Psychology Final #2: Chapters 13, 14, 16, 7, 8
debate involving trait theories
"trait versus situationism" or the "person-situation controversy"
psychosis:
(still in DSM bc its useful in diagnosing disorders like schizophrenia and mood disorders)
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examples of the three pseudo personality tests
-"something for everyone = Barnum effect -"paying attention only to what confirms our expectations ( fallacy of positive instances) -liking flattering descriptions (self-serving bias)
three-stage memory model includes a stimulus from the environment which leads to...
->sensory memory storage (purpose: hold sensory info, lasts for 1/2 second for visual and 2-4 for auditory, capacity: large) -> short-term memory (STM) storage (purpose: hold info temporarily for analysis and retrieves info from LTM, duration: up to 30 seconds, capacity: limited:5-9 items) -> encoding and elaborative rehearsal lead to long-term memory storage (purpose: receives and stores info from STM, duration: relatively permanent, capacity: unlimited)
3 categories of phobias are
-agoraphobia: (agora = public or open space) restriction of a person's normal activities bc they fear having a panic attack in a public place -specific phobias: a fear of a specific object or situation such as spiders (ex: acrophobia: fear of heights) -social phobias: irrationally fearful of embarrassing themselves in social situations (eating in public and public speaking)
5 sources of prejudice: mental shortcuts...
-automatic or implicit bias: prejudice without a person's conscious awareness or control -ingroup: any category that people see themselves as belonging to -outgroup: any other category -ingroup favoritism: judge members as being more attractive therefore having better personalities -outgroup homogeneity effect: when members of minority groups are not recognized as varied and complex individuals, it is easier to treat them in discriminatory ways (ex: war; viewing ppl on the other side as faceless enemies makes it easier to kill)
psychosocial factors of aggression are...
-aversive stimuli: noise, heat, pain, bullying, insults and smells -> frustration-agression hypothesis: by Dollard that discovered frustration causes anger -culture and learning: raised with aggressive people around you -> you will suck -violent media: TV violence increases aggressive children
how does culture affect attributional biases? (refer to the self-serving bias)
-self-serving bias is less common in Eastern nations like Japan, where the ideal person is aware of their shortcomings (faults) and work to better themselves - in the East, people don't define themselves as doing better than others... they try to fit in and not stand out (ex: Jap says that "they nail that sticks up, gets pounded down) - Native americans say "Linda we" instead of "Linda and I" bc the attachment to community relations instead of selfhood
six ways to reduce destructive obedience...
-socialization -power of the situation: roles of police officers have guidelines for appropriate behavior -groupthink: stereotypes of the out group, the illusion of unanimity, belief in the morality of the group etc -foot-in-the-door: a first, small request is used as a setup for later, larger requests -relaxed moral guard: belief that only evil people do bad things (ex: Hitler and the people that thought he was good, so they followed him) -disobedient models: say no (Rosa Parks)
7 psychological perspectives on abnormal behavior are
-sociocultural: cultural values and beliefs cause problems -behavioral: faulty conditionign or modeling -evolutionary: exaggerated form of adaptive reasoning -humanistic: blocked personal groth -psychoanalytic/dynamic: unconscious, unresolved conflict -cognitive: faulty thiking -biological: problems with brain, genetics
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mental health professionals agree on 4 criteria for identifying abnormal behavior...
... (the 4 Ds) deviance, dysfunction, distress, and danger
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humanists believe that ... and in ___
...people are naturally good or neutral self actualization: the inborn drive to develop all one's talents and capabilities
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3 major criticisms of humanistic theories of personality include
1. Naïve assumptions: humanistic perspective is unrealistic, and romantic. the emphasis on the self-concept has led to narcissism, or inappropriate self love and egocentrism 2. poor testability and inadequate evidence: humanistic concepts (like unconditional positive regard and self-actualization) are hard to define and test 3. narrowness: describing personality and not explaining it. ex: where does the motivation for self-actualization come from?
attractions to the social cognitive theories are first...
1. emphasis how the environment affects, and is affected by individuals 2. meets most standards for scientific research
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Sternberg's triangular theory of love:
3 components 1. intimacy: emotional closeness, trust, friendship, warmth, forming of "love maps" 2. passion: sexual attraction 3. commitment: stability, and the decision to stay with the person all three of these = consummate love page 579
fewer than ___% of people are classified as having an intellectual disability
3% of this group, 85% have mild disability
in sum, genetic factors contribute about ___ % of personality
40-50%
other criticisms of the trait theory says that
5 personality variations cannot be account for all
biopsychosocial model and schizophrenia diagram on page
516
68% of people that take the test will score normal from ____-_____
85-115
LTM and STM charts on 255 and 254
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2 of the most influential social-cognitive theorists are
Albert Bandura and Julian Rotter
three of Freud's followers that influenced psychology
Alfred Adler, Carl Jung, and Karen Horney
early trait theorists include...
Allport Cattell Eysenck
three important logical fallacies to pseudo-personality (sham) evaluations
Barnum effect fallacy of positive instances self-serving bias
Freud's key personality concepts: Personality structure
Freud believed that personality is composed of three interacting mental components: id, ego, and superego (all of which reside in the unconscious mind) -id, ego, and superego are all hypothetical constructs or mental concepts... not physical -id: made up of innate, biological instincts and urges. it is immature and impulsive and totally unconscious. operates on the pleasure principle: the immediate and uninhibited seeking of pleasure and the avoidance of discomfort (like a newborn baby that wants what it wants) -the ego: supposedly develops as a child grows older and is responsible for planning and problem solving and controls the id. resides in the conscious and preconscious. ego channels and releases the id's energy. operates on the reality principle: delaying gratification until it is practical or appropriate - the superego: inner voice "conscience" made up of a set of ethical standards or rules for behavior that reduced in the preconscious and unconscious. develops from internalized parental and societal standards. may operate on the morality principle: because violating its rules results in feelings of guilt
CHAPTER 8 (PG 298-311)
INTELLIGENCE
environmental factors play a significant role in...
IQ scores -minorities don't have the same advantages
different groups' distribution of IQ scores overlap considerably in that
IQ scores and intelligence have greater relevance in individuals, not in groups
examples of obedience that was super weird...
Jim Jones in 1978 where over 900 members of the People's temple were ordered to commit mass suicide by drinking cyanide laced Kool Aid AND Reverend Sun Myung Moon ordered people to be married that didn't know each other
STM retrieves stored memories from
LTM
CHAPTER 7
MEMORY
does a bigger brain mean greater intelligence?
MRI have found a correlation between brain size, adjusted for body size, and intelligence -Einstein's brain wasn't larger than normal but the section responsible for processing math and spacial info was 15% bigger than average
does a smart brain work harder?
PET scans measure brain activity by recording the amount of radioactive glucose used in different parts of the brain... areas of the brain involved in problem solving show less activity in people of high intelligence than in people of lower intelligence
Chapter 13
Personality Assessment
two widely used projective tests are
Rorschach Inkblot Test and Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
How would Rotter understand ones personality and behavior?
Rotter would use personality tests that measure ones internal versus external locus of control -these tests ask people to respond true or false to a series of statements like "people get ahead in this world primarily by luck and connections rather than by hard work and perseverance" or "when someone doesn't like you, there is little you can do about it"
CHAPTER 16
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
historical treatment of abnormal behavior included (one positive treatment by...)
Stone age: bore a hole in the skull to let the evil spirit escape Middle ages: exorcism to drive the Devil out Fifteenth century: torture End of Middle Ages: asylums 1792 Philippe Pinel (in charge of Parisian asylum)released inmates and they got better
Biological theorist...
Tellegen suggested that: extroversion and introversion are associated with particular areas of the brain, and research seems to support him
Cattell reanalized ___'s data and argued tat two subtypes of g exist...
Thurstone's data ... fluid intelligence (gf) and crystallized intelligence (gc) -fluid intelligence (gf): refers to innate, inherited reasoning abilities, memory and speed of info. processing. declines with age. exercise and stimulating activity in adults can increase gf -crystallized intelligence (gc): store of knowledge and skills gained through experience and education. tends to increase over lifetime
stereotype:
a set of beliefs about the characteristic of people in a group that is generalized to all group members; also, the cognitive component of prejudice
is a faster brain more intelligent?
a faster response time is indeed related to higher intelligence
more than one third of Asch's participants conformed or:
agreed wight the group's obviously incorrect choice
factors of interpersonal: proximity...
aka geographical nearness -mere exposure: exposure increases overall liking - repeated exposure to a negative stimulus can decrease attraction (ex: running a bad ad of an opposing senate opponent and people begin to hate that ad and therefore the person running)
personality assessments: objective tests
aka inventories are standard questions that require written responses and help a person "self-report" -these are considered objective bc they have a limited number of possible responses
intellectually disabled:
aka mental retardation (earlier) is applied when someone is significantly below average in general intellectual functioning (IQ < 70)and has deficits in adaptive functioning (like social, safety and health)
romantic love:
aka passionate love or limerance -any intense attraction that involved the idealization of the other, within an erotic context, with the expectation of enduring for some time
altruism:
aka prosocial behavior refers to actions designed to help others with no obvious benefit to the helper
antisocial personality disorder:
aka sociopath and psychopath, feel little personal distress yet generally bring considerable harm and suffering to others -crooked politicians, business people and serial killers are all prime examples
Guilford later expanded this number saying that 120 factors contribute to
the structure of intelligence
the DSM identifies and describes...
the symptoms of over 400 disorders, witch are grouped into 17 categories (page 497), and organizes diagnostic info. into five dimensions (or axes)
learned helplessness:
theory of depression, developed by Martin Seligman, maintains that when human or nonhuman animals are repeatedly subjected to pain that they cannot escape, they develop a strong sense of helplessness -when you can't change things, people give up -abusive relationships for example -attribution: the explanations people assign to their own and others' behavior
according to the encoding, storage, retrieval (ESR) model, info goes through
three basic operations in which each process represents a different function closely analogous to the parts and functions of a computer
Storage and LTM...
to successfully store info in LTM, we need to organize the material into hierarchies
iconic memory:
visual information that lasts about one-half of a second
flashbulb memories:
vivid images of circumstances associated with surprising or strongly emotional events -the fight or flight chemicals involved trigger memories later, when thinking about it again
TBI:
traumatic brain injury: leading cause of memory loss among 15-25 age americans -occurs when the skull has a sudden collision
according to the diathesis- stress model of schizo., stress plays an essential role in ...
triggering schizo. episodes in people with an inherited predisposition toward the disease
achievement tests measure
what you have already learned
Rogers said that to create a full personality and life potential, adults need to create an
unconditional positive regard: a setting in which children realize that they are loved and accepted with no conditions or strings attached
social-cognitive perspective on personality says that each of us has a
unique personality because of our individual history of interactions with the environment and bc we think about the world and interpret what happens to us
anxiety disorder:
unreasonable, often paralyzing, anxiety or fear
projective tests:
use ambiguous, unstructured stimuli, such as inkblots -allow each person to project his own unconscious conflicts onto the test materials
in the case of Andrea Yates, we are able to tell the difference between...
insanity and abnormal behavior -mother who killer her 5 small children
nature and nurture play interacting and ___ roles in intelligence
inseparable
when does trouble occur in Sternberg's theory?
when the need of one component is stronger in one partner than in the other
4 factors to forgetting: Sleeper effect
when we tend to confuse reliable info with unreliable after time passes -when we first hear something from unreliable source, we tend to disregard that info in favor of a more reliable source. but overtime the source of the info is forgotten(source amnesia), and the unreliable info is no longer discounted (sleeper effect)
dissociative disorders :
involve a splitting apart of significant aspects of experience from memory or consciousness -do this by failing to recall past experiences (called dissociative amnesia), leaving home and wandering off (dissociative fugue) and by losing the sense of reality and feeling of self (depersonalization disorder), or by developing completely separate personalities (dissociative identity disorder)
phobias:
involve a strong, irrational fear and avoidance of objects or situations that are usually considered harmless
problems with romantic love
its short lived based on mystery and fantasy then the person snores and is nasty frusteration interfearance (parents in R and J)
personality assessments: unstructured interviews are used for
job and college selection
Horney's "blended" psychology
know for blend of Freud, Jung, Adlerian theory as well as her own theories of personality development -believed that personality was shaped by the child's relationship to the parents, not by fixation at some stage of psychosexual development as freud argued. -said that children whose needs were not met by parents would experience extreme feelings of helplessness and insecurity called basic anxiety -said that everyone searches for security is one of three ways: move toward people, move away from people, or we can move against people (control over others) -emotional health requires a balance among these three styles
the biopsychosocial model describes
why people develop schizophrenia
combatting prejudice: intergroup contact...
works if there is close interaction, interdependence, and equal status
memory allows us to
learn from our experiences and adapt to everchangin environments
attitudes:
learned predispositions to respond cognitively, affectively and behaviorally to a particular object in a particular way
prejudice:
learned, generally negative attitude directed toward specific people solely bc of their membership in an identified group
five commonly cited sources of prejudice and discrimination are...
learning personal experience limited resources displaced aggression mental shortcuts
current evidence suggests that at best, animals use a language that is
less complex and has fewer rules than humans
four of Freud's key concepts involving personality
levels of awareness personality structure defense mechanisms and psychosexual stages of development
Fegus Craik and Robert Lockhart's (1972) levels of ___, suggests that...
levels of processing model ... memory relies on how deeply we process and store info -shallow processes we are somewhat aware -deep processing can store memories for life
ESR model: Encoding
like a computer being typed on and translated into an electronic language, our brains encode sensory info (sound, visual, images, etc) into a neural code (language) it can understand and use
attributions:
logical explanations
personality assessments: observations
look for specific behaviors and flow guidelines ex: psychologist arranges to observe a troubled client and their interactions with his family
amnesia:
loss of memory as a result o brain injury or trauma
Maslow saw personality development and the quest for self-actulization as a natural progression from
lower to higher levels-a basic hierarchy of needs -newborns focus on physiological needs like hunger and thirst and then develop to higher levels of needs
two main types of mood disorders are
major depressive disorder bipolar disorder
schizophrenia: (severe form is...)
major disturbances in perception, language,thought, emotion and behavior -severe, is considered a psychosis: or out of touch wit reality
ESR model :retrieval
memories must be retrieved, or taken out of storage
5 theories of forgetting: Retrieval Failure theory
memories stored in LTM aren't forgotten ex: blanked during an exam and then remembered the info later -tip of the tongue phenomenon
prolonged stress can interfere with
memory
how do you determined a child's intelligence quotient (IQ) ?
mental age is divided by the child's chronological age (actual age in years) and multiplied by 100 (IQ= MA/CA x100) ex: a 7 year old with a mental age of 8 would have an IQ of 114 (a normal child who'd have a mental age equal to his or her chronological age)
character refers to ___ and is different from personality
your ethics, morals, values, and integrity
self-serving bias:
motivated by a desire to maintain positive self-esteem and a good public image ex: students credit themselves for high schores on an exam and blame the instructor for tricky questions on a hard test
reciprocal determinism:
mutual interaction and influence ex: how others respond to you affects your chances for success -Bandura said that our cognitions (thoughts), behaviors, and the environment are interdependent and interactive ex: a cognition ("i can succeed") will affect behaviors ("i will work hard and ask for a promotion"), which in turn will affect the environment ("my employer recognized my efforts and promoted me")
why do we distort our memories?
need for logic and consistency
discrimination:
negative behaviors directed at members of a group
schizophrenics often create artificial words called
neologism -like smever for smart and clever
some people with schizophrenia have a flattened affect, or
no emotional response of any kind
race, like intelligence itself, is almost impossible to define and practically has
no meaning, it is just a social construct
5 theories of forgetting: Encoding Failure theory
not remembering everything about a penny, even though we have seen it 8493824975 of times
dopamine has been found to be correlated with
novelty seeking, impulsivity, and drug use
Bandura's best known for his work on
observational learning or social learning but he also played a role in thought process into the personality theory
ESR model: Storage
once information is encoded, it must be stored.
three-stage memory model:
or the 3-box-model which says that memory requires three different storage "boxes" or memory stages (sensory, short-term, and long-term) to hold an process information -bc info must pass through each of these stages to get to the next, they are often depicted as three boxes with directional arrows indicating the flow if info
savant syndrome:
people that can score low on some measures of intelligence and still be average or even gifted in others
eyewitness testimony, what is wrong with it?
people think they remember things (the barn) when it didn't actually happen.. but they might think it did when someone mentions it( there was a barn bc a man asked if we saw the barn)
outspoken critic of the medical model, Thomas Szasz, believed that the model encourages
people to believe they have no responsibility for their actions -"mental illness is a myth used label ppl who are peculiar
anterograde anmesia is usually
permanent
the "five-factor model" describes the five basic...
personality traits (developed using factor analysis) modern theory
findings from behavioral genetics generally report a high correlation on certain
personality traits, whereas research on parents' personalities have found moderate correlations with their biological children and very little with those oftheir adopted children
3 factors of interpersonal attraction...
physical attractiveness, proximity, similarity(maintains long term relationships)
high sensation seekers and extroverts tend to have lower levels of
physiological arousal than introverts -traits may be inherited -lower levels mean that extroverts have to do more to feel the arousal
the self serving bias says that we tend to
prefer information that maintains our positive self image
prejudice literally means
prejudgement
combatting prejudice: cognitive dissonance...
prejudice is a type of attitude that has three basic concepts being affective (feelings), behavioral tendencies, and cognitive (thoughts) -cognitive dissonance: a perceived discrepancy between an attitude and a behavior or between an attitude and a new piece of info. (ex of diss. : i am confused why this gay man has a deep voice and plays sports... to resolve the dissonance we can maintain our stereotypes by saying "this gay man is an exception to the rule" which will cause attitudes to break down over time if said enough)
people with external locus of control think that environment and external forces have
primary control over their lives
Julian Rotter believed that... (social, cognitive, behavior)
prior learning experiences create cognitive expectancies that guide behavior and influence the environment
Alzheimer's Disease (AD):
progressive mental deterioration that occurs most commonly in later life -extreme decrease in explicit/declarative memory -still retain some implicit/nondeclarative memories such as brushing teeth -people with it, show unusual tangles (structures formed from degenerating cell bodies) and plaques (structures formed from degenerating axons and dendrites)
Long-term potentiation:
prolonged strengthening of neural firing happens in two ways 1. repeated stimulation of a synapse can strengthen the synapse by causing the dendrites to grow more spines 2. the ability of a particular neuron to release or accept neurotransmitters can be increased or decreased
Freud's key personality concepts: Levels of awareness.... ( Freud believed that most psychological disorders come from... ) (what did Freud develop to treat psych. disorders?)
psyche = mind -mind functions of three levels of consciousness: conscious, preconscious, and unconscious -unconscious stores our instinctual motives, anxiety thoughts, and memories blocked from normal awareness -unconscious reveals itself despite our intentions -freud believed that most psychological disorders originate from repressed memories and instincts stored in the unconscious -to treat these disorders, Freud developed psychoanalysis -iceberg picture (tip = conscious , shallow submersion = preconscious, bottom of iceberg = unconscious
CHAPTER 14
psychological disorders
according to Freud, strong biological urges residing within the id supposedly push all children through five universal...
psychosexual stages: during the first 12 or so years of life -including: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital -oral 0-18 months bottle feeding -anal 18 months - 3 years potty training -phallic 3-6 years of genitals: attraction to same-sex parent -latency (hidden) 6-puberty of none or repression of sexual impulses -genital adult sexual partners
lack of contact with reality is aka
psychosis
another example of cog. diss is when a man says that the world is going to end tomorrow, and when it doesn't end tomorrow his followers
question it but figure that they must have prayed hard enough to stop the world from ending
bipolar disorder:
rebound to the opposite state occurs known as mania -during manic episode, the person is overly excited, active, and easily distracted... this may last a few days or months and then ends abruptly, followed by a depressive episode that lasts three times as long
Hans Eysenck
reduced t5he list of traits further, describing personality as a relationship among three basic types of traits: extroversion-introversion, neuroticism(tendency toward insecurity, anxiety, guilt and moodiness), and psychoticism (exhibiting some qualities commonly found among psychotics)
Raymond Cattell
reduced the list of traits to 16 source traits (pg 459 of text book)
defense mechanisms (list of all on page 465 STUDY THIS)
repression sublimation denial rationalization intellectualization projection reaction formation regression displacement
Freud thought that the most important defense mechanism was (by what personality structure?)
repression: when the ego prevents the most anxiety-provoking or unacceptable thoughts and feelings from entering consciousness
conscientious people are
responsible and self-disciplined
2 major types of amnesia
retrograde: (backward in time) the person loses memory for events that occurred before the brain injury, but can remember everything after it ... retro meaning memories are lost -consolidation: it takes a certain amount of time fore neural changes to become fixed and stable in LTM anterograde: lose memories for events after a brain injury (acting forward in time) ... generally results from a surgical injury or from disease
sociocultural factos affecting anxiety disorders are
rise in anxiety disorders in the last 50 years and in Western countries -decreased job support, more stress, family support all contribute to the sudden rise -Japanese have gaijin kyofusho (TKS) that involves dread of doing something to embarrass others
defense mechanisms: (satisfy what personality structure?)
satisfy the id and superego by distorting reality and self-deception ( example of rationalization: an alcoholic who uses his paycheck to buy drinks (id) may feel guilty (superego). Ego then tells him its of because he has worked hard which works to reduce the conflict at hand)
5 sources of prejudice: displaced aggression...
scapegoat: a target that people redirect their aggression toward -ex: gay men being blamed for AIDS
giftedness:
score 135 and above or being in the top 1-2%
LTM:
serves as a storehouse for info that must be kept for long periods of time
roles:
set of behavioral patterns connected with particular social positions
l.l Thurstone proposed
seven mental abilities: verbal comprehension word fluency numerical fluency spatial visualization associative memory perceptual speed reasoning
mood disorders vary in their
severity and duration
maintenance rehearsal is a type of
shallow processing, which means it only works for info that you need for a short period of time
4 factors to forgetting: Misinformation effect
shows that info that occurs after an event may further alter and revise these personal constructions of memories ex: subjects are asked to tell how fast a car is going and at what point it passed the barn.. there was no barn, but they are likely to remember a barn now that it has been brought up
Flynn Effect:
shows that scores have increased over the last half century -maybe because of nutrition, better public ed, test taking skills, and more people getting ed in the US
fMRI brain scans of shy adults tend to show greater
amygdala activation when presented with faces of strangers
memory:
an internal record or representation of some prior event or experience
Robert Sternberg's triarchic theory of successful intelligence involves multiple abilities including...
analytic creative practical
personality disorders include
antisocial PD and boderline PD
aggression:
any form of behavior intended to harm or injure another living being
prejudice refers to ___ and discrimination refers to ___
attitude action
compassionate love:
based on admiration and respect combined with deep feelings of caring for the person
5 theories of forgetting: Decay theory
based on the commonsense assumption that memory degrades with time
why is STM also called active?
bc it is working memory: helps to visually picture STM
explanations for aggression can either be
biological or psychosocial
OCD occurs mostly among
boys in onset childhood
comorbidity:
co-occurrence of disorders
objective personality tests are often confused with
career inventories or vocational interest tests -ex: strong vocation interest inventory: asks whether you would rather write, illustrate, print or sell a book or whether you'd prefer the work of a salesperson or teacher
behaviors associated with schizophrenia include
cataleptic: assuming an uncomfortable, nearly immobile stance waxy flexibility: tendency to maintain whatever posture is imposed on them
mood disorders:
characterized by extreme disturbances in emotional states that may include psychotic distortions of reality
personality assessments: structured interviews conceits of
specific questions and follow a procedure
___ is central to Bandura's concept of self efficacy:
cognition : refers to a person's learned expectation of success
both Bandura's and Rotter's theories emphasize
cognition and social learning
prejudice is composed of three elements...
cognitive (stereotypes about people bc their membership in a group), affective (emotions associated with objects of prejudice), and behavioral (predispositions to discriminate against members of the group)
3 commom components of most attitudes
cognitive (thoughts and beliefs), affective (feelings), and behavioral diagram on pg 571
Festinger and Cartsmith's test of ___ showed that ...
cognitive dissonance .... people paid $1 to say a test was exciting when really boring, experienced more cog. diss. and therefore changed their attitude more than those paid $20
five-factor model (FFM):
combines all of the previous research findings and the list of possible personality traits, researchers discovered that several traits came up repeatedly, even when different tests were used... these five major dimensions of personality are openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, neuroticism (OCEAN)
according to the fallacy of positive instances, we tend to notice and remember events that
confirm our expectations and ignore those that are nonconfiring
criticisms to the trait theory includes research done by David Buss that included an evolutionary advantage to people who are more
conscentious, extroverted, and agreeable - and less neurotic
reliability
consistent
memory is a ___ process
constructive where we actively shape and organize information as it is being processed, stored, and retrieved
conversely, internals think that they can
control events in their lives through their own efforts
what can we do to combat prejudice?
cooperation and common goals intergroup contact cognitive retraining cognitive dissonance
5 major theories that explain why forgetting occurs ...
decay interference motivated forgetting encoding failure retrieval failure
personality:
describes you as a person - how you are different from other people and what patterns of behavior are typical to you
negative stereotypes about minorities can cause some members to
doubt their abilities, which may, intern, significantly reduce their IQ test scores
`STM does not store exact ___ of into but rather a mixture of ...
duplicates perceptual analyses ex: when sensory memory registers the sound of you professor's voice, it holds the actual auditory info for a few seconds. if it requires further processing it moves to STM.
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Rogers said that poor mental health results from
early childhood experiences with parents and other adults who make their love and acceptance conditional: and on behaving in certain ways and expressing only certain feelings
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four main "hallmarks" of antisocial PD are
egocentricism (preoccupation with oneself), lack of conscience, impulsive behavior and superficial charm
a deeper level of processing technique is called
elaborative rehearsal: expanding and deeply thinking about new info and tie it into previously stored memories
Retrieval and LTM (continued)...
encoding specificity principle: memory retrieval is increased when we have matching context, moods, and states: -context-dependent memory: able to recall info better when we attempt to recall it in the same context in which it was learned. ex: taking an exam in the same seat and place that the info was learned helps you recall it - mood congruence: better remember info if their moods during learning and retrieval match. occurs bc a given mood tends to evoke memories that are consistent with that mood - state-dependent memory: taking coffee when studying and then again during test will retain the same effect and help you remember.
sensory memory:
everything we see, hear, touch, taste and smell must first enter this
three approaches to explaining why we help...
evolutionary, egoistic, empathy-altruism -altruism protects the individual's genes (ex: dying for your child) -egoistic model: helping is always motivated by some degree of anticipated gain -empathy-altruism hypothesis: (Batson) some altruism is motivated by selfish concerns but also, helping is selfless and motivated by concern for others
psychoanalytic (or psychodynamic) theories of personality attempt to
explain (not describe) individual differences by examining how unconscious mental forces interplay with thoughts, feelings and actions
oppositely, some people who have been apart of a rape crime etc. will not be able to...
forget what happened to them
5 theories of forgetting: Motivated Forgetting theory
forgetting some info in a manner that Freud described as us forgetting unpleasant or painful memories to minimize anxiety. -supression: deliberately push memories away -repressed: not aware of the forgetting
4 factors to forgetting: Source amnesia
forgetting the true source of a memory ex: skipping through TV channels and then not knowing which one you heard the info about the little boy on
factor analysis:
found by later psychologists (post Allport 1937) to reduce the wide array of possible personality traits with this statistical technique
James Brewer used
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)to locate areas of the brain responsible for encoding memories of pictures -ex: showed people 96 pictures and scanned their brain. they identified the Right Prefrontal Cortex and the Parahippocampal Cortex as the most active regions of the brain during encoding of the pictures
obedience:
going along with a direct command, usually from someone win a position of authority
Lewis Terman identified 1,500 gifted students with IQs above 140 and tracked their progress through adulthood... they showed
good grades well adjusted through adulthood called the "termites" by age 40, all were super successful some didn't end up well but eh
Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) believed that there is a basic
goodness to human nature and human tendency toward self-actulization, which for him involves understanding one's own potential, accepting oneself and others as unique individuals, and taking a problem-centered approach to life situations
Charles Spearman observed that
high scores on tests of mental abilities tend to correlate with each other... thus the proposed that intelligence is a single factor which he termed "general intelligence" (g)
today, we compare a single person's score to national sample of similar-aged people, and these deviation IQs are based on
how far the person's score on the test deviated from the national average
according to self-actualization, our personality and behavior depends on
how we perceive and interpret the world, not on traits, unconscious impulses, or rewards and punishments
kitty genovese's story...
stapped and none of her 38 neighbors called the cops bc diffusion of responsibility: the other guy will call
axiety disorders are most common
in women twice as likely than men
Encoding and LTM in a successful manner...
includes selective vs. divided attention, automatic vs. controlled processing, and levels of processing ex: listen to what professor says, and think about that while studying the book... then encode all the important info
insanity:
indicated that a person cannot be held responsible for his or her actions, or is judged incompetent to manage his or her own affairs, because of mental illness
Zimbardo's Stanford Prison Study:
students as prisoners and guards stopped after 6 days
social psychology:
studies how other people influence our individual thoughts, feelings, and actions
trait theorist Gordon Allport believed that the best way to understand personality was to
study an individual and then arrange his or her unique personality traits into a hierarchy (most important at the top and least important at the bottom)
combatting prejudice: cognitive retraining...
taking another's perspective undo negative stereotypical associations pay attention to similarities not differences
extroverts are
talkative and outgoing
short term memory:
temporarily stores and processes info from sensory memory until the brain decides whether or not to send it along to long term memory
in most cases, retrograde amnesia is
temporary
traits:
terms used to describe other people and yourself
validity
test measuring what it's designed to measure
David Wechsler developed the most widely used intelligence test called
the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS now IV) and the WIS for Children (WISC IV) and W preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI III) -yeilds a final intelligence score with a verbal and performance score
all mental activity occurs in
the brain
biological theories of personality focus on
the brain, neurochemistry, and genetics
behavioral genetics attempt to determine
the extent to which behavioral differences among people are due to genetics as opposed to environment ex: researchers study silimarities between identical twins, fraternal twins, and twins reared apart or together and they compare the personalities of parents with their biological and/or adopted children
the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale is based on
the first IQ test developed by Binet -Lewis Terman developed the Stanford-Binet to test the intellectual ability of US born children 3-6 years of age
our judgement is frequently marred by two major errors...
the fundamental attribution error self-serving bias
Wechsler defined intelligence as:
the global capacity to think rationally, act purposefully, and deal effectively with the environment
how does culture affect attributional biases? (Use US and JAP culture as a reference)
individualistic cultures (US) hold people of individual self, but in collectivistic cultures (JAPAN) people are all members of their social network doing what others expect of them... these sort of people tend to be more aware of situational constraints on behavior, making the FAE less likely
the term psychosexual reflects Freud's emphasis on
infantile sexuality: or his belief that children experience sexual feelings from birth
Rogers also believed that mental health, congruence, and our self- concept are all part of our
innate biological capacities and like plants that grow in racks in the cement, we are born into the world with innate need to survive, grow and enhance ourselves and THEREFORE Rogers believed that we can and should trust our own internal feelings to guide us toward mental health and happiness
considering the fundamental attribution error, our attributions as to the reasons for people's actions are generally accurate when...
we take into account situational influences on behavior -but we more often choose dispositional (personality) attributions- that isle blame or credit people, not situations ex: a student joins the class and seems distant and cold. we might say she is unfriendly or stuck up (a dispositonal attribution). but one on one she is found to be sweet and warm.
echoic memory:
weaker "echo" that can last up to 4 seconds
in the end, what are the five major symptoms of schizophrenia?
-perception (hallucinations) -language (word salad (jumbling together of words) or neologism) -thoughts (psychosis, delusions) -emotion (exaggerated or flat affect) -behavior (unusual actions ex: catalepsy, waxy, flexibility)
5 sources of prejudice: limited resources...
-prejudice that blacks and mexicans are inferior to whites, helps justify a social. order in the US
5 axes of the DSM are
-axis 1: clinical disorders- symptoms that cause distress of significantly impair social or occupational functioning (anxiety or depression) -axis 2: personality disorders and mental retardation- chronic and enduring problems that generally persist throughout life and impair interpersonal or occupational functioning -axis 3: general medical condition-physical disorders that may be relevant to understanding or treating a psychological disorder -axis 4: psychosocial and environmental problems: such as interpersonal stressors and negative life events that may effect the diagnosis -axis 5: globas assessment of functioning- the individual's overall level of functioning in social, occupational, and leisure activities
biological factors that contribute to mood disorders are...
-depressive and axiety disorder patients have a decrease in grey matter and function in the frontal lobe -lithium reduces or prevents manic episodes by preventing norepinephrine and serotonin
Adler's individual psychology (1870-1937)
-first to leave Freud's inner circle -instead of seeing behavior as motivated by unconscious forces, he thought that it is purposeful and goal-directed -Adler's individual psychology: we are motivated by our goals in life (especially security and feelings of inferiority) -believed that everyone suffers from an inferiority complex: or deep feelings of inadequacy and incompetence that arises from our feelings of helplessness as infants -these early feelings, says Adler, result in a "will to power" that can take one of two paths; 1. cause children to strive to develop superiority over others or 2. cause children to develop their full potential and creativity to gain mastery and control in their lives
psychosocial theories of mood disorders are...
-focus on environmental stressors and disturbances in relationships, thoughts, and self-concept -attachment is lost
most biological theories of why schizophrenia occurs focus on...
-genetics: focus on twins and adoption studies. people who share more jeans are more likely to develop schizo. -neurotransmitters: according to dopamine hypothesis: overactivity of certain dopamine neurons in the brain may contribute to some forms of schizo. this hypothesis is based on 2 observations 1. giving amphetamines increases the amount of dopamine and can worsen symptoms of schizo. 2. drugs that reduce dopamine reduce some symptoms of schizo. -and brain abnormalities:larger cerebral ventricles in some people with schizo. lower levels of activity in frontal lobe with people who have schizo.
how do groups affect our decisions?
-group polarization: movement toward either riskier or more conservative behavior, depending on the members' initial dominant tendencies. -risky-shift phenomenon: decisions depend on the dominant preexisting tendencies of the group involved (seek more objective info outside your likeminded groups to avoid this polarization :)) -groupthink: faulty decisions that occur when a highly cohesive group strives for agreement but leads them to ignore info held by others (9-11, Pearl Harbor etc)
why do we jump to internal, personal explanation?
-human personalities and behaviors are said to be more salient (or noticeable) than situational factors called the saliency bias -we also tend to focus on people and "blame the victim" bc of our need to believe that the world is just and fail called Just-World Phenomenon: suggests that ppl generally deserve what they get, while allowing us to feel safer in a n uncontrollable world
biological factors of aggression are...
-instincts: agg. evolved bc it prevents overcrowding and allows the strongest to win mates and reproduce - genes: some are genetically predisposed to be hostile -brain and nervous system: brain injuries and disorders shows aggressive circuits in the brain -substance abuse and mental disorders: homicide rates are higher among people with schizo. and antisocial disorders -hormones and neurotransmitters: testosterone is linked with aggression as well as lowered levels of serotonin
factors of interpersonal attraction: physical attractiveness...
-known people, in contrast to unknown people, is influenced by nonphysical traits like respect, similarity and judgement of more internal beauty -matching hypothesis: men and women of equal physical attractiveness tend to select each other as partners -flirting increases attractiveness
5 sources of prejudice: learning...
-learn prejudice through classical and operant conditioning and social learning -ethnocentrism: believing one's own culture represents the norm or is superior is a form of learned prejudice
factors of interpersonal: similarity...
-long term relationships need this -"birds of a feather flock together" -in "opposites attract" opposites refers to personality traits rather than to social background or values -need complementarity: you're outgoing and your friend is quiet... each person provides resources for the other -need compatibility: similarity
to sum it up, Rogers believed in...
-most important component of personality is the idea of self "i" or "me" -used the term self-concept: referring to info and beliefs one has regarding own nature and behavior -poor mental health is developed from incongruence between self-concept and actual life experiences -mental health, congruence and our self-concept are apart of our innate biological capacities -we should trust our own internal feelings leading us to happiness
three factors that drive conformity are...
-normative social influence: need for approval and acceptance by the group. Norms: unwritten rules for behavior that are adhered to by members of a group (ex: personal space) - informational social influence: assuming that a person has more information than we do (ex: buying a skin care product that someone recommended) -reference groups: people we most admire and want to resemble (ex: actors we like are paid to endorse products)
the DSM has been criticized for
-overdiagnosing -cultural bias (ex: amok (indonesia) genital retraction syndrome (Asia) windigo psychosis (first nations cultures) -problem of labels
how can we improve our memory?
-pay attention and reduce interference -use rehearsal techniques -encoding specificity principle -improve organization: chunking and hierarchies -contract the serial-position effect: start at different places -manage your time : sleep -employ self-monitoring overlearning: slow down and actually learn the material until you know that you know it -use mnemonics: memory aids based on encoding items in a special way
5 sources of prejudice: personal experience...
-people who make prejudice jokes often gain attention and approval from others -a bad experience with a group can cause prejudice
three major criticisms of trait theories...
1. lack of explanation: trait theories are good at describing personality but they do not offer causal explanations for why people develop specific traits or why personality traits differ across cultures. (ex: cross cultural research has found that people of almost all cultures can be reliably grouped into the FFM. But, trait theories fail to explain why people in cultures that are geo. close tend to have similar personalities or why Europeans and other Americans tend to be higher in extroversion and openness to experience and lower in agreeableness than people in Asian and African cultures 2. stability versus change: trait theories have documented a high level of personality stability after age 30. But, haven't identifies which characteristics last a lifetime and which change 3. ignoring situational effects: trait theorists have been criticized for ignoring the importance of situational and environmental effects. (ex:Rogosch and Cicchetti found that 6-year old children who were victims of abuse scored lower on the traits of openness, conscientiousness, and agreeableness throughout their later years -age 9)
Milgram identified four major factors to obedience being...
1. legitimacy and closeness of the authority figure 2. remoteness of the victim 3. assignment of responsibility 4. modeling or imitating others
classification system of symptoms of schizophrenia are...
1. positive symptoms: additions or exaggerations of normal thought processes and behaviors, such as delusions or hallucinations. More common. 2. negative symptoms: loss or absence of normal thought processes. ex: impaired attention, limited speech, flat emotions, social withdrawal another possible dimension is disorganization of behavior: rambling speech, erratic behavior, and inappropriate affect or feelings
advantages of the Wechsler test
1. specific for different ages 2. different abilities can be evaluated 3. people unable to speak can still be tested
criticisms of the social cognitive theories are
1. too narrow 2. ignoring unconscious, environmental, and emotional aspects of personality ex: early experiences might have prompted a person to develop an external locus of control
Rotter said that your behavior or personality is determined by... (1 and 2)
1. what you expect to happen following a specific action and 2. the reinforcement value attached to specific outcomes- that is, the degree to which you prefer one reinforcer to another
trait theorists want to
1.discover how people differ and which key traits best describe them and 2. measure how people differ and the degree of variation in traits
to be scientifically acceptable, all psychological tests must fulfill three basic requirements...
1.standardization: in that every test must have norms, or average scores, developed by giving the test to a rep. sample of people and testing procedures must be uniform. all test takers must take it with the same instructions, questions and time limits 2. reliability: determined by retesting subjects to see whether their test scores change significantly.l can be done via the test-retest method: participant's scores on two separate forms of the same test or via the split-half method: splitting a tester into two parts and determining the degree of similarity between the two halves 3. validity: is criterion-related validity: or the accuracy with which test scores can be used to predict another variable of interest. expressed as the correlation.
___ people will develop schizophrenia
1/100 -half of ppl admitted into mental hospitals have this disorder
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humanistic psychology was developed largely by
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow
the best supported and comprehensive theory of intelligence today is
Cattel-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory which combines Cattell's fluid intelligence (gf) and crystallized intelligence (gc) along with eight other intelligence, into 10 broad categories that are further subdivided into 70 narrower cognitive and academic abilities
false memory example...
Elizabeth was told that she was the one to find her dead mom, and she started remembering finding her, but then someone said that "it was aunt Pearl that found her"... she had made up a false memory
most widely used objective test is the
Minnesota Multihpasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) -over 500 statements that participants resopont to with T F or cannot say -grouped into 10 clinical scales that each measure a different disorder
extensive twin study is the
Minnesota Study of Twins -twins grew up in different homes -reunited as adults -genetic factors play a large role in the IQ scoring of monozygotic (identical) twins reared apart -JIM TWINS were separated 37 days after birth and then contact came 38 years later... they had divorced and remarked women named Betty and undergone police training etc
combatting prejudice: cooperation land common goals...
Muzafer Sherif separated boys in cabins and assigned them different projects... they began hating people in the out group on both sides -prejudice evaporated when a "mini-crisis" arose and the boys worked together
another example of a personality test is
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) -assesses the four dimensions derived from Jung's theory; EI, SI, TF, and JP (pg 480)
another example of personality tests are (which assesses the...)
NEO personality inventory-revised -assesses the five factor model
five- factor model is defined by
O penness C onscientiousness E xtroversion A greeableness N euroticism
major depressive disorder:
a lasting and continuously depressed mood without a clear trigger or precipitating event -intense saddness
Rogers believed that poor mental health and maladjustment developed from
a mismatch, or incongruence between the self- concept and actual life experiences
the Barnum effect is known as
being so readily disposed to accept generalizations ex: believing tests somehow tap into our selves when they are really ambiguous, and broad statements that fit anyone's life
B and A Gardner realized that
chimpanzees' have the ability to imitate gestures by using ASL with a chimp names Washoe -Comm. with dolphins is done by means of hand signals or commands through underwater speakers
Barnum was a
circus proofer who said "always have a little something for everyone"
4 factors to forgetting: information overload
cramming -distributed practice: spacing your learning periods, with rest periods between sessions -massed practice: cramming, the time spent learning is massed into long, unbroken intervals
generalized anxiety disorder:
cronic, uncontrollable, and excessive fear and worry that lasts at least six months and that is not focused on any particular object or situation -victims feel afraid but don't know why -muscle tension
Jung's analytical psychology
developed analytical psychology emphasized unconscious process -believes that the unconscious contains positive and spiritual motives as well as sexual and aggressive forces -thought that we have two forms of unconscious mind: the personal unconscious and the collective unconscious -personal unconscious: is created from our individual experiences -collective unconscious: is identical in each person and is inherited (consists of images and patterns of thought, feeling, and behavior that Jung called archetypes -because of archetypal patterns in the collective unconscious, we perceive and react in certain predictable ways -one archetype refers to gender roles where both male and females have patterns for feminine aspects of personality (anima) and masculine aspects of personality (animus), which allow us to express both masculine and feminine personality traits and to understand the opposite sex
mental health specialists share a uniform classification system to treat mental illness that is called the
diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-IV-TR)
most severe dissociative disorder is
dissociative identity disorder (DID): aka multiple personality disorder, where two or more distinct personalities reportedly exist within a person at different times -more among women than men
substance-related disorders:
divided into two general groups -substance abuse: when alcohol etc. inter fears with a person's social or occupational functioning -substance dependence: physical reactions, including tolerance and withdrawal
psychological contributions to anxiety disorders are primarily in the form of
faulty cognitions and maladaptive learning -faulty cognitions: certain thinking, or cognitive habits, that make these people prone to fear. hyper vigilant: they may scan their environment for signs of danger and seem to ignore signs of safety. they magnify ordinary threats. -maladaptive learning: (ex: classical conditioning: a stimulus originally neutral (spider) becomes paired with a frightening event (panic attack) so that it becomes a conditioned stimulus that elicits anxiety. the person then avoids spiders in order to reduce anxiety (an operant conditioning process known as negative reinforcement)
deindividuation:
feeling less self-conscious, less inhibited, and less personally responsible as a member of a group than when you're alone -bad: abuse of power, mods and gang rapes -good: celebration on New Year's Eve
cognitive dissonance:
feelings of discomfort created from a discrepancy between an attitude and a behavior or between two competing attitudes
emotional arousal lead to memory stuff...
fight or flight neurotransmitters like epinephrine and cortisol, arouse the body. when these chemicals affect the amygdala (emotion), the hippocampus and cerebral cortex are also stimulated (memory)... a direct injection of epine. or court. will increase the encoding and storage of new info
intelligence is not a ___
fixed trait
this bias toward personal, dispositional factors rather than situational factors (in explanation above) is commonly called
fundamental attribution error (FAE) aka actor-observer bias
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Pinel's medical model:
gave rise to the modern specialty of psychiatry
four major types of anxiety disorders are
generalized anxiety disorder panic disorder phobia obsessive-compulsive disorder
a book by Richard J Herrnstein and Charles Murray called "the bell curve: intelligence and class structure in american life" reignited debate when the authors claimed that the AA score below average on the IQ test because of
genetic heritage
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chunking:
grouping separate pieces of info into a single unit like a telephone number
schizophrenics experience
hallucinations: false, imaginary sensory perceptions that occur withough external stimuli -auditory are the most common hallucination types -Mrs. T heard voices from inside her head and from loud noises like the TV
ways to reduce aggression...
harmless forms of aggression -> work our, punch a pillow, watch competitive sports -catharsis: draining the aggression reservoir ... "doesn't really help" -incompatible responses: empathy and humor are incompatible with aggression thus, making a joke or showing some sympathy for the other person's pint of view can reduce anger -improve social and communication skills
humanistic theories of personality emphasize
internal experiences
battery (or series) of tests that fully assess personality are grouped into ___ techniques
interviews, observations, objective tests, and projective techniques
four major methods of personality assessment are
interviews, observations, objective, and projective tests
Retrieval and LTm...
involves serial-position effect, and retrieval cues -serial-position effect: whens rudy participants are given lists of words to learn and are allowed to recall them in any order they choose, they remember the words at the beginning (primacy effect) and the end of the list (recency effect) better than those in the middle... why? -retrieval cues: recall, recognition, and priming . recall: a memory task that requires you to retrieve previously learned info with only general, nonspecific cues . recognition: specific cues and only requires you to identify the conrrect response (like a multiple choice test) . priming: occurs when a prior exposure to a stimulus facilitates or inhibits the processing of new info. (smelling cookies that smell like grandmas and remember her teaching you the times tables)
maintenance rehearsal:
involves simply repeating the info over and over
borderline personality disorder:
is among the most commonly diagnosed PD that show instability in emotion and self-concept, along with impulsive and self-desrtive behavior -borderline between love and hate -constantly seek reassurance from others and may quickly anger
Obsessive-compulsive Disorder:
is an anxiety disorder that involves a persistent, anxiety-provoking thoughts that will not go away and or irresistible surges to perform repetitive, ritualistic behaviors, which help relieve the anxiety created by the obsession
IQ tests may be culturally bias, making them an inaccurate measure of true capability because...
minorities are underrepresented a
4 important factors to forgetting are...
misinformation effect source amnesia sleeper effect info overload
schizophrenics often experience delusions:
mistaken beliefs based on misrepresentations of reality -delusion of persecution: trying to kill -delusions of grandeur: someone important, Jesus, is themselves -delusions of reference: unrelated events are given special significance, as when a person believes a radio program or newspaper article is giving him or her a special message
biological factors affecting anxiety disorders
monkey afraid or crocodile and snake but not a flower... his ancestors were afraid of these and so is he genetically -stress and arousal = panic attacks -drugs and caffeine trigger attacks bc biochemical disturbances
a tip to maintaining compassionate love...
overlook each other's faults
modern psychodyncamic theorists and psychoanalysts use empirical methods and research to reformulate Freudian thinking that include ___ criticisms and ___ influences
page 469
agvantages and disadvantages of personality measurements (includes the four perviously mentioned)
page 480-482
another way of thinking about memory is the PDP which stands for...
parallel distributed processing, or connectionist, model of memory -instead of recognizing patterns as a sequence of facts and info bits to be stored and later retrieved one at a time, our brain and memory processes perform multiple parallel operations all at one time -also, memory is spread out throughout our brains in a weblike network of processing units -parallel search for danger, color, smell... at the same time
Milgram's study involved
participants serving as teachers that ordered a man to continue shocking someone with an unknown heart condition that was begging for releaser -65% of "teachers" delivered
interpersonal attraction:
positive feelings toward another
aptitude tests measure
potential abilities
types of LTM: Explicit (declarative) memory... example: two subsystems:
refers to intentional learning or conscious knowledge -it is memory with awareness ex: asked to remember the name of your first grade teacher so i state (declare) the answer directly (explicitly)... -two subsystems of explicit memory: semantic memory and episodic memory . semantic memory: memory for facts and general knowledge (days of the week). it is our internal mental dictionary . episodic memory: explicit memory of our own past experiences- our personal mental diary. it records major events that happen to us. ex: short term: what i ate for breakfast, long term: first kiss
types of LTM: Implicit (non declarative) memory...
refers to unintentional learning or unconscious knowledge -it is memory without awareness ex: we can explain how to ride a board, or tie your shoe without demonstrating it (procedural), or a conditioned response such as a taste aversion -conditioned emotional response (or implicit memory)
neurosis:
reflects on Freud's belief that all neurotic conditions arise from conscious conflicts -now grouped under anxiety disorders, somatoform disorders and dissociative disorders
Roger's theory and the importance of the
self
Roger's idea of the most important component of a personality
self what a person comes to identify as "i" or "me"
Rogerians use the term
self concept: to refer to all the information and beliefs you have regarding your own nature, unique qualities, and typical behaviors
according to Bandura, if you have strong sense of ___....
self efficacy ... you can succede
Maslow's hierarchy includes ___ at the bottom...
self-actualization esteem needs belonging and love needs safety needs physiological needs
what causes comorbidity?
self-medication: people who use drugs to reduce their painful or scary symptoms -common comorbid disorder is: alcohol use disorder (AUD)
auditory information is held in ___ about the same length of time as visual info
sensory memory
additional disorders include...
substance-related, dissociative, and personality disorders
Sternberg introduced the term...
successful intelligence to describe the ability to adapt to, shape and select environments in order to accomplish personal and societal goals
panic disorder:
sudden, but brief, attacks of intense apprehension that cause trembling, dizziness, and difficulty breathing -generally happen after frightening experiences or stress
5 theories of forgetting: Interference theory
suggests that forgetting is caused by competing memories -2 types of interference are retroactive and proactive . retroactive interference: when new info leads to forgetting old material (ex: learning new phone number causes us to forget the old phone number . proactive interference: when old info leads to forgetting new info (learned spanish in HS and it is hard to now learn french)
the fallacy of positive instances says that if we see ourselves as independent thinkers, we ignore
the need to be accepted by others
in the DSM drug use becomes a disorder when
the person becomes physically or psychologically dependent
Latané and Darley found that whether or not someone helps, depends on a series of interconnected events and decisions...
the potential helper must first notice what is happening, must clarify and interpret the event as an emergency, must accept personal responsibility for helping, and then must decide how to help and actually initiate the helping behavior -taking personal responsibility for helping comes from the diffusion of responsibility
according to Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligence, people have different profiles of intelligence because...
they are stronger in some areas than in others and use intelligence differently
