficulty accurately detecting changes in their own autonomic activity o Nonemotional stimuli—such as temperature—can cause the same pattern of autonomic activity that emotional stimuli do - so why don't people feel afraid when they get a fever? o There simply weren't enough unqieu patterbs of autonomic activity to account for all the unique emotional experiences people have

Three Areas for a Closer Look into Classical Conditioning

o The cognitive o The neural o The evolutionary elements

Two mysteries of consciousness

o The problem of other minds o Mind/body problem

sleep cycle

o The slow waves during the first hour of sleep indicate a general synchronization of neural firing as though the brain is doing one thing at this time rather than many. o You continue to cycle between REM and slow-wave sleep stages every 90 minutes or so throughout the night. o Rem periods last longer as the night goes on.

Why does visual imagery encding work so well?

o Visual imagery encoding does some of the same things that elbarotive encoding does: when you create a visual image you relate incoming info to knwoeldge already in memory o When you use visual imagery to encode words and other verbal info you end up iwht two different metnal "placeholders" for the times: a visual one and a verbanl one- which gives you more ways to remover them thatn just a verbal placeholder alone

Reason for Watson's experiment

o Wanted to show that a relatively complex reaction could be condition in humans using pavlovian techniues o He wanted to show that emotional responses such as fear and anciety could be prodced by classical conditing and therefore need not be the product of deeper unconscious preoccesses of early life experiences as freyd and his followrs contested o Watson prospered that fear reactions could be leanred, just like any othe behavior

Two Ways Human Body Resists Weight Loss

o When we gian weight we experience an increase in both the zie and the number of fat cells in our bodies but when we lose wight we experience a decrease in the size of our fat cells but no decirease in their number once our bodies have added fat cells the cells are there to stay o Our bdoeis responding to deititing by decreasing our metabolis, when our bodies sense that we are lving through a famine they find more efficitn ways to turn food into fat

biological preparedness (ex: birds)

o ex: birds depden primarily on visiaul cues for fidning food and are relativl insensitive to taste and smell o →it is realtivrly easy to produce a food aversion in brds using an unfamiliar visual stimulus as the CS, such as brightly colored food o codnitoning works best with stimulu that are biologically relevant to the ognanism

Implications for Patients in a Vegetative State • Would paitents in a vegetative state exhibit trace doncitioning?

o fMRI studies have shown that some ofthem exhibit brain acitivty that may reflect conscious processing of spoken stimulu o the patients hsowed robust rtrace conditioning o in constract subject who were rendered unconscious by the administration of anesthesia showed no trace conditioning

ex: rats and the maze (foragers)

o for example: researchers suing simple T mazes to study learning in rats discovered that if a rat found food in one arm of te mze on the first trial of the day it typically ran down theother arm on the very next trial o a sautnch ebahviorst wouldn't expect the rats to behae this way→this shold increase the likelihood of turning in the same direction not reydce it o with adiditonal trials the rats eventually learned to go to the arm with thefood but they had to elarn to overcome this intial tendency to go the wrong way

the test for the two theories of bad memory (recall test)

o just after letters disappeared a tone sounded that cued the particants to report the letters in a aprticular row: high tone-contents of top, medium tone- contents in middle and low tone- contents on the bottom o when asked to report only a single row people recalled almost all of these letters o because tone sounded ater the letters disappeared form screen and particapnts couldt know which of the three rows would be cused the resechers concluded that people could have recalled the same number of letters from any of the rows had they been asked to

list-false recongition test

o most people make exactly the mistake of claiming with condience that they saw needle and sweet on the list o this occurs because all the words in the lsits are associated with needle or sweet o seeing each word in the study lsit acgivates related words o because needle and sweet are related to all of the wrods they become more activated than other words-so highly activated that only minutes later people swear tat they actually studied the words

Why People Have Sex

o physical attraction o means to an end o increase emotional connection o alleviagte insecurity • although men are more likely than womanen to report habing sex for purely physical reasons men and women don't differ drimaitically in their most frequent responses

John Garcia illustrated the adaptivenss of classical conditioning in a series of studies with rates

o they used avariet of CSs(visual, audotry, tactile, trase and smell) and several different Ss(injection of a tocis usbtance, radtiona) that cause dneusea and vomiting hours later o the reserchers found weak or no conditioning when the CS was a visual, audotiry or tacltile stimulus but a strong food aversion developed with stimulus that have a ssianct taste and smell

testosterone in men and women

o when women are given testoseron their sex drives increase o men anutrally have more testoron than women do and they ealryhave a stronger sex drive: men are more likely than women to tink about sex, have sexual fantasis, seek sex and sexual varity, masturbate, want sex at an early point in a relationship, and combailain about low sex drive in their partners

terror management theory

one of the ways people cope with their existential terror is by developing a cultureal worldview

monkey surgery (research)

operation on monkey so that info entering the monkeys elft eye could be transmitted to the amygdala but info entering the monkeys right eye could not o Whne allowed to see a threatening stimulus with only their left eye they responded with fear and alarm but when they were allowed to see the threatening stimulus with only their riegh eye they were clm and unfrufled o →if visual info doesn't reach the amygdala then its emotional significance cannot be assessed

Self Determination Theory

originates from observations of human depression, with the awareness that a component of depression is motivational

Thorndike Conclusion

overtime the infective abiors become less and less frequent and the one instumnental bejabior becomes more frequent→law of effect

Emotional Decision Making Bechara, Damasio and Damasio

owa Gambling Task o On average A & B produce o On average C & D produce net gains ! Experimental groups involved normal controls and individuals with damage to ventromedial prefrontal cortex (an emotional perception area) those with damage to cortex did not make the finally rational decision to chose from the "good decks" emotions are important in decision making

card game study (bias of partners beforehand vs no bias)

particuapts given detailed despciritons of their partners thay prtorayed the partenrs as either trustuworth, neutral or suspect o even though during the game itself the sharing behavior of the three types of partners did not differ the particiapnts' cogntiions about their pattners had powerful effects o particpants transferred more money to the trusthworthy patenr than to the others, esstnially ignoring the trial-by-trail feedback that would ordinarily shape their playingbehavior and thus reduced the amount of reward they received

second stage of sleep

patterns are interrupted by short bursts of activity called sleep spindles and K complexes and the sleeper becomes somewhat more difficult to awaken.

Shacter and Singer (universality)

people have the same physoloical reaction to all emotional stimuli but they interprent that reaction differently on different occasion

facial feedback hypothesis (example)

peoplefeel happier when they are asked to make the sound of a long e or to hold a pencil in their teeth than twhen they are asked to make the sound of a long u or to hold a pencil in their lips

The Reflexive System

perceptual/attentional sysem Behavioral System | | <-- classical conditioning (add stimulus) Motivational System (drive intensity) overwhelmed-underwhelmed anger/disgust happiness/interest sadness operant expressive system (anger, happiness, sadness)

pos and neg reinforcement and pos and neg punishment

positive and negative reinforcemtn increase the likelihood of the bahior and positive and negative punishment decreases the likelihooddof the behavior

positive vs. negative

positive for sitiations in which a stimulus was presented and negative for sitions in which it was removed

Ironic monitor

process of the mind that works outside of consciousness making us sensitive to all the things we do not want to think, feel, or do so that we can notice and consciously take steps to regain control if these things come back to mind. • Mental functions that are needed for effective mental control- they help in the processes that work outside of consciousness, so they remain us that much of the mind's machinery may be hidden from our view. Lying outside the fringes of our experience

Activation-synthesis model

proposes that dreams are produced when the mind attempts to make sense of random neural activity that occurs in the brain during sleep.

Study example (reappraisal)

psrticipants brains were scanned as they saw photos that idnicued negative emotions, such as a woman crying during a funeral; some particpants asked to reapprais rthe picture by imaging that the woman in the photo was at a wedding rather than a funeral o When parpticaptsn initially saw the photo their amydgala became active immeditaly o As they reappraised the picture several key areas of the cortex became active and oments later their amygdala were deactvity o Paritcipants concisously and willfully tunred down the activity of their own amygdala simply by thinking about the photo in a different way

Linnaues

psygoloy needs its own Linnaues; there is no wikdely accepted taxonomy of human motivations and this makes it diifcult for psychologists to develop theroeis about where motivations come from and how they operate

brain's role

puts two and two together makes a logical inference an interprests your arousal as fear o when you are physiologically aroused in the presence of something you think cshould scare you you label that srousal as fear o if you have preceilsy the sam boidly reponse in the present of something you think should delight you then tou label that arousal as exctiemnet

different kinds of hunger (ex: rats)

rats that are deprived of proetien will seek proteins while turning down fats and carbs suggaesting tat they are experiencing a specific protein hunger not a genral hunger

source memory

recall of when, where, and how information was acquired People sometimes correctly recall a fact they learned earlier or accrurately recognized a person or object they have see before but misattribute the soruce of this knowledge

Ventromedial hypothalamus

receive anorexigenic signals and whe it is destroyed animals will gorce themselves to the point of illness and obesity

lateral hypothalamus

receives orexigenic signals and when it is destroyed animals sitting in a cage full of food will starve themselves to death

fixed ration schedule

reincforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses have been made

Skinner's Focus

reinforcement and punishment

• fixed interval schedule and varibale interval scehdule

reinforcers are presented at fixed times, provided that the approriate responses made o ex: a two minutes variable interval sscheduale: responses will be reinforced every two inutes on average-varaible interval secheduales typically produce steady, consistent responding because the time until the next reinforcement is less predictable variable interval scedule: a behavior is reinforced based on an average time that has expired since the last reinfrocement.

prospective memory

remembering to do things in the future

Visual judgements

require idnividuals to think about the appearance of the words

Rhye judgements

require individuals to think about the sound of the words

falseness of two-factor model

researches has not been so kind to the modesl claim that all emotional experiences are merely different interrpeation of the same bdily state o Ex: researchers measured particpants' physiolgocial reactions as they experienced six different emotions and found that anger, fear, and sadness each rpduced a higher hear rate than digust and that anger produced a larger increase in finger teermparature than did fear

Unity

resistance to division. o No one can effectively multi-task perfectly

• Semantin judgement

reuire indivduals to think about the meaning of words

three types of memory storage

sensory short-term long-term

pleasantess encoding

shown the words and asked to rate on a 1-5 scale the pelasntess of ewach words; involves elvaortative encoding

Somnabulism

sleep walking o Occurs when a person arises and walks around while sleeping o More common in children 11-12 o Happens early in the night o Eyes usually open in a glassy stre and hands stretched out o It is safe to wake them or lead them back to bed

variable ratio schedule (example)

slot machines in a modern cason pay off on variable rationscehduales that are determined by the random number generator that controls the play of the machines ; a casion ight advertise that they pay off every one hundred pulls on average which could be true but someone canwin after three or eighty pulls

latent learning

something is learned, but it is not manifested as a behavroal change until sometime in the future o latent learning can easl be establsuend in rats and occurs without any obvious reinforcement

Unconditioned stimulus

something that reliably produces a naturally occurding reaction in an organism (presentation of food)

Ekman and Friesan

spent years catalgoging the muscle movements of which the human face is capable and isolated 46 unique movment o Combinations of these muscle movement are reliably related to specific emotional states

James-Lange Theory

stimuli trigger activity in the autonomic nervous system, which in turn produces an emotional experience in the brain o Emotional experience is the cpnsequence not the cause of our physiological reactions to objects and events in the world

Pavlov

studied the digestive processes of lab animals by surgically implaning test tubes into the cheeks of dogs to measure their salivary responses o His explorations into spit and drool revealedthe mechanics of one from of learning: classica conditioning

barbiturates

such as Seconal or Mebutal are prescribed as sleep aids and as anesthetics before surgery

o Benzodiazepines

such as valium and xanax are antianxiety drugs

Cannon-Bard Validity

suggested that people are not perfectly sensitive to these patterns of response which is why people must sometimes make inferences about what they are feeling

three different encoding tasks (3 seprate groups)

survival encoding moving encoding pleasantess encoding

intermittent-reinfrocemtn effect

that feact that operant behavior that are maitniang under intermittent-reifnromcent shcedyles rest extinction better than those mainteind under continuous reifnrocement o the more irregular and intermittent a schedule is the more difficult for an organism to dectect when it has actually been placed on a scehdyle that is instended to produce extinction

Generalization:

the CR is observed even though the CS is slightly different from the orginal one used during acquisition o This means that the conditioning "generalized" to stimulu that are similar to the CS used during the original training o The more the new stimulus changes, the less conditioning responding is overserved

Delay conditioning

the CS is a tone that if followed immeditaltely by the US such as a puff of air that elicits an eye blink response o The tone and air pruff overlap in time-the tone remains on for a perod, the air puff arrives later ans the tone and air puff end at the same time o After a few pairings of the tone and air puff, conditing occurs and the tone elicits an eyeblink response

first stage of sleep

the EEG moves to frequency patterns even lower than alpha waves

Memory

the ability to store and retrieve information over time o Memories are the residue of those events, the edneuring changes that experience makes in our brains

Learning

the acquisition of new knowledge, skills or response from experience that result in a relatively permanent change in the state of the learner o Emphasizes three characteristics: learning is based on experience, learning produces changes in the organism, and these changes are relatively permanent

explicit memory

the act of csnciously or intentionally retirving past expeirnce

Mental control

the attempt to change conscious states of mind

discrimination (definition)

the capacity ot distinguish between similar but distinct stimuli

Selectivity (cocktail party phenomena)

the capacity to include some objects but not others o More selective to information pertinent to the individual o Cocktail part phenomenon (people tune in one message even while they filter out others nearby • Ex: having a conversation and hearing your name in another conversation and diverting attention to the other conversation

Hedonic principle

the claim that people are motivated to experience pleasure and avoid pain

Emotion regulation:

the cogntivie and behavioral strateges peopleuse to influence their own emotional experience

Episodic memory

the collection of past personal expeirnces that occurred at a particular time and place

Thought suppression

the conscious avoidance of a thought o Eliminates the worry and allows the person to move on to think about something (or does it) o Dostoevsky remarked on the difficulty of thought suppression o Often doesn't and produces a flurry of returns of the unwanted thought.

variable ratio schedule

the delivery of reinforcement is based on a particular average number of responses

Bias

the distorting influences of present knowledge, beleifs and feelings on recollection of prvious expeirnces o Sometimes what people remember from their pasts says esss about what actuallyhappened than about what they think, feel, or believe now

Sleep paralysis

the experience of waking up unable to move and is sometimes associated with narcolepsy

Instincts

the faculty of acting in such a way as to produce certain ends, without foregigj of the ends, and without previous education in the performance

Extinction (definition)

the gradual elimination of a learned response that occurs when the US is no longer presented

top down

the imposition of learned rules, beliefs and schemas on percetpion

retrogade amensia

the inability to retrieve ifno that was acquired tbefore a particular datem sually the date of an injry or operation

anterograde amnesia

the inability to transfer new info from the short-term store into the long-term store

implicit memory

the influence of past epxeirnce on later behavior, even without an effort to remeebr them or an awareness of the recollection o implcii mmoeries are not consciously recalled but their presense is implied by our actions

7. Persistence

the intrusive recollection of eevtns that we wish we could forget o Ersistence frequently occurs after distburing or traumatic incident

The Mind/Body Problem

the issue of how the mind is related to the brain and body

Full consciousness

the level of awareness in which you know and are able to report your mental state • Means you are aware of having a mental state while are experiencing the mental state itself.

Self-consciousness

the level of consciousness in which the person's attention is drawn in the self as an object • Most animals don't appear to have such self-consciousness.

Rescorla-Wagner Model

the model predicated that conditing would be easier when the CS was an unfamiliar event than when it was familiar o The reason is that familiar events being familiar already have expectations associated with them, making new conditoing difficult o Classical conditing might appear to be privimitve and unthinking process but it is actally quite sophisiticated and incirpratrs a significant cognitive element

need for achievement

the motivation to solve worthile problems

Anandamide

the neurotransmitter involved which is involved in the regulation of mood, memory, appetite, and pain perception and has been found to temporarily stimulate overeating

Acquisition (definition)

the pjhase of classical conditioning when the CS and the US are presented together

mortality salience hypothesis

the predication that people who are reminded of their own morality will work to reinforce their cultural worldvirew

encoding

the process by which we transform what we perceive, think, or feel into an enduring memory

elaborative encoding

the process of activityly relating new information to knwoeldge that is already in memory

retrieval

the process of bringing to mind information that has been previously encoded and stored

Organizational encoding

the process of categorizing information according to the relationships among a series of tiems

Rehearsal

the process of keeping info in short-term emmory by mentally repeating it

storage

the process of maintaining information in memory over time

storage

the process of maitaning information in memory over time

Visual Imagery Encoding

the process of storying new information by converting it itno mental picture o You could simply conver the info you wanted to remember into a visual image and then "store it" in a familiar location

Encoding:

the process of turning perceptios into memory

Intentionality

the quality of being directed toward an object. It is always about something.

Metabolism

the rate at which energy is sued

Hypnotic analgesia

the reduction of pain through hypnosis in people who are hypnotically susceptible.

Retrieval

the rpcoess of brining to mind ifno that has been previously encoded and stoed and it is pehras the most important of all memory processes

coninius reifnrocement

the special case of presenting reinforcement after each response

State-depednent retrival (definition and examples)

the tendcy for info to be better recalled whn the person is in the same state during encoding and retival o Ex:retiving info when yo are in a sad or happy mood increases the likelihood that you will retrieve sad or happy episdes which is part of the reaon it is hard to look on the bright side when youre felling lo o Being in a good mood affects patterns of electrical acitivty in parts of the brian respondible for sematic processing suggesting that mood has a direct ifnleucne on semantic encoding

5. Suggestibility

the tendcy to incorporate misleading fimration from external soruces into personal recollections

Drug tolerance

the tendency for larger drug doses to be required over time to achieve the same effect

Spontaneous recovery

the tendency of a leanred behavior to recover from extinction after a rest period o This recovery takes place ven though there have not been any additional associations between the CS and US o The ability of the CS to elicit the CR was wekaned but it was not eliminated

Rebound effect of thought suppression

the tendency of a thought to return to consciousness with greater frequency following suppression o Suggests that attempts at mental control may be difficult indeed. o The act of trying to suppress if may cause that thought to return to consciousness in a robust way

Transience

the tendency to change o The stream of consciousness partly reflects the limited capacity of the conscious mind. o Because we can only hold so much information, our focus keeps changing

consistency bias

the tendency to exaggerate differences between what we feel or believe now and what we felt or believed in the past

dopamingergic

they secete the neurotransmitter dipamaine

paitning experiment

those trained with the money paotining resppnsed when other paintaing by money were present but not when toehr Picasso paitsing where shown and Picasso-trained participants showed the oppositvebahvior, responding to Picassos but nomets o they could genralixe across paitners as long as they were from the same artistic tradtion o those tained with monet responded appropriately when shown other impresisonaist paintains and the picaso-itrained particpants repsosned to other cubist artwork despite never having seen these paitning before o the results are espcially striking because the particiapnts were peigenos trained to key peck to these various works of art o stimulus control and its ability to foster stimulus discimrination and stimulus genralziationis effective even if the stimulus has no meaning to the respondent

survival encoding

ti iamge that they were strande din the grasslands of a foregin land without an syrvial mateirlas and that over the next few months they would need supplies of food and water and to protect themselves; particiaptns than chose words and asked them to rate on a 1-5 how relevant each item would be to survival

moving encoding

to imagine that they were planning to move to a new home in a foreign land and to rate on 1-5 scale how sueful each item might be in helping them to set up a new home; does not inovling thinking about survival

intermintent reinfrocement and extinction

under conditions of intermintent reinforcement all organisms will show condierable resistancts to extinction and continue for many traisl before they stop responding

intrusive memory

undersibale conseuwnces f the fact that emotional exeriences gernally lead to more vivid and enduring reollections than nonemotional experiences do

Trace Conditioning

uses the identical proceudres, with one difference: there is a brief interval of time after the tone ends and before the air puff if delivered

Current concerns

what the person is thinking about repeatedly

Classical conditioning

when a neutral stimulus prodcues a response after being paried with a stimulus that naturally produces a response

depression:

when all three depleted severely the indivdual is diagnositcally depressed

physical dependence:

when pain, convulsions, hallucinations or other unpleasant symptoms accompany withdrawal

Subliminal perception

when thought or behavior is influenced by stimuli that a person cannot consciously report perceiving

Gesalt Psychology

where "gesalt" is a perceptual "whole" indeendt of the feed-forward perceotion

positive refinforment

where a rewarding stimulus is presented

• negative punishment

where a rewarding stimulus is removed

• positive punishment

where an unpleasant stimulus is administered

negative reingorcemnt

where an unpleasant stimulus is removed

Second-order conditioning

where the stimulus that functions as the US is cruelly the CS from an earlier procedure in which it acquired its ability to produce learning

destination memory

who we've told something to

Greg (example)

• 1977 the neurologist oliver sakcs interviewed a yohn man amed greg who had a turmor in his brain that wiped out his ability to remember day to day events • one thing gred could remember was his life during the 1960's when his primary occpationsseemed to be attending rock soncerts and his favorite band was the grateful dead • gregs mories of those concerts sutck witn him over the following years • in 1991 dr. sacks took greg to a dead concert and madison gareen and while greg told him he would remember it forver in reality he didn't remeer going at all • although greg was unable to form new mories some of the new things that happened to him seemed to leave a akr o ex: gred did not recall learning that his father had died but he did seem sad and witfhraw for years afte hearing the news

Thorndike (study of instrumental behaviors)

• 1980's Edward Thorndike sutided isntumental behaviors: behavior that required an orgamsin to do something- to solve a problem or tohersie maniupute lemetns of its environment • ex: a hungry cate placed in a puzzle box would try various behavior to get out but only one bahivaior opened the door and led to food: tri[[ing the lever in just the right way o after this happened throndick placed the cat back in the boz for another round

fifth stage of sleep (REM)

• 5: REM sleep (stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements and a high level of brain activity) • Waves are sawtooth like, suggesting that the mind at this time is as active as during waking • Sleepers wakened during this time report having dreams much more often than those wakened during non-REMed sleep • The pulse quickens, blood pressure rises,, and sexual arousal may occur • However, the sleeper is very still except for a rapid side-to-side movement of the eyes. • 80 percent of people awakened at this time have dreams

flexible system- "trying out" different scenarios

• A fexible system that allows us to recombine elements of apst expeirnce in new ays so that we can mentally "try out" different verions of what might happen o Ex: when you imagine having a difficult ocnervsatin with a friend that will take place in a few days you can draw on pasr expeirnces to envisafe different ways in whcithe conversation might unfold and hopefully avoid saying thins that based on the past are going to make the conversation workse • This fleivibility of episodic memory might also be repsnsibel for some kinds of memory erroes

reconsolidation

• A fully conodlisated memory becomes a perament ficture in the brain • But even seemingly consolidated mories can again become vulbrable to disruption when they are recalled, thus requiring them to be consolidated again

inistincts according to James

• According to jame nature hardwired idnivduals to want certain things without training and to execture the behaviors that produce these things without thinking

Observation Learning in Humans (Bobo Doll Experiment)

• Albert bandura and his colleage sinestigated the paramters of observational learning o The researchers escorted idnvidual preschoolers into a play area filled with toys that four year old typically like o An andult odel-someone eose behavior might serve as a guide for toher-then tneterd the room and sat it one corner whwere there was a bob doll o The adult played quirtly for a bit but then started aggressing toward the Bobo doll, knocking it down, jumping on it, hitting itwith a mallet, kicking it around o When the children who observed these actions were later allowed to play with a verity of toys, including Bobo doll, they were more than twice as lukely to interact with it in an aggressive mmanner as a group of children who hasn't oserved the aggressive model o The children in these studies also showed that why were sentivie to the sonsewuences of the acitons osbsevred: when they saw an adult odel being punished for aggressive bahvior they showed les aggression and vise versa

What is Emotion?

• Although people cant always say what an emotional experience feels like they can usually say how similar one experience is to another

Obesity

• Americans most pervasive eating related problem is obesity: defined as having a BMI of thirty or greater • Obese people tend to be viewed negatively by tohers, having lower selfesteem and have a lower quality of life • Obese women earn about seven percent less than their nonobese counterparts and the stigma of obesity is so powerful that everage weight people are viewed negatively if they date someone who is obsese

Motivation for Food

• Animals convert matter into energy by eating and they are driven to do this by an internal state called hunger • At every moment your body is sending signals to yor brain about its current state o If your body needs energy it send an orezigenic signal to trll you brain to swtich hunger on o If your body has sufficient energy it sends an anorexigenic signal to tell your brian to swtich hunger off

causes of insomnia

• Anxiety associated with stressful life events • Emotional difficuties • Long-term use of sedatives • Sedatibes: although they promote sleep, they reduce the proportion of time spent in REM and slow-wave sleep. • Quality of sleep is low

avoidance vs. approach motivations

• Avoidance mtoivations tend to be more powerful than approach motivations o Most peoplewill turn down a chance to bet on a coin flip that would pay them ten dollars if it came up heads but would require them to pay eight dollars if it came up tails because they believe that the pain of losing eight dolalrs will be more itnesne than the pleasure of winning ten dollars • Avoidance motivation is stronger than approach motivation but the relative strength of these two tendencies does differ somewhat from person to person

Deceptive Expressions

• Because you can control most of the muscles in your face you don't have to diplay the emotion youre actually feeling • Your expressions are moderated by your knowledge that iti is permissible to show contempt for your peers but not your superior

case study of explicit vs. implicit learning

• Before the experiment began half of the participants were told about the existenceof the protoptype: they were iven insutctin that enoruaged ecplicit processing , the others were given standard impliaict learning: they were told nothing other than to attend to the dot patterns o The particpants then scanned as they made decsions about the new dot patterns o Both grups perfomed eually ell on the task o These groups making these deucsions using erry different parts of the brain o Those givn the explicit insutrctins showed increased brain acitivty in the prefrontal cortex, parietal cortex, hippocampus and other various areas o Those given the implicit insutrcitons showed decreased brain acitnvation primarily in the occipital region o →particpants recruited disianct brain sturcutres in different ways depdening on whether they were apraching the task using explicit or implicit learning

behaviorists rejection of instincts

• Behaviorists rejected the concept of instint on two ground o They believed that bejavior should be explained by the external stimulus that evoke it and boy by thr hypothetical internal states on which it depends o Wanted nothing to do with the notion of inhereited bahvior because they believed that all complex behavior was learned

affects of REM vs. slow wave sleep deprivation

• Being deprived of REM sleep can cause psychological problems • Being deprived of slow-wave sleep can be a physical problem, leaving people feeling tired, fatigued, and hypersensitive to muscle and bone pain

Broberg and Bernsein (reducing nausea of cancer patients)

• Broberg and Bernstein reasoned that, if the finding with rats generalized to himans, a simple technique should minimize the negative osnseuqneces of this effect: o they giabe their [atients an usnusal food at the end of the last meal before undergoing treatment→the conditioned food aversions that the patiend developed were overhwlemingly for once of the unsial falvors→patients spared developing aversion to more common food that they are more like to eat

Bush Supporters vs. Gore Supporters

• Bush supporters whose candidate took ofcfcie were undestbaly happy hwoeevrr their retrsective accounts overestimated how happy they were at the time • Gore suppoerters were not plased with the outcome but gore supporters underestimated how happy they actually were at the time of thereslt • In both groups: recollection of happiness were at odds with existing reports of their actualy happness at the time

estrogen not the end all

• But female himan beings can be interested in sex at any point in their monthly cycle • although the elkvel of estrogen in a womens body changes dramatically over the course of her montlhyl menstrual cycle her sexual dsire changes little if at all

multidimensional scaling-->creation of a map of experiences

• By asking people to rate the similiarity of dozens of emotional experiences psychologists have been able to use a technique known as multidimensional scaling to create a map of those experiences o The mathemtatic behind this technique is complex but the logic is simple • if you listed the simmiliarity of a large number of emotional experiences(assigning smaller distances to those that feel similar and large distances to those that feel dissimiliar) and then incorporated them into a map

conditioning and active thinking

• Conditioning is something that happens to a dog, a rat, or a person apart from what the organism thinks about the codnitoning situation

consciousness (definition)

• Consciousness is a person's subjective experience of the world and the mind. • The defining feature is experience

microexpressions: revealing true emotional experiences

• Darwin notes that"thise muscles of the face which are least obedient to the will, will sometimes alone betray a slight and passing emotion" o Ex: even when people smily barebelly to make their dissapintment their faces tend to express small bsurst of sippointament that last kust 1/5-1/25 of a second o These mciro expressions happen so quickly that they are almost impossible to detect with the nakey deye

Marijuana

• Derived from the leaves and buds of the hemp plant. • Euphoric sensation with heightened senses of sight and sound and the perception of a rush of ideas. • Affects judgement and short-term memory and impairs motor skills and coordination • THC is the active ingredient • Anandamide is the neurotransmitter involved which is involved in the regulation of mood, memory, appetite, and pain perception and has been found to temporarily stimulate overeating • No addiction

Dream Consciousness

• Dream consciousness involves a transformation of experience that is so radical it is commonly considered an altered state of consciousness (a form of experience that departs significantly from the normal subjective experience of the world and the mind) o Can be accompanied by changes in thinking, disturbances in the sense of time, feelings of loss and control, changes in emotional expression, alternations of body image etc.

affect of drugs that block LTP

• Drugs that block LTP can turn rats itno dent versions of HM • The animals have grat difficulty remembering where thebeen been recel and become easily lost in a amze

EGG Recording During Sleep

• EEG recordings reveal a regular pattern of changes in electrical activity in the brain accompanying the circadian cycle o During waking, these changes involve alternation between high-frequency activity (called beta waves) and alertness and lower-frequency activity during relaation o The largest change in EEG occurs during sleep.

evolutionary purpose of emotional expression

• Emotional expressions are a convenient way for one animal to let another animal know how it is feeling and hence how it is prepared o Ex: if a dominant animal could bare its teeth and communicate the message: I am angry at you and if a subrodingate animal could lower its head and communicatr the message: am afraid of you the two could establish a pecking order without violence

Encoding of Survival-Related Information

• Encoding new ifnromation is cirtual to many aspects of everyday life and the survival of our ancsetos likely depend on encoding and later remembering things such as the source of food and water or where a predator appeared

why episodic memory special?

• Episodic memoru special because it is the only form of emmroy that allows us to engaging in "mental time travel" projecting urselves in the past and revisiting events that have happended to us o →this ability allows us to connect our pasts and our presents and ot construct a cohesive sotry of our lives

habituation and explicit learning

• Even in human evigns habituatin can occur in the absence of ecplicit learning or memory

evidence of reconsolidation (ex: rats)

• Evidence for recondosdiation mainly comes from epxeirment with rats showing that when animals are cued to reteive a new memory that was aqyierd a day earlier giving the animal a drug that prevents intial onsoldiation will cause forgetting

reconsolidation + trauma therapy

• Evidence of reocnolsidation raises the intruging possibility that it might be possible one day to eleimate painful memories by reminding dinviduals of traumatic epxeirences and injecting rhe right durg while the memory is held in mind

ex's:

• Ex: when English speakers tested for memory f Spanish vocab required during high school or college sourcs one to fivety years previously there was a rapid-drop off in memory during the first three years after the students' last clas followed by tiny losses in later years • Most forgetting happended soon after an evneet occurred with incireasingly less forgetting as more time passed

Organizational Encoding (waitress experiment)

• Experiment: researcher wired each wairteess with a microhone and asked her to think aloud as she walked around all day during her job o As soon as she walked away from the table she immediabtely began grouping or categeorizing the orders into hot drinks, cold dirnks, hot foods and cold foods→sequence that matched the layout of the kitchen o Showed organizational encoding

Amnesia Experiments

• Experiments reveleaed that amneisica paurents—who lack explicit memeory of recent eperimeces—showed emntald elay conditing of eyeblink responses compared with nonamenesica control subjects • However the amnecia patients failed to show trace dontioning

past perception of memory

• For at least 2000 years people have thought of emmory as a recording deie that makes exact copies of ingormatin that comes in through our sense and then stores those copies fr later use o This idea is simple and intuitive o Complete incorrect

frontal lobe activity

• Greater acitivty in the lower lwrft forntal region during encoding is associated with better memeoy • Driving attention then prevents the lower left frontal love form playsin ints normal role in elaborative encoding and the result is abstentminded forgetting

habituation and implicit learning

• Habituations is considered a form if implicit learning in part because it occurs even in the simplest organismis that do not ave the brian strucutres necessary for explicity leanring such as the hippocampus o Ex: even though Aplysia has no hippocampus it exhibits habituation

salivaiton and other stimuli

• He could make the dogs salivate to other stimulu such as the sound of a buzzer or the falsh of a light o Each of these stmilu were conditionaed stimulus

Congnitive Components to Pavlov's Conditioned Experiment

• However although the dogs salivated when their feaders approached they did not salivate when Pavolv did so and eventually someone was bound to ask: Why not? Why didn't Pavlov become a CS? • Somehow pavlovs dogs were sensitive to the fact that Pavlov was not a reliable indicator of the arrival of food o Pavlov was linked with the arrival of food but he was alos linked with other acitivities that has nothing to do with food o Observations suggest that perhaps cognitive compentents are involved in classical conditing

conditioned emotional response

• However condtined emotional responsed are not limited to fear and anxiety responses • The warm fuzzy fealings are a type of conditioned emotional responses

observational learning (ex: pigeons)

• Humans aren't the onlycreature capable of learning through observing o In one study: pigeons wached other pigenous in a boz get reifnorcerd for wither pecking a a edder or stepping on a bar→when placed in the box later the pigenous tended to use whatever technique they had observed other pigeons using ealier

blocking (age + brain damage)

• Hwoeevr it occurs more afote as we gro odler and is very common among people in their scities and seventies • Some brain damaged paitents epxiernece this cosntanrtly • Name blocking suaully results from damage to parts of the left temporal love on the surface of the coetex, most often as a result of a stroke

implicit learning + amnesia patients

• Implicit learning is remarkalbly resistant to various disorders that are known to affect explicit learning o Profoundly amnexia patients not only show normal implicit memories but also display virtually normal implicit learning of atricual grammar o These patients made accurate judgements about novel letter strings even though they had essentially no explicit memeory of havng been in the learning phase of the experiment

learning via dancing (ex: fMRI scanning)

• In a recent fMRI study particpants prfromed two tasks for sveral days prior to scanning: practivitng dance seqeubces to unfamiliar techno-dance songs and watching music videos containing other dance sequences accompaonied by unfamiliar techno dance songs o Then scanned while viewing vdeos of these seuqneces o →in comparison with the unencoutneres sequeneces viewing the previously danced or watches swuences recruited a largel similar brian nework, including reions considered to be part of the mirror-neuron system o performface was better on seuwncies previously watched than on the untrained sequences, demonstrating sigifnicant observational learning, but was best of all on the previously danced sequences

observational learning and social expectations

• In all sociaties appropaite socal behavior is assed on from generation to generation • Tasks are more easily acquired if we watch these activities being carries out before we try outselves

lab studies investigating implicit learning (memorization of strings of words)

• In early lab studies investigating implicit learning: research articipants were shown fifteen or twenty letter stirns ans asked to memorize them o The letter stings were actually formed using a complex set of rules called an artifual grammar o Particpants were nottold anything about the rules but with experience they gradually developed a vague insutive sense of the "correctbess: of partuclar letter groups and could get between sixty to seventy percent correct but were unable to rpovde mich in the way of exlicity awareness of the rules and regulatierres that they were using

The Dreaming Brain

• In fMRI scans, certain brain areas are shown to be responsible for fear or emotion in dreams o Amygdala: responds to threatening or stressful events, active during REM sleep • Dreams have no sound • The visual association areas in the occipital lobe that are responsible for visual imagery do show activation. • During REM sleep, the prefrontal cortex shows relatively less arousal than it usually does during waking consciousness. • Neurons in the spinal cord keep us from acting out every dream we have. • The brain specifically inhibits movement during sleep

study

• In one experiment: paritcpants suited beerf sotires and then tiehr stufied them again or were given a test that rewuired retiveing the sotrues o Particpants were then given a final recall test for the sotres teither five minutes, two days or one week later o At the fibe minute delay studying rhs sories twice resulted in a slightly higher recall than studiyn gnad retrieving them o Cirtically the opposite occurred at the 2-day and 1-wee delays: retrival rpdocued much higher elvels of recal than did an extra sturdy exporsure

attention study

• In one study: volunteers tried to leanr a list of word pairs while researchers scanned their brains with PET o Some people similataneously performed a task that took a little attention while others simulatenously performed a task that took a great deatl of attention o Thes econd groups showed worse list learning and also less acitivity in the lower left frntal love

Ecstatic Religious Experiences

• In some religious traditions, people describe personal experiences of altered consciousness. • Members of a religious group will speak in tongues or feel possessed by spirits • 40 percent of people have had a religious experience

Classical Conditioning and Implicit vs Explicit Memory

• Intact delay conditing in amnesia paritnets makes sense in light of fidnings indicated that amnesia atients often exhibit intact implicit memory • Classical conditing draws on implicit but not exlicit memory

Why Seven Sins Useful

• It is helpful and sometimes impotsnt to forget information that isn't current • If we didn't fradually forget ino ofver time ur midns would be cluttered with details we no longer needed • Ifno that is used infrewunrly is less likely to be needed in the futre than info that is used more frently over the same period • Memory in essence makes bet that when we haven't used ifno recently we probably wond need it in the futut • We win this bet more fotne that we losing it→making transience an adaptive property of emmory • But wer are acutlaly awte of the losees and are never aware of the win

drives and feeding

• It isn't food per se that organism find reward: it is the reduction of the drive for food as hunger is a drive , a drive is an internal state, snd when orgnaims eta they are attempting to change their internal state

emotional experiences > nonemotional experiences

• Lab studies have relvelaed that emtoial experiences thend to be better remembered than nonemtoinal ones o Ex: memroiry for inpleasant pcutres, such as multialted bodies, or pelasant ones, such as attractive men and women, is more accurate than for emotionally neutral pictures

Acquisition

• Learning through classical conditioning requires some perod f association between the CS and US o This period is called acquisition

hypothalamus and sexual arousal

• Lesions to these areas reduce secual motivation in the respective =genders and when trstoserone or estrogen is applied to these area sexual motivation increases

Levels of Consciousness

• Levels ranging from minimal consciousness to full consciousness to self-consciousness

meditation and in the parietal lobe

• Low levels of activation in the parietal lobe o Area is known for judging physical space and orienting oneself in space. o When the area is deactivated, its normal function of locating the seld in space may subside to yield and experience of immersion and a loss of self

priming + amnesia

• Many experiment have shown that amnesia patients can show substantial priming effects even though they have no explicit memory for the ties studied • Promiming does not require the hippocampal strcutrs that are damge din cases of amnesia

McClelland and Atkinson Experiment

• McClelland and Atkinson: people vary in their need for achivment; this basic motivation is uncciious o When words such as achievement are presented on a computer screen so rapidly that people cannot consciously perceive them those people will work especially hard to solve a puzzle and will feel especially unhappy if they fail

Elaborative Encoding

• Memories are a combination of old and new ifnromation so the nature of any particular memory depends as much on the odl information already in our memroies as it does on the new comug in through our sense o How we remover something depends on how we think about it at the same time

what are memories?

• Memories are made by combining information we alreadt have in our brains with new ifnromation that comes in through our sense • Memories are constructed not recorded

mirror neurons

• Mirror nerons in the frontal and partiela loves fire when an animal performs an aion such as when a money reaches for a food item • Mirror nerosn also fire when an animal watches someone else perfrom the same specific tas o Ex: monekys' mirror nerosn fried when they observed humans grasping for a piece of food either to et it or to place it in a contianier • Mirror neurons often occur in humans too

hippocampal activity

• More recent researching using fMRI has shown that divided attention also leads to less hippocampal involved in encoding o →may help to explain why absedntiminded forgetting is soemtiems so extreme

children + explicit awareness

• Most children by the time they are six or seven are lignustically an socially fairly sophisticated • Yet most children have very little explicit aweness of what they have actually leanred

amnesic patients + elderly people

• Most mnesic patient have difficultying imagining new expeirnces sch as ubstnathing on a sandy beach • Something similar happens with aging; when asked either to recall epsidies that actually occurred in their pasts or imagine new epsides that might occur in their futrues elderly audlts prodvuded fewerd details about what happended or what was to happen than college students

Narcotics (+ affects)

• Narcotics (opiates): drugs derived from opium that are capable of relieving pain. o Feelings of ell-being and relaxation that is enjoyable but can also induce stupor and lethargy o Introduce danger of HIV from needles o The brain produces endorphins or endogenous opiods. o Reduce stress and pain o Endorphins are secreted in the pituitary gland.

episodic memory: neural basis

• Neuroimaging studies reveal that a netowkr of brian regins known to be involved in episodin meory shows similairly increased activity when people remver the past and imagine the future • These osbervaitons suggest that we rely heabily on episodic memory to envision the futute

Sleep Needs and Deprivation

• Newborns need sleep 6 to 8 times in 24 hours. • Over time, we get about 1 hour of sleep for two hours we are awake • Sleep might be expendible

effectiveness of visual imagery encoding (study)

• Numerous exprients show that visual imagery encoding can substantially improve memory o Experiment: particpants who stuied lists of words by creating visual images of them later recalled twice as many tiems as paritcapnts who just emtnally reeated the words

The Role of Consciousness

• One issues tat arises from this cognitive view of classical conditing concerns the role of consciousness • Is conscious awareness of the relationship between CS and US necessary in order for conditioning t occur?

Retrieval cues: Reinstating the Past

• One of the bst ways to retive information from inside you hrsd id yo encounter ifnromation outside you hesd thst is somehow connected to it

observational learning (ex: moankeys and chimpanzees)

• One of the most important questions about observational learning in animals concerns whether monekys and chaimpanzees can learn to use tools by observing tool use in other the way a human can: o Chimpanzees oserved a model (the expeirmwnter) use a metal bar shaped like a T to pull itemsof food toward him o Impared with a group that did not obswrve any tool use these chaimpanzees showed more learning whenlater perfroming the task temshleves o The chaimpanzees ahrdly ever used the tool in the exact same way that the model did • Chaimpenzees raised in a more human-ike environment showed more specific observational eleanring that did tose who has been reared by their mothersperfoming similiarly to human chuldrene

1.Transience

• One thing is certain: memroeis can and do degrade with time • The cuplrut here is transcience definition: forgetting what occurs with the passange of time Transience occurs during the storae phase of memory after an experidnce has been encoded and before it is retrived Transcience in sensory storage and short -term storage as rapid forgetting Trasncience also cocurs in logne term storage

genuine emotion vs. ingenuine emotion

• Other feature are more readily pbservale o Ex: the facial muscles called the zygotatic major raises the concers of the mouth and this happens when people smile spontaneously or when they force themselves to smile but only genuine spontsneous smile engages that obiclaris occuli which crinkles the cocerns of the eyes • Sincere expressions tend to by symmaeterical to last for about 0.5 to 5 seonds and tend to appear and sdissapear smoothly over a few seconds • If you see someone give an abrupt, lipsides smile that lasts for more than 5 seconds it may be idnciative of a display rule rathe than of genuine happiness

Chapter 8: Emotion and Motivation

• Our abilility to love and to hate, to be amused and annoyed, to feel elated and devastated is an essential element of our humanity

characteristics of liars

• Our emotions don't just leak out from our faces but leak all ober the place o Ex: liars speak more slowly, take longer to respond to qestions and respond in less detail than do those who are telling the truth o Liars are also fluent, less engaging and more uncertain, more tenss and less pleanst that truth tellers • One of the telltale signs of a liar is that his or her perfomances tend ot be just a bit too good o A lairs speechs lacks the little imperfections that are typical of truthful speech such as suprefrlus detail, spontaneous correction and expressions of self-doubt

amygdala damage patients

• Pateints with amygdala damage do not remember emtionalevents better than noemtojal ones

frontal lobe damage

• Pateints with damage to the forntal lobes are especially rpome to memory misattribution errors o →probably because the forntal loves play a significant role in effortful retrieval rpcoesses which are required to degrde up the correct source of a memory o →sometimes prduce bizarre misattributions

The Development of Classical Conditioning: Pavlovs Experiments

• Pavlovs basica experimental set up involved cradling dogs in a harness to administer the food and to measure the salivary response • Dogs that has previously been in the experiment began to produce a king of "anticaporatory" salivary response as soon as they were put in the harness, before any food was presented • When the dogs were itnially presented with a plate of food tey began to salivate

affect of extensive classical conditioning

• Pavlovs dogs gradually increased their amount of salivation over several trials of paring a tone with the presentation of food • After learning has been established the CS by itself will replaibly elicit the CR

Pavlov

• Pavolv wonder if extinction was permanent: he extinsguished the classically conditioned salivation response and then allowed the dogs to have a short respt period→when borugh back to the lab and presented with the CS again they displaed spontaneous recovery

false memories

• People develop false memroeis in response to suggestions for osme of the same reason memory misatribtuion occurs • We do not sort all the details of our experinces in emmroy making us vulenrabl to accepting suggestions about what might have hapoended or should have happended • Visual imagery play an important role in socnsutricnt false memroies

priming case study results

• Priming the memsry system makes some info more accessible • In the fill-in-the-blansk experiment people showed priming for studied words eben though they failed to consciously remember they had seen them earlier priming an exmae of implicit, not explicit, emmory

The problem of the other mind

• Problem of the mind (the fundamental difficulty we have in perceiving the consciousness of others

Hallucinogens

• Produce the most extreme alterations of consciousness • Drugs that alter sensation and perception, often causing hallucinations • LSD, mescaline, PCP • Some are derived from plants (shrooms) • Produce changes in perception. • May seem unusally intense, objects may seem to move or change, patterns or colors may appear, exaggerated emotions • Changes are dramatic and unpredictable

reappraisal and innability

• Reappraisal appears ot be importsant for both emtnal and physical healyh and the innnability to reappraise events lies at the heart of psychiartirc dirosders such as depression

experiments based on Darwin's principle of natrual seleciton

• Recent expeiremnts examining encding of surfival relatied infro mtpviated by an envolutionary perspected based on Darwins principle of natural selction: the feauts of an orgnaims that help it surive and reproduce are ore likely than other feayts to be passed on to susbeqeunt generations • Memory mechanisms that help us to survive and reproducse should be repseved by natural selctions and our memory systems should be bult in a way that allows us to remeer especially well endcde difno that is relavent to our survival

destination vs. source memory (case study)

• Recent expeirments directly comparing source and distantaiton emory revealed that pairticpants made more eeors when trying to remeebr whom they hads told an intersitng fact compared with trying to remeevr who had told thm the itnersting fact • The effect seems to occur becayse when we are telling someone else a fact or a story we are focused primarily on our own thougts, resulting in a weak association vetween the fact an the person with whom we are communticating

Consequences of Retrieval

• Retirval changes the state of the emmroy system in important ways • Human memory diffes substantially from computer memory • Simply retrieving a file from my computer doesn't have any effect on the likelihood that the fill will open again in the fture not so with human memory

emotions and informaiton about the world

• Satisfying lives and bright futures make us feel good—so when we feel good, we conclude that our lives must be satifistinh and out future must be rbight • Because th wold infleunces our eotions our emotins can privde ifnromation tabout the world • The information isn't just useful it is critical

ecstatic religions experiences + seizures

• Several prophets have been documented as having epilepsy. • Seizures that occur that are associated with religion suggest the right anterior temporal lobe might be involved when people without epilepsy experience profound religious feelings.

short-term memory's two limitations

• Short-temr memory is limited in both how long it can hold info and how much info it can hold; as you put more items in old ones begin to fall out • One way to increase storage is to goup several lettes into a single meaniful item

affects of sleep deprivation

• Sleep deprivation can cause: o Reducing mental acuity and reaction time o Increasing irritability and depression o Increasing the risk of accidents and injury

Erik Kandels Studies of Aplysias

• Some of the answer comes from erik kandels studies of the sea slug aplyisa which has an extremlysimple nervous sustem consistings of only about 20,000 neurons • When an experimenter stimulate aplysias tail with a mild electric shock the slug immediately withdraws its gill and if the experimenter does it again a moment later aplysia withdraws its fill even or equiely • If the experimenter shocks aplysia over and over it deveols and endueirng memory that can last for days or even weeks why? synaptic strengthening

different kinds of hunger (hypothesis)

• Some researchers thing k the diea that chamiecals turn hunger on and off is too simply--?there is no general state called hunger but rather there are many different ungers each of which is a resonse to a unique nutritional deficit and each of which is truned on by a unuque chemical messenger

withdrawl symptoms

• Some withdrawal symptoms include: o Physical dependence: when pain, convulsions, hallucinations or other unpleasant symptoms accompany withdrawal o Psychological dependence; a strong desire to return to the drug even when physical withdrawal symptoms are gone

Study (creation of three types of judgements)

• Study: researches presented particapnts with a seires of words and asked them to make one of three types of kdgements o Semantic o Rhyme o Visual

Stimulants

• Substances that excite the central nervous system, heightening arousal and activity levels o Include caffeine, amphetamines, nicotine, cocaine, modafinil, ecstasy o Increase the levels of dopamine and norepinephrine in the brain, thereby inducing higher levels of activity in the brain circuits that depend on neurotransmitters. o Increase alertness and energy in the user

Depressents

• Substances that reduce the activity of the central nervous system. • Have a sedative or calming effecct • Alcohol is the king of depressents • 51 percent of Americans over the age of 12 report using it in the past month. • Originally you feel euphoria, reduced anxiety and positivity • Alcohol increases activity of GABA,

behavioral adaption

• Such adaptive behaviros however evolved over extraordinarily long peripds and in particular environmental contexts • If thos cirumctantaces change some of the behavioral mechanisms that upport learning can lead an organism astray • Raccons that aossciated coins with food failed to follow the simply route to obtaining food by dropping the coins in the boxl "nature" took ober and they wasted time rubbing the coins together

Memory Failures: The Seven Sins of Memory

• Such memory errors—the seven sins of emory—cast similar illumination on how memory normally operates and how often it operates well

deja vu

• Such misattribution could be the cause of déjà vu experience where you suddently feel that ypu have been in a situation before even though you cant recall any details • A present situation that is similar to a psdt experience may trigger a gnersal sense of familiarity that is msitakengly attributed to habing been in the exact sistuaiton previously

Magie's Example

• The administration of punishment ld to a learned change in his behavior but how can we explain Magies learning? o She received neither punishment nor reinforcement- indeed she didn't even have direct exerece wth the stove- yet its arguable that she just as likely to keep her hands away from the stovie in the future as Rodney is • Margies ia a cause of observational learning

cotrical damage explanation

• The amygdala presses the emotional gas pedal and the cotex hits the brakes o Why both adults with corotical damage and children (whose cortice re not well developed) have diffiuclt inhibiting their emotions

what part of the brian is working memory?

• The central exectuve cimponents of working memory depends n regions within the forntal lve that are important for controlling and manipulating info on a wide range of cognitive taks

Conscious and Unconscious: The Mind's Eye, Open and Closed The Mysteries of Consciousness

• The challenge is in trying to make sense of subjects. • Psychologists study phenomenology (how things seem to the conscious person)

third and fourth stages of sleep

• The deepest stages are 3 and 4 in which the EEG patterns show activity called delta waves

Netherlands Plane Crash Example

• The disaster f the plane crash dominated new in the Netherlands for days as people viewed footage of the crash scene and read about the catapshtopeh • Tne motnhs alter duthc pshyologsts aske da simple question the university deudets: did you see the telvsiion film of the movement the plane hit the apartment building? Fifty fiver percent said yes when in reality there was no footage of the exast moment the plane crashed but only after • The suggestice question led particpants to misattribute ifnromation from these or other soruces to a falim that did not exist

Induction and Susceptibility

• The essence of hypnosis is in leading people to expect that certain things will happen to them that are outside of their conscious will • Not everyone is equally hypnotizable

Emotional Experience: The Feeling Machine

• The essential feature of all emotions is the experience o It feels like something to love and what it feels like is loves defining attribute

amnesia patient: damage to brain suggestions

• The fact that people who have amsneisa can acquire new procedural memroies suggests tha the hippocampal structures that are usually damaged in ths epaitents may be necessary for explicit memory but not for implicit procedural memory o Areas such as the motor cotex appear important for procedural memory

estrogen regulation

• The females of most mammalian species have little or no interest in sex ecspet when their estrogen levels are high which ahppendis when they are ovulating o In other words: estrogen regulates both ovulation and sexual interest in these mammals

The Function of Emotion

• The first function of emotion is to provide ius with ifnromation about the world o EX: people report habing better lives when they are asked the question on a sunny day rather than a rainy day becayse people feel happier on sunnday days and they use their happiness as ifnromation about the quality of their lives

Meditation

• The practice of intentional contemplation. • Clear the mind of thought or focusing on a single thought • Have a common period of quiet • Thought to enhance psychological well-being • Meditation influences EEG recordings of brain waves and produces patterns of alpha waves that are associated with relaxation.

conditioning (dog example of feeding clues and response)

• The presenttaton of food (the US) has become associated with a complex CS (you getting up, moving into the kitchen, opening the cabinet, working the can opener—such that the CS alone signals to your dog that food is on the way and therefore intiates the CR of her getting ready to eat

second function of emotion:give us something to do with that informaiton

• The second function of emotion is to give us something to do with that ifnromation • People naturally prefer to experience positive rather than negative emotions; thus happiness, satisfaction, pleasure and joy are foten the goals, the ends, and the objexts toward which our behavior is aimed

Retrieval can Improve Subsequent Memory

• The simple act of retrival can strength a retrieved memory making it easier to remember that information at a alter time • The act of trevitivn info from emmroy can strengthen the memory more than simply studying the ifnromation again

Freudian Unconscious

• The true champion of the unconscious mind was Sigmund Freud o A dynamic unconscious: an active system encompassing a lifetime of hidden memories, the person's deepest instincts and desires and the person's inner struggle to control these forces • Ex: hidden sexual thoughts about one's parents. • The kinds of thoughts people keep secret from others and may not even acknowledge to themselves

criteria for the judgement of others minds

• There is no way you can tell if another person's experience of anything is at all like yours • People judge minds according to the capacity for experience and the capacity for agency (such as the ability for self-control, planning, memory, or thoughts)

Separating the Components of Retrieval

• There is reason to believe that trying to recall an incident and successfully recalling one are fundamentally different processes that occur in different parts of the brian

enculturation hypothesis

• This finding led Tomasello and colleagues to put foreward the "enculturation hypothesis" o Being racied in a human culture has a profound effect on the congitivt ability of chaimpanzees especially their ability to understand the intentions of tohers when performing taks such as using tools which in turn iceeases their observational learning capaicities

results of study

• Those apritciapnts who had made semantic judgement had much beteer memory for the words than particapts who used rhyme or visual judgements

blocking (case study)

• To illustrate the above: researchers showed people pcitires of cartoon and comic strip character some with desrptive names that hightlight key features of the characerty and others with arbitrary names • Even though the two types of names were equally familiar to particpants in the experiment they blocked less often on the descurptive names than on the arbitrary names

Watson

• Watson and his followes thought that It was possible to develop general expelnation of pretty much any behavior of an orgnamis based on classical conditioning principles o Watson embarked on a controversial study with Rayner- enlisted the assiaictace of a nine month old "Little Albert o Watson wanted to see if such a child could be classically conditioned to experience a strong emotional reaction- namely, fear

Watson's Experiment (US, CS and CR)

• Watson experiment: a US (the loud sound)was paried with a CS (the presenseve of the rat) such that the CS all by iself was sufficient to produce the CR ( a fearful reaction)

NMDA Receptors-->LTP

• When a sending neuron releases gluatamte it may attach to an NMDA recept on the receiving neuron which may become active in turn • When this happens LTP is insitated which increases synaptic connections by allowing neurons that fire goterh to wire together r

amygdala vs. cortical stimulation in emotions

• When experiemtnal subjects are insitructed to expeirmece emotions such as happiness, sadness, fear, and anger they show increased ancitivty in the amygdala and ddecrreased activity in the cortex • When individuals asked ot inhibit these emotions they show increased cortical activity and decreased amygdala activity

abilities of those who can't "feel"

• When patients with this parituclar kind of brain damage are given the opportunity to gamble they make a lot of reckless bets becauser they don't feel the winge of anxiety that tells most off us when were about toe do something stupid • On the other hand under certain conditions these patients with this brain damage make excellent investors, precisely because they are willing to take risks that others will not

conditioned stimulus and unconditonated stimulus

• When the conditioned stimulus is paried over time with the unconditioned stimulus the animal will learn to associated food with the stimulus and eventually the CS is sfffiednt to roduce a reponse

threat detection: cortex vs. amygdala

• While the cortex is solowly using the info to conduct a full-scale investigation of the stimulus' identity and impoerantce the amygdala has already received the ifno directly form the thalamus and is making one very fast and very simply decision: "is this a threat"? • If the amygdals answer to that question is yes it initiated the neural processes that ultimately produce the bodily reacions and conscious experience we call fear • The cortex takes much longer to process this infor but when it does it ends a signal to the amygdala o The signal can tell the amydala to maintain the state of fear or decrease it

working memory + sorting/manipulating visual informaiton

• Working memory includes subystems that sore and manipulate visual images or verbal ifno as wellas a central execytve that coordinates the subsystems • If you wanted to keep the arrangement of pieces on a chessboard in mind as you contemplated you r enxt move yod be relying on working memory • Working memory includes the visual represensation of the positions of the pcies, your mental manipulation of the possible moves, and your awareness sof the flow of information into and out of memory, all stored for a limited amount of time

Cerebellum's importance for trace and delay conditioning

• a series of pioneering experiments conducted across several decades by Richard Thomposon and his colleagues—whch focues on eyeblink conditioning in the rabbut- showed convivingly that the cerrebeelum is circitical for both delay and trace conditioning • studies of patients with lesions to the cerebellum supported these findings

different aspects of memory-->different areas of the brian

• different aspects of a single memory are stored in different places in the cortex • the hippocampal region acts as a kind of index that links together all of these otherwise seprate btis and pieces so thsat we remeer them as one memory; over time this index may become less necessary • although the hippocalmapl-rgion index is cirticual when a new memory is first formed it may become less important as the memory ages • the ntoiton of the hippocampus as an index explains why people like HM cannot make new memroies and why they can remember old ones

hypothesis of dopamine

• during recent years eveeral competing hypothesis about the precise role of dopamine have emerged including the idea that dopamine is moere closely linekd with the epxectaiton of reward than with reward itself and the theory that dopamine is moere closely associated with wanting or even craving something rather than simply liking it

behavior (behavior in fixed frameork)

• elements of their behavior get shaped over time untilt he final product looks like one smooth motion • behavior rearely occurs in fixed frame works where a stimulus is presented and then and organism has to engage in some acitivty or another

vegetative state and consciousness in trace conditioning

• given evidence that trace docnditinng depends on awareness of the contignecy between the CS and the US the researchers argued that reace consitioning in the vegetative state felects some degree ofo conscious processing in these patients

HM and Greg: Return of Memory? question of conscious vs. unconscious recall

• gred could not consciously remeering hearing about his fathers death and HM could no consciously remember the traking game but both showed celar signs of haing been ermaantly changed by experiences that they s rapidly forgot • these patients behaved as thougj they were remembering things while caliing to remember nothing at all o suggests: there must be seeval kidsn of memory, some that are accessible to conscious recall and some that we cannot consciously access

hallmark of both the iconic and ehcoim emory

• hallmark of both the iconic and echoic memory sotres is that they hold info for a very short time

trust game and cogntive signlaing

• highlight the pwer of the cognitive effect signlas in a aprt of the brian that ordinarily disntugishes between positive and negative feedback were edent onlywhen participant played with the "neutral" partner; t hese feedbac signlas were absent when aprticiapnts played with the turthstowrht patern reduced when particpants played with the supect partiner

difference between

• however there is an important difference: in classical condition the US occurs on every trail no matter than the organism does but in perant conditioning the refironfoercemtns occur only when the proper response has been made and they don't always occur even then • these bahvior don't weaken and gradually distignusih: extinction is a bit more complicated in operant conditioning than in classical conditioning because it depends in part on how often reifnrocement is received

senosry memory experiment (recall)

• in a series of classical experiemnts: research paritcants were asked to remember rws of letters that were flashed on a screen for a tenetyieth of a second o when asked to remember all 12 of the letters paritcpants reacalled feewer than half o two possible explanation: either people simply couldn't econdode all the letter sin such a brief period or they had encoded the letters but forgotten them while trying to recall everythting they had seen

extrinsic motivaiton + intelligence

• in research on the ability yto delay gratification people are typically faced with a choice between getting something they want tight now or waiting and getting moe of what they want later • studies show that four year old children who can delay gratification are judeged to be more intelligent and socially compneent and ten years later have the highest SAT scores when the enter college • the ability to delay gratification is abetter predictor of a childs grades in school than is the childs IQ

mimicry or "aping"

• may help explain why people are gwernally so good at recognizing the emotional expressions of tohers o people unconcsioulsy mimic other peoples body postures and facial expressions • when we see someone smile our zygomatic major contracts ever so slightly→the tendency to "ape" the facial expressions of our interaction partner is so natural than even apes do it

shaping

• most of our behavior then are the result of shaping • shaping: learning tht results from the reinforcement of successive steps to a final deired behavior • the outocmes of one set of behavior shapes the next set of behavors, and so on

creation of representations of the world around us

• most people are attuned to lingusitc, social, emotional and senorimotors event in the world around them—so much so that they gradually build up internal represantions of those patterns that were acquired without epclicit awareness

expressions causes emotion affect

• most researchers think that smils ad happiness become strongly associated through epxeirence, with one generally bringing about the other • these expression-causes-emotuon effects are not limited to the face o ex: people who are asked to make a fist rate theselves as more assertive and people who are asked to extend their middle figers rate others as more hostile

learning to trust: for better or worse (card game experiment)

• on each trial a participant could either keep a $1 reward ir transger the reward ti a atenr who would receive $3, the partener could then either keep thre three dollars of shale half with the particapnt -when playing with a partiner who was likking to share the weward the participant would be better of transferring the money but when playing with a partner who did not shre the participant would be better off kepng thr eward in the first place • pariticpants in such expeirments typically learn who is trustowrht on the baiss of trail and error and they give more money to partners who reifnroce them by sharing

rats and cognitive maps

• once a rat had learned to follow a aprticular pathway thru the mae to obtain food if theat pathways was blocked the rats immediately ran down an alternate path to the goal o the bahviralsits ould not have precicted this behavior because this alternate pthways had never been reifncoered rather it appeared that the rats had formed a sophistacted cognitive map of their environment and behaved in a way that suggested they were successfully following that map after the conditons had changed

Superstitious Behavior

• one of the keys to eastblishing reliable operant behavior is the correlation between an organism response and the occurrence of reinforment • just ebcuase two things are correlated doesn't imply their there ia a casuality

two types of consolidaiton (short and long)

• one type o focnloidation oerates over seconds or minutes o ex: when someome experience a head injgry in a car carsh and later cannot recall what happened during the few seconds or minutes before the crash-but can recall toher events normally- the head injufry probaleby prevented condolidaiton of short-term memory into long-term memory • another tye of consolidation occurs over much longer peroods and likely involves transfer of ino from the hippocampus to more peramant strage sites in the crtex o oepraiton of this long-term consokudaiton process sis seen in the retgoreade amnesia of patients like HM who can recall memories from childhood relatively nromall but are impaired when recalling experiences that occurred just a few years peiror ot the time they became amnesia

procedural emmory

• one type of implicit memory is prodceudal memory the gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice or "knowing how" to do things

Extinction in operant behavior

• operant behavior undergoes extinction when the reifnrocement stop • on the surface extionction of operant eahvior looks like that of clascial conditioning

deja vecu

• other neurological patients exhibit a recently discored type of memory misattribution called deja vecu o patient strongly feel but msitakelnyl that they have already lvied though an expeirnce and remember the details of what supposedly happeneded o althought the basis of this strange dirsoder is not well understood it problebaly involved disprutpion to aprts of the temporal love that normally generate a subjective feeling of remembering

What Makes Us Unique

• psychological motivations that make us unique o ex: all aniamls strive to stay alie but only human beigns realize that this striving is utliamtely in vain and that death is lifes inwvtibale end • some psyhologists have suggested that the knowledge of death in humans creates a sense of "existential terror" and that much of our behavior is merely an attempt to manage it

why reinfrocement better for learning

• reifnforcement is generally more effective than punishment in promoting learning o one reason: punishment signals than an unnacapetbale behavior has occurred but it doesn't specifiy what should be done instead

frontal lobe activity

• reigons in te left frontal lobe show heightened activt when people try to retrieve info that was presented ot them earlier o →may reflect the mental effort of struggling to drge up the past event

reinforcers and biological + daily needs

• reinforcers and punishers foten gain their functions from basic biological mechanism- food comfort, shoetler and warmth are expleples of pimrary reifnrocers because they help satify biological needs • however the vast majority of reinforcers or punishers in our daily lives have little to do with biology • we elarn to perfrom a lot of behaiors based on reifnrocement that have little or nothing to do with biological satisfaction

motor cortex involvment in observational learning

• related evidence indicates that bservatonal learning of some morotr skills relies on the motor cotex which is known to be critical for motot knwoeldge

shaping (example of bar pressing in rats)

• relatively easy to "shape" bar pressing o if it trns in the direction of the bar, deliver a food reward→this will reifnoce truing toward the bar, making such a movement more likely o wait for the rat to take a step toward the bar before delivering the food→ this will eincofce moving toward the bar o after the rat walks closer to the bar wait until it tpuches the bar before rpeseting the food o none of the above bahvor is the final desired bahvior-relaibly pressuring the bar but rather each behavior is a successive approciamtion to the final product ; each small behavior reifnroced until overall sequence of behavior is performed realibaly

Supersiutious Behavior (Skinner bird example)

• skinner diesnged in ecperiment that illustrates this disction: he put several egenois in skinner boxes set the food dispernder to deliver food every fifteen second and left the birds to their own deive; late rhe retruned and found the birds engaging in ordd behavior→these bahviors were superistious

Skinner and Intermittent Scheduales of Reinforcer

• skinner relied perhas he could vae time and effort by not giving his rats a pellet for every bar ressre but instrad delivering food on some intermittent shecduale: the reulsts were daramtic • not only did the rats continue bar pressing but they also shifted the rate and pattern of bar pressing depending on the timeing and freqenc of the presentation of the frienforcers

explicit and implicit learning relationship

• some forms of learning start out ecplicity but become more implicit over time • complex interplay of motions probably quite effortless and automatic over time; explicity learning has become mplicit over time

stimulus control and discrimination and generalization

• stimulus control shows both discrimination and geenralizationeffets similar to those seen in classical conditioning

hippocampal stimulation: successful remembering

• succesfyllly remembering a past epxeirnce tends ot be accompanied by acitivty in the hipocampal region o successful recall also acitvaties parts of the brian that play a role in processing the senory feature of an epxeirence o ex: recall of perviosly heard sounds is accompandied by activity in the audory cortex wherras recall of previously seen pcitrues is accomponeided by acivity in the visual cortex

Pavlov vs. Thorndike Behavioral Learning

• such learning is very dfiferentf rom classical conditioning o Pavlov delivered food to the dog wheter it salivated or not o But it thondiks work thebehavior fo the animal determed what happened next: if the behavior was ccrect the animal was reward with food whereas incorrect bahviors produced no results

amygdala and emotional conditioning

• the amygdala is cirtical for emotinali conditioning • the amygdgala plasy a role in producing all of these outcomes: if protions of the amygdala or its connections to other brian areas are damaged, the rat does not exhibit oeither the bahvioral freexing response or the autonomic responses to the CS • the action of the amygdala is an essential element in fear conditioning and it links with other areas of the brain are resppnsible for producing specific featurs of conditioning • the amiyfdala is involved in fear condition in peopeas well as rats and other animals

techniques for dealing with nausea from chemotherapy

• the development of a techniqye for deling with an unanticipated side effect of raditon and chemotrhrpay: cancer apatient swho experience nausea from their treatements often develop aversion to food they ate before the therapy

James Old and Associates (Brain Areas conducive to "pleasure centers")

• the first hint of how specific brain strucutres might ocntirbute to the process of reinforcement came from James Old and his associates o discovered that some brain areas, particulairly those in the limbic system, produced what appeared to be intensely posivitive epxeirmences: the rats would press the bar repeatedily to stimulate these stricutres o the researeahrsrs observed that these rats would ignore food, water, and other life-sistaining sneccesities for hours on end simply to receive stimulation directly in the brain o →these parts of the brain "pleasure centers"

hippocampus and trace conditioning

• the hippocampus is important for tradce conditioning but not dela condining o neuroimagining finddings in healthy young adults show greater hippocampal activationg during trace than delay coditining, together with similar ammounts of acitviation in the cerebellum during thr two types of conditioning

medial forebrain bundle

• the neurons in the medial forebrain bundle are the most sucpestivble to stimulation that prodcues pleasure definition: a pathway that meanders it ways from the midbrain through the hypothalamus into the ncelus accumbens psyhclogists have idenfitied this buddle of cells ac crucial to behavior that cleaely incolve pleasure, such as eating, dirnking, and engaginv in sexual activity the neurons along this patheays especially those in the nucleus accumebsn itself are dopamingergic: they secete the neurotransmitter dipamaine

evolutionary mechanisms for avoiding food (properties)

• this mechanism should have several prpertoes: o these should be rapild learning that occurs in perhaps one or two trails-if learning takes more trals than this the animal could die from eating a toixic substance o tocxic susbtances often don't cause illness immeditialy so conditioning should be spossible over ver long intervals o the orgnamism shiuld develop the aversion to the smell or trase f the food rather than its ingestion o learned aversions shouldoccur more often with novel foods than familiar ones

motor cortex TMS evidence

• to examine whetehr obserbation learning deend of the motor cotez researchers applied transcarnailam magnetic stimulation or TMS to the motor cortex just after particpants observed perfromcance of the reach movmenet o applying TMS to the motor cortex greatly reduced the amount of observational learning whereas applying TMS in a control region outside the motor cotex had no effect on observational learning

latent learning (Tolman Maze Example)

• tolamn gave three grus or rays aces to a complex maze every day fr two weeks o the control goup never received anty reifnrocment for nagivating the maze->they were imply allowed to run around until theyreached the goal box at the end f the mazr o the ove the two weeks of the stydy this group got a little better at finding their way trhough the maze but noy by much o a second groip of racs eceived regular reinfrocements: when they reached the goal boz they found a small food reeard there→these rats showed clear leanring o a third goup was treated like the control group for the first ten dauys and then rewarded for the last seven days→for the first tne duas they behaved like the trats in the control group but in the final seven days hey behaved a lot like the rstas thathad been reifncoed every day o celaelty the rats in the third group had learned a lot about the maze and the location of the goal boz dring thse furst ten day even though theyhad not received sny reifnrocement for their bahior

affects of cultural world view

• when people are reminded of death they are more liely to praise and reward those who share their cultural worldview and tto derogate and punish those who don't • these treponses are preosublably ways of shoring up ones cultural worldview and thereby definding against the anxiey that redmiders of ones own mortality elicit • we are motivated to like ourselves, to know ourselves, to belong to groups, to control our fates, to ahcive our goals and so on

Are the Seven Sins Vices or Virtues? (What are the Seven Sins)

•The seven sins are the price we pay for the mant beenfits that memory provides, the occisaional result of the nroamlly efficient operation of the human memory system