Psychology MCAT

Self-fulfilling prophecy

Stereotypes can lead to behaviors that affirm the original stereotype in what is known as a self-fulfilling prophecy

Thermoreceptors

Stimulated by changes in temperature

Electromagnetic receptors

Stimulated by electromagnetic waves. Example are the rod and cone cells of the retina of the eye, photoreceptors

Modality

Stimulus modality is the type of stimulus

Cannon-Bard Theory

Stimulus then physiological response and emotion happen at the same time

Schachter-Singer Theory

Stimulus then physiological response then cognitive interpretation then emotion

James-Lange Theory of emotion

Stimulus then physiological response then emotion

Reproductive memory

Storage of the original stimulus input and subsequent recall

Psychological influences

Stress, social skills, self-esteem, coping skills, and learned helplessness

Cortisol hormone

Stress, sympathetic nervous system response

How do you help counter the placebo effect?

Studies must be double blind: neither the person administering the treatment nor the participants truly know if they are assigned to the treatment or control groups

Sociobiology

Study of how biology and evolution have affected human social behavior

Authoritarian parenting

Style of parenting in which parent is rigid and overly strict, showing little warmth to the child

Permissive parenting

Style of parenting in which parent makes few, if any demands on a child's behavior

Hydrophilic hormones

Such as peptides and amino acid derivatives, must bind to receptors on the cell surface

Hydrophobic hormones

Such as the steroid hormones, bind to receptors in the cellular interior

Activation-synthesis theory

Suggests that dreams are byproducts of brain activation during REM sleep. This theory allows for the possibility that dreams are far from purposeful. Some proponents have suggested that the purpose of dreams is to provide a template of consciousness on which the mind can practice consciousness-development

Dissociation theory

Suggests that hypnotism is an extreme form of divided consciousness

Selective priming

Suggests that people can be selectively primed to observe something, either by encountering it frequently or by having an expectation

Social Influence theory

Suggests that people do and report what's expected of them

Dopamine hypothesis

Suggests that the pathway for the neurotransmitter dopamine is hyperactive in people with schizophrenia

Law of proximity

Suggests that things that are near each other seem to be grouped together

Law of continuity

Suggests that we perceive smooth, continuous lines and forms, rather than a disjointed one

The frustration-aggression principle

Suggests that when someone is blocked from achieving a goal, this frustration can trigger anger, which can lead to aggression

Stress-diathesis theory

Suggests that while genetic inheritance provides a biological predisposition for schizophrenia, stressors elicit the onset of the disease

Symbolic culture

Symbolic culture consists of symbols that are recognized by people of the same culture

Micro-level sociological theory

Symbolic interactionism

Symbolic interactionism

Symbolic interactionism emphasizes the ways by which individuals actively shape their world through their understanding and subsequent behavioral responses to the meanings they attribute to the societal symbols through which individuals define their reality.

Adrenal medulla

Sympathetic (fight or flight): release of epinephrine

Skin

Sympathetic (fight or flight): sweating and general vasoconstriction; emotional vasodilation (blushing)

The autonomic division is further split into what 2 subdivisions?

Sympathetic and parasympathetic

Negative

Takes away

Target characteristics

Target characteristics of the person receiving the message, such as self-esteem, intelligence, mood, and other such personal characteristics, have an important influence on whether a message will be perceived as persuasive.

Gustatory receptors

Taste buds

Buddhism

Teaches overcoming cravings for physical or material pleasures primarily through meditative practices

If it's both biological and a psychological influence

Temperament and IQ

The halo effect

Tendency to believe that people have inherently good or bad natures, rather than looking at individual characteristics

Belief bias

Tendency to judge arguments based on what one believes about their conclusions rather than on whatever they use sound logic

Somnambulism (sleepwalking)

Tends to occur during slow wave sleep (stage 3), usually during the first third of the night

Fundamental attribution error

That we tend to underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate the impact of a person's character or personality. We assume that people ARE how they act.

The phallic stage is also known as what?

The Oedipus complex in a boy, and as the Electra complex in a girl. Girls are also said to experience penis envy during the phallic stage.

Empathy

The ability to identify with others' emotions, is relatively equal between the sexes

Recall

The ability to retrieve information

"All-or-nothing"

The action potential is an "all-or-nothing" event

Summation

The addition of stimuli of synapses

Crude birth rate (CBR)

The annual number of births per 1,000 people in a population

The general fertility rate

The annual number of births per 1,000 women in a population

Infant mortality rate

The annual number of deaths per 1,000 infants under one year of age

What's a common incorrect assumption that social science researches did to make with their findings?

The assumption that the findings they make while studying a group of young adults in college apply to all adults in a society

What comprises the outer ear?

The auricle or pinna and the external auditory canal comprise the outer ear

Neuron

The basic functional and structural unit of the nervous system. Neurons have only one axon, but most possess many dendrites.

Observational learning

The behavioral component includes patterns of behavior learned through classical and operant conditioning

Optimism bias

The belief that bad things happen to other people, but not to us

Circadian rhythms

The biological waxing and waning of alertness over the 24-hour day

Ganglion cells

The bipolar cells in turn synapse with ganglion cells, whose axons comprise the optic nerve, which travels from each eye toward the occipital lobe of the brain where complex analysis of a visual image occurs.

Neurogenesis

The birth of new neurons

Hypothalamic-pituitary portal system

The blood supply used for efficient transport of hypothalamic releasing and inhibiting factors to the anterior pituitary

When the sympathetic system is activated...

The body is prepared for "fight or flight"

When the parasympathetic system is activated...

The body is prepared to "rest and digest"

Central nervous system (CNS)

The brain and spinal cord

Polarized cells

The cells can be described as polarized; negative on the inside and positive on the outside

Somatic Symptom Disorder

The central complaint is one or more somatic symptoms-such as chronic pain or headaches or fatigue-diagnosis requires evidence of diminished functioning stemming from excessive preoccupation with and/or anxiety about the symptoms

What are the two cognitive routes that persuasion follows?

The central route and the peripheral route

Phallic stage

The child seeks pleasure through genitals. At this stage, the child is both sexually attracted to the opposite-sex parent and hostile toward the same-sex parent, who is seen as a rival.

Anal stage

The child seeks sensual pleasure through control of elimination

Oral stage

The child seeks sensual pleasure through oral activities such as sucking and chewing

Between-subjects design

The comparisons are made between subjects, from one group to another

Under the central rouge, what are people persuaded by?

The content of the argument. They ruminate over the key features of the argument and allow those features to influence their decision to change their point of view.

Outsourcing

The contracting of third parties for specific operations

Sclera

The cornea is continuous as it borders with the white of the eye, the sclera

Ciliary muscle

The curvature of the lens is varied by the ciliary muscle

The forebrain includes what?

The diencephalon and the telencephalon. The diencephalon included the thalamus and hypothalamus.

Ego

The ego is ruled by the reality principle. It uses logical thinking and planning to control consciousness and the id. The ego tries to find realistic ways to satisfy the id's desire for pleasure.

Hypothalamic-pituitary control axis

The endocrine control center. The hypothalamus exerts its control of the pituitary by secreting its hormones into the bloodstream, just like any other endocrine gland.

What does the entire CNS float in?

The entire CNS floats in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), a clear liquid that serves various functions such as shock absorption and exchange of nutrients and waste with the CNS

Message characteristics

The features of the message itself, such as the logic and number of key points in the argument. Message characteristics also include more superficial things, such as the length of the speech or article, and its grammatical complexity

Replacement fertility rate

The fertility rate at which the population will remain balanced

Social epidemiology

The field that studies how social organization contributes to the prevalence, incidence, and distribution of disease across and within populations

Identify versus role confusion

The fifth stage occurs in adolescence, and involves resolving the crisis of identity versus role confusion. If an adolescent does not test limits and clarify his or her identity, goals, and life meaning, he or she may develop role confusion.

Bystander effect

The finding that a person is less likely to provide help when there are other bystanders

Cognitive behavioral therapy

The goal is to help the client become aware of their irrational or dysfunctional thoughts and beliefs and substitute rational or accurate beliefs and thoughts, which will lead to more functional feelings and behaviors

Humanistic therapy, also called person-centered therapy

The goal is to provide an environment that will help clients trust and accept themselves and their emotional reactions, so they can learn and grow from their experiences

What are the 3 subdivisions of the brain?

The hindbrain, the midbrain, and the forebrain

Incongruity

The ideal self is usually an impossible standard to meet, and that when the real self falls short of the ideal self, the result is incongruity

Referred pain

The illusion of pain on the skin, when the autonomic pain receptor nerves cross paths with somatic afferents from the skin.

Anterograde amnesia

The inability to form new memories

Agnosia

The inability to recognize objects through sensory mechanisms despite intact function of the underlying sense itself-a vital aspect of perception and cognition-is often due to damage at the occipitoparietal border

Personality

The individual pattern of thinking, feeling, and behavior associated with each person

Sensory memory

The initial recording of sensory information in the memory system, is a very brief snapshot that quickly decays

Reciprocal determinism

The interaction between a person's behaviors (conscious actions), personal factors (individual motivational forces or cognitions; personality differences that drive a person to act), and environment (situational factors)

Cerebrum

The largest region of the human brain and consists of the large, paired cerebral hemispheres. The hemispheres of the cerebrum consist of the cerebral cortex plus an inner core of white matter connecting the cortex to the diencephalon.

Christianity

The largest single faith in the world, with about 30% of the population across the globe identifying as Christian, though there are multiple denominations

What did Sigmund Freud say are the two instinctual drives that motivate human behavior?

The libido, or life instinct, drives behaviors focused on survival, growth, creativity, pain avoidance, and pleasure. Libido is commonly defined as "sex drive," but libido includes more than just sexual energy. The other is death instinct, which drives aggressive behaviors fueled by an unconscious wish to die or to hurt oneself or others.

Adjustment disorders

The maladaptive response is to a stressor rather than a trauma. This response may last between 3 and 6 months.

Equilibrium potential

The membrane potential at which the driving force (the gradient) does not exist; there would be no net movement of ions across the membrane

What comprises the middle ear?

The middle ear is divided from the outer ear by the tympanic membrane or eardrum. The middle ear consists of the ossicles, three small bones called the malleus (hammer), the incus (anvil), and the stapes (stirrup).

Absolute threshold

The minimum stimulus intensity required to activate a sensory receptor 50% of the time

Insomnia

The most common sleep disorder and is characterized by difficulty falling or staying asleep

Proximity

The most powerful predictor of friendship

Alzheimer's disease

The most prevalent form of dementia, affecting a large number of people who reach their 80's and especially their 90's

Long-term potentiation process

The neurons involved in the circuit develop an increased sensitivity, which results in increased potential for neural firing after a connection has been stimulated. This increased potential can last for hours or even weeks.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

The neurotransmitter that is released at the neuromuscular junction

Manifest functions

The official, intended, and anticipated consequences of a structure. Manifest functions are at least arguably beneficial.

Experimental design offers what?

The only way to confidently establish a causal relationship between two variables.

Discrimination

The opposite of generalization, and occurs when the conditioned stimulus is differentiated from other stimuli; thus, the conditioned response only occurs for conditioned stimuli

Sensitization

The opposite of habituation. During sensitization, there is an increase in responsiveness due to either a repeated application of a stimulus or a particularly aversive or noxious stimulus.

Central executive

The overseer of the entire process, and orchestrates the process by shifting and dividing attention

Refractory

The passage of one action potential makes the neuron nonresponsive to membrane depolarization and unable to transmit another action potential for a short period of time

Vibration of the oval window creates pressure waves in what?

The perilymph and the endolymph, the fluids in the cochlea. Sound vibrations are first conveyed through air, next through bone, and then through liquid before being sensed.

Under the peripheral route, what are people persuaded by?

The peripheral route functions when people focus on superficial or secondary characteristics of the speech or the orator. Under these circumstances, people are persuaded by the attractiveness of the orator, the length of the speech, whether the orator is considered an expert in his field, and other features.

Real self

The person you actually are

Conformity

The phenomenon of adjusting behavior or thinking based on the behavior or thinking of others is called conformity

Optic disk

The point on the retina where many axons from ganglion cells converge to form the optic nerve is the optic disk

Somatic division

The portion of the PNS concerned with conscious sensation and deliberate, voluntary movement of skeletal muscle is the somatic division

Autonomic division

The portion of the PNS concerned with digestion, metabolism, circulation, perspiration, and other involuntary processes is the autonomic division

Hypothalamus

The portion of the brain which controls much of the endocrine system is the hypothalamus, located at the center of the brain. The hypothalamus controls the endocrine system by releasing tropic hormones that regular other tropic hormones, called releasing and inhibiting factors or releasing and inhibiting hormones.

Charismatic authority

The power of their persuasion

Basilar membrane

The pressure waves in the endolymph cause vibration of the basilar membrane, a thin membrane extending throughout the coiled length of the cochlea. The basilar membrane is covered with the auditory receptor cells known as hair cells.

Binding problem

The problem of how all these different aspects of visual processing are assembled together and related to a single object, rather than something else in the visual field

Punishment

The process by which a behavior is followed by a consequence that decreases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated

Medicalization

The process by which a condition comes to be reconceptualized as a disease with a medical diagnosis and a medical treatment

Assimilation

The process in which an individual forsakes aspects of his or her own cultural tradition to adopt those of a different culture

Informational social influence

The process of complying because we want to do the right thing and we feel like others "know something I don't"

Role exit

The process of disengaging from a role that has become closely tied to one's self-identity to take on another

Globalization

The process of increasing interdependence of societies and connections between people across the world

Encoding

The process of transferring sensory information into our memory system

Secularization

The process through which religion loses its social significance in modern societies

Industrialization

The process through which societies transform from agrarian to industrial in nature and industrialized countries have more people living in urban areas than non-industrialized countries do

Cultural transmission

The process through which this information is spread across generations, or the mechanisms of learning

Monosynaptic reflex arc

The quadriceps (thigh) muscle contracts when the patellar tendon is stretched by tapping with a reflex hammer. A reflex such as this one, involving only 2 neurons and one synapse, is known as a monosynaptic reflex arc.

Response threshold

The quantity of information or activation needed to trigger a response

Yerkes-Dodson Law

The relationship between performance and emotional arousal is an upside down U-shaped correlation: people perform best when they are moderately aroused

Summation

The response threshold is reached by the summation of input signals from multiple nodes

Rods and cones

The retina is located at the back of the eye. It contains electromagnetic receptor cells (photoreceptors) known as rods and cones which are responsible for detecting light.

Bipolar cells

The rods and cones synapse with nerve cells called bipolar cells. These cells have only one axon and one dendrite.

Islam

The second largest religion in the world

How is the self developed for interactionists?

The self is developed through 3 important activities: language, games, and play.

Maturation

The sequence of biological growth processes in human development

Reflex

The simplest example of nervous system activity

Dyad

The smallest social group, known as dyad, contains 2 members

Social model of disease

The social model of disease emphasizes the effect one's social class, employment status, neighborhood, exposure to environmental toxins, diet, and many other factors can have on a person's health

Id

The source of energy and instincts. It is ruled by the pleasure principle. The id seeks to reduce tension, avoid pain, and gain pleasure. It does not use logical or moral reasoning, and it does not distinguish mental images from external objects. According to Freud, young children function almost entirely from the id.

Spotlight model

The spotlight is a beam that can shine anywhere within an individual's visual field. It is important to note that this beam describes the movement of attention, not the movement of the eyes.

Inner ear

The stapes attaches to the oval window, a membrane that divides the middle and inner ear. Structures of the inner ear include the cochlea, the semicircular canals, the utricle, and the saccule.

Master status

The status that dominates the others and determines that individual's general position in society

Foot-in-the-door phenomenon

The strategy involves enticing people to take small actions, such as signing a free petition or joining a mailing list, at first. Upon obtaining this level of involvement, the stakes are raised to accepting bumper sim tickets or lawn signs. Then, further involvement is encouraged when donations or volunteer time is requested

Gender schema theory

The study of how gender beliefs become socialized in society

Sociology

The study of how individuals interact with, shape, and are subsequently shaped by the society in which they live

Psychometrics

The study of how to measure psychological variables through testing

Social epidemiology

The study of the distribution of health and disease across a population, with the focus on using social concepts to explain patterns of health and illness in a population

Self-concept or self-identity

The sum of an individual's knowledge and understanding of his- or herself

Superego

The superego inhibits the id and influences the ego to follow moralistic and idealistic goals rather than just realistic goals; the superego strives for a "higher purpose." Based on societal values as learned from one's parents, the superego makes judgements of right and wrong and strives for perfection.

Taste bud

The taste bud is composed of a bunch of specialized epithelial cells, shaped roughly like an onion. In the center is a taste pore, with taste hairs that detect food chemicals.

Response bias

The tendency for respondents to not have perfect insight into their state and provide inaccurate responses

Multistability

The tendency of ambiguous images to pop back and forth unstable between interpretations in our brains

What are demand characteristics?

The tendency of participants to consciously or subconsciously act in ways that match how they are expected to behave, can also threaten internal validity

Self-serving bias

The tendency to attribute successes to ourselves and our failures to others or the external environment

Hindsight bias or the knew-it-along effect

The tendency to believe that an event was predictable after it has already occurred

Self-reference effect

The tendency to better remember information relevant to ourselves

Actor-observer bias

The tendency to blame our actions on the situation and blame the actions of others on their personalities

Language acquisition

The term used by psychologists to refer to the way infants learn to understand and speak their native language

Insight learning

The term used to describe when previously learned behaviors are suddenly combined in unique ways

Thomas theorem

The theory that interpretation of a situation affects the response to that situation

Retention interval

The time since the information was learned, the more information will be forgotten; with the most forgetting occurring rapidly in the first few days before leveling off

Carrying capacity

The total possible population that can be supported with relevant resources and without significant negative effects in a given area

Cultural diffusion

The transfer of elements of culture from one social group to another

Demographic transition (DT)

The transition from overall higher to overall lower birth and death rates as a result of a country's development from a pre-industrial to industrial framework due to both economic and social changes

Adolescence

The transitional stage between childhood and adulthood

Scapegoats

The unfortunate people at whom displaced aggression is directed

Diagnostical and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5)

The universal authority on the classification and diagnosis of psychological disorders

Computerized Tomography (CT)

The use of a device that employs a computer to analyze data obtained by a scanning beam of X-rays to produce a two-dimensional picture of a "slice" through the body

The vestibular complex is made up of what 3 semicircular canals?

The utricle, the saccule, and the ampullae

Norms

The visible and invisible rules of social conduct within a society

Placebo effect

The well-known fact that just believing that treatment is being administered can lead to a measurable result

Educational segregation

The widening disparity between children from high-income neighborhoods and those from low-income neighborhoods

Intimacy versus isolation

The young adult faces the sixth stage: to resolve the crisis of intimacy versus isolation. If a person does not form intimate relationships at this stage, he or she may become alienated and isolated.

Episodic buffer

Theorized to integrate information from the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad with a sense of time, and to interface with long-term memory stores

Gestalt Laws of Grouping

There are also several gestalt grouping laws meant to help explain how we tend to perceive things: the law of proximity, law of continuity, law of closure, gestalt law of common fate, and law of connectedness

Unanimity

There is a strong pressure not to dissent when everyone else agrees

Social loafing

There is a tendency for people to exert less effort if they are being evaluated as a group than if they are individually accountable

Hair cells

These cells have cilia (hairs) projecting from their apical (top) surfaces (opposite the basilar membrane). The hairs contact the tectorial membrane, and when the basilar membrane moves, the hairs are dragged across the tectorial membrane and they bend.

Feral children

These children are individuals who were not raised with human contact or care, and a large part of our understanding about the importance of socialization is derived from what has been learned about their experiences and the terrible consequences of growing up without proper human care and contact

Null hypothesis

They assume that there is no causal relationship between the variables and any effect that they measure, if there is one, is due to chance

Ethical considerations of experiments

They just contain some type of disclosure, an outline given to participants before the experiment begins that clarifies incentives and expectations while reminding them of their right to terminate the experiment at any time.

Innate

Things we know how to do instinctively, not because someone taught us to do them

Inhibitory interneuron

This is a short neuron which forms an inhibitory synapse with a motor neuron innervating the hamstring muscle. When the sensory neuron is stimulated by stretch, it stimulates both the quadriceps motor neuron and the inhibitory interneuron to the hamstring motor neuron. As a result, the quadriceps contract and the hamstring relaxes.

Edwin Sutherland's differential association

This perspective argues that deviance is a learned behavior resulting from interactions between individuals and their communities. The process of learning deviance involves learning the techniques of deviant behaviors as well as the motives and values that rationalize these behaviors, and it is no different than other learning processes in its mechanism.

Robert Merton's structural strain theory

This perspective purports that deviance is the result of experienced strain, either individual or structural. Merton specified that anomie is the state in which there is a mismatch between the common social goals and the structural or institutionalized means of obtaining these goals. Individuals experience social strain because existing social structures are inadequate, there is pressure to use deviant methods to prevent failure.

Howard Becker's labeling theory

This perspective suggests that deviance is the result of society's response to a person rather than something inherent in the person's actions; behaviors become deviant through social processes.

Coercive organizations

Those for which members do not have a choice in joining, like prisons

Utilitarian organizations

Those in which members get paid for their efforts, such as businesses

Ascribed status

Those that are assigned to a person by society regardless of the person's own efforts. Like gender and race.

Pull factors

Those things that are attractive about an area and "pull" people there

Push Factors

Those things that are unattractive about an area and "push" people to leave

Refugees

Those who migrate to settled areas as a result of displacement

Settlers

Those who migrate to unsettled areas

Narcolepsy

Those with narcolepsy experience periodic, overwhelming sleepiness during waking periods that usually last less than 5 minutes

Donald Broadbent

Thought of the brain as a processing system with a limited capacity and sought to map out the steps that went into creating memories from raw sensory data. He developed the Broadbent Filter Model of Selective Attention.

Natural environment phobias

Thunderstorms, heights, water, lightning

Ego defense mechanisms

To cope with anxiety and protect the ego, all people develop ego defense mechanisms that unconsciously deny or distort reality

Large enough sample size

To make sure that the experiment picks up an effect, it is necessary to have a large enough sample size. A larger sample size is usually preferred. This increases the power of the experiment, or the ability to pick up an effect if one is actually present.

What's the objective of having a similar control group?

To rule out extraneous, or confounding, variables, variables other than the treatment that could potentially explain an experimental result

Brainstem

Together, the medulla, pons, and midbrain constitute the brainstem, which contains important processing centers and relays information to or from the cerebellum and cerebrum

Selection criteria

Too restrictive of inclusion/exclusion criteria for participants, like sample is not representative

Cultural lag

Transformative social changes, such as technological innovations often challenge our understanding of the world because there is no social consensus about the new innovation; the creation of new social rules "lags" behind. This is called cultural lag. The foundational work on cultural lag explained that material culture changes much faster than non-material culture, which often resists change.

Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders

Traumas and stressors are central to the definition of these disorders, which involve unhealthy or pathological responses to one or more harmful or life-threatening events, including witnessing such an event. Subsequent symptoms include patterns of anxiety, depression, depersonalization, nightmares, insomnia, and/or a heightened startle response Specific psychological disorders: -Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTST) -Acute Stress Disorder -Adjustment Disorders

What are types of ways of problem solving?

Trial and error, algorithms, and heuristics

Anne Treisman's Attentuation Model

Tried to account for the cocktail party effect. Treisman believed that rather than a filter, the mind has an attenuator, which works like a volume knob-it "turns down" the unattended sensory input, rather than eliminating it.

Oxytocin

Trust, formation of social bonds, sexual reproduction, mother-infant bonding

What are good ways to study the relationship between nature vs nurture?

Twin studies and adoption studies

K-complex

Typically has a duration of a half second and is large and slow. These each occur as a single wave amongst the theta waves.

Latent content

Unconscious drives and wishes that are difficult to express

Kohlberg Stage 6 of 6

Universal ethical principles: Morality is based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical principles; laws are only valid if they are grounded in justice

All-trans form

Upon absorbing a photon of light, retinal is converted to the all-trans form. This triggers a series of reactions that ultimately closes the sodium channel, and the cell hyperpolarizes.

Epinephrine

Upon activation of the sympathetic system, the adrenal gland is stimulated to release epinephrine, also known as adrenaline

Raymond Cattell

Used factor analysis with hundreds of surface traits to identify which traits were related to each other

Operant conditioning

Used reinforcement and punishment to mold behavior. It is important for the reinforcement or the punishment to occur around the same time as the behavior in order for learning to occur

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

Uses a computer to combine a series of magnetic resonance images taken less than a second apart to provide a functional picture of how brain activity changes over time. fMRI can display changes in oxygen levels in various regions of the brain in real time and can be used to produce activation maps that indicate the areas of the brain involved in particular mental processes.

Behavioral therapy

Uses conditioning to shape a client's behaviors in the desired direction. Using the ABC model, the therapist first performs a functional assessment to determine the antecedents (A) and consequences (C) of the behavior (B). Common applications of behavioral therapy include relaxation training and systematic desensitization to help clients manage fear and anxiety.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Uses strong magnets which cause protons to align, spin, and generate a detectable radio-frequency signal that is measured by antennas close to the anatomy being examined.

Psychoanalytic therapy

Uses various methods to help a patient become aware of his or her unconscious motives and to gain insight into the emotional issues and conflicts that are presenting difficulties.

False memories

Using imagination to create inaccurate memories

Night terrors

Usually occur during stage 3, unlike nightmares, which occur during REM sleep toward morning

Social cues

Verbal or no verbal hints that guide social interactions; therefore specific traits may remain hidden

Non-normative behavior

Viewed as incorrect because it challenges shared values and institutions, thus threatening social structure and cohesion

Racial formation perspective

Was created with the purpose of deconstructing race in its modern form

Beta waves

Waves demonstrated during alert, focused, and active consciousness. These waves have even higher frequencies than alpha waves and lower amplitudes.

Back stage

We can "let down our guard" and be ourselves

Dramaturgical perspective

We imagine ourselves as playing certain roles when interacting with others

Relative clarity

We perceive hazy objects as being more distant than sharp, clear objects

Relative height

We perceive objects that are higher in the visual field as farther away

Front stage

We play a role and use impression management to craft the way we come across to other people

Protestant/Puritan work ethic

Weber theorized that the Protestant/Puritan work ethic, a widely held religious belief that lauded the morality of hard work for the sake of Godliness, was a critical factor in the success of the capitalist system in replacing the feudalist system that preceded it in Western Europe.

Mood-dependent memory

What we learn in one state is most easily recalled when we are once again in that emotional state, a phenomenon known as mood-dependent memory

Role strain

When a single status results in conflicting expectations

Synaptic cleft

When action potentials travel down an axon and reach the synaptic knob, chemical messengers are released and travel across a very small gap called the synaptic cleft to the target cell

Synaptic transmission

When an action potential reaches the end of an axon at a synapse, the signal is transformed into a chemical signal with the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft

Spontaneous recovery

When an extinct conditioned response occurs again when the conditioned stimulus is presented after some period of time

Attended channel

When an individual is instructed to listen to information coming into one ear

Ethnocentrism

When different cultures interact, there is often a tendency to judge people from another culture by the standards of one's own culture, called ethnocentrism

Transition shock

When individuals experience changes that necessitate a period of adjustment

Deindividuation

When people lose their sense of restraint and their individual identity in exchange for identifying with a group or mob mentality, a situation called deindividuation

Source monitoring

When recalling information people are also susceptible to forgetting one particular fact-the information's source

Referred pain

When receptors create the illusion of pain on the skin, when their nerves cross paths with somatic afferents from the skin

Hyperpolarized

When repolarization occurs, there is a brief period in which the membrane potential is more negative than the resting potential caused by voltage-gated potassium channels that have not closed yet

Factitious disorder imposed on another

When someone creates and/or inflicts physical or psychological symptoms in someone else, often a child-and then presents the other person as ill or injured-the perpetrator of the deception is diagnosed with this

Culture shock

When the disorientation is the result of an individual being subjected to alternative cultures and foreign environments, such as through leisure travel or permanent relocation

Positive self-concept

When the ideal self and the real self are similar

Normative social influence

When the motivation for compliance is desire for the approval of others and to avoid rejection

Overpopulation

When there are more people than can be sustained

Derealization disorder

Where a person experiences a feeling that people or objects in the external world are unreal

What is the randomized block technique?

Where researchers evaluate where participants fall along the variables they wish to equalize across experimental and control groups

Parallel processing

Whereby many aspects of a visual stimulus are processed simultaneously instead of in a step-by-step or serial fashion

Educational stratification

While education has long been touted as the path to upward mobility in the U.S., it can also reinforce and perpetuate social inequalities

Hidden curriculum

While many forms of student socialization are intentional, there are other lessons learned in school known as hidden curriculum.

Discrimination

While prejudice involves thinking a certain way, discrimination involves acting a certain way toward a group

Physical dependence

Withdrawal is an uncomfortable and often physically painful experience without the use of a drug. This discomfort is alleviated when the ulcer takes the drug, thus reinforcing further drug use.

Priming

Within the network model of memory, hints may activate a closely related node, making it easier to retrieve the node being searched for. Prior activation of these nodes and associations is called priming.

Matriarchy

Women have more authority than men

Negative feedback

Works by maintaining stability or homeostasis; a system produces a product or end result, which feeds back to stop the system and maintain the product or end result within tightly controlled boundaries

Classical conditioning: how it works

You get the neutral stimulus to be associated with the unconditional stimulus so that together it creates a conditioned stimulus, where the neutral stimulus takes over the unconditioned stimulus and elicits a conditioned response (salivation)

From sound to hearing:

sound waves -> auricle -> external auditory canal -> tympanic membrane -> malleus -> incus -> stapes -> oval window -> perilymph -> endolymph -> basilar membrane -> auditory hair cells -> tectorial membrane -> neurotransmitters stimulate bipolar auditory neurons -> brain -> perception

Social cognition

the ability of the brain to store and process information regarding social perception

Who is the founder of sociology?

Émile Durkheim. To Durkheim, a society's capacity to maintain social order and stability is paramount to its functional success.

Reflexive movement

(0-1 year) include involuntary movements (e.g. blinking, grasping, sucking)

Rudimentary movement

(0-2 years) these are the first voluntary movements (e.g. crawling, sitting, standing)

Application of movement

(14+ years) movements are applied and refined throughout the span of one's lifetime

Fundamental movement

(2-7 years) child is beginning to coordinate his limbs (e.g. running, catching a ball)

Specialized movement

(7-14 years) fundamental movements are mastered and applied to completing specific actions (e.g. playing sports, riding a bike, gymnastics)

Dopamine pathways

-Reward (motivation) -Pleasure, euphoria -Motor function (fine tuning) -Compulsion -Perseveration

Global inequalities

-certain countries hold a majority of the resources -access to resources along countries seriously impacts other social factors, such as mortality -the burden of inequality is placed on certain segments of the population

Melatonin

-circadian rhythm, sleepiness, sleep irritation -shortages can lead to insomnia

Acetylcholine

-excitation at neuromuscular junction, parasympathetic nervous system activity -shortages can lead to dysfunction of the Gi tract and paralysis

Serotonin pathways

-mood -memory processing -sleep -cognition

Serotonin

-mood, digestion, sleep, memory, sexual desire -shortages can lead to aggression, compulsive behavior, overeating, and depression

Glutamate

-primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, learning, long-term potentiation -shortages can lead to fatigue, low concentration and energy

Gamma Aminobutyric Acid (GABA)

-primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain -shortages can lead to stress and anxiety, depression, ADHD, panic disorders, and a host of other disorders

Dopamine

-reward, mood, pleasure, smooth motor movements, focus and attention -shortages can lead to depression, lethargy, and difficulty coordinating motion

Children from poorer neighborhoods...

-tend to attend poorer schools and receive poorer educations -are far less likely than children from wealthier neighborhoods to pursue a four-year college degree, and even more unlikely to pursue education beyond college, like a graduate or medical degree -are more likely to end up with lower-paying jobs, and perpetuate the cycle of poverty for themselves

Epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline)

-two similar molecules both involved in fight or flight response, sympathetic nervous system activation (both are hormones and neurotransmitters) -shortages can lead to fatigue, lack of focus, apathy

What are the alternatives to the traditional family?

1) Cultural differences 2) Divorce 3) Cohabitation 4) Lesbian and gay relationships

What are the 6 factors that influence conformity?

1) Group size 2) Unanimity 3) Cohesion 4) Status 5) Accountability 6) No prior commitment

Over history, families have tended to serve what 5 functions?

1) Reproduction and the monitoring of sexual behavior 2) Protection 3) Socialization-passing down norms and values of society 4) Affection and companionship 5) Social status-social position is often based on family background and reputation

What are the steps involved in the transmission of a signal across a chemical synapse in the nervous system?

1. An action potential reaches the end of an axon, the synaptic knob 2. Depolarization of the presynaptic membrane opens voltage-gated calcium channels 3. Calcium influx into the presynaptic cell causes exocytosis of neurotransmitter stored in secretory vesicles 4. Neurotransmitter molecules diffuse across the narrow synaptic cleft 5. Neurotransmitter binds to receptor proteins in the postsynaptic membrane. These receptors are ligand-gated ion channels 6. The opening of these ion channels in the postsynaptic cell alters the membrane polarization 7. If the membrane depolarization of the postsynaptic cell reaches the threshold of voltage-gated sodium channels, an action potential is initiated 8. Neurotransmitter in the synaptic cleft is degraded and/or removed to terminate the signal

What are the 3 different types of stressors?

1. Catastrophes 2. Significant life changes 3. Daily hassles

What are the non-experimental designs?

1. Correlational studies 2. Ethnographic studies 3. Twin studies 4. Longitudinal studies 5. Case studies 6. Phenomenological studies 7. Surveys 8. Other studies

What are Herbert Blumer's 4 main forms of collective behavior?

1. Crowds 2. Publics 3. Masses 4. Social movements

What are the forms of religious organizations?

1. Ecclesia 2. Church 3. Sect 4. Cult/New religious movement

Max Weber's 5 characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy

1. It covers a fixed area of activity 2. It is hierarchically organized 3. Workers have expert training in an area of specialty 4. Organizational rank is impersonal, and advancement depends on technical qualification, rather than favoritism 5. Workers follow set procedures to increase predictability and efficiency

What are the 5 types of sensory receptors?

1. Mechanoreceptors 2. Chemoreceptors 3. Nociceptors 4. Thermoreceptors 5. Electromagnetic receptors

What are the 7 newborn reflexes?

1. Moro (startle) reflex 2. Rooting reflex 3. Sucking reflex 4. Babinski reflex 5. Tonic neck reflex 6. Palmar grasp reflex 7. Walking/stepping reflex

What are 3 different ways that individuals and environments interact?

1. People choose their environments which in turn shape them. For example, the college that you chose to attend had some sort of a unique impact on you 2. Personality shapes how people interpret and respond to their environment. For example, people prone to depression are more likely to view their jobs as pointless 3. A person's personality influences the situation to which she then reacts. Experiments have demonstrated that how you treat someone else influences how they will treat you. For example, if you call customer service because you are furious about something, you are more likely to receive a defensive or aggressive response on the phone.

What are the steps to a good experimental design?

1. Select the population 2. Operationalize the independent and dependent variables. The researchers must create an operational definition: a specification of precisely what they mean by each variable 3. Carefully select control and experimental groups 4. Randomly sample from the population 5. Randomly assign individuals to groups 6. Measure the results 7. Test the hypothesis

Piaget's theory had what 4 developmental stages?

1. Sensorimotor Stage 2. Preoperational Stage 3. Concrete Operational Stage 4. Formal Operational Stage

What are Erik Erikson's 8 developmental stages?

1. Trust versus mistrust 2. Autonomy versus shame and doubt 3. Initiative versus guilt 4. Industry versus inferiority 5. Identity versus role confusion 6. Intimacy versus isolation 7. Generatively versus stagnation 8. Integrity versus despair

What factors produce the depolarization effect?

1. Voltage-gated sodium channels inactivate very quickly after they open, shutting off the flow of sodium into the cell. The channels remain inactivated until the membrane potential nears resting values again. 2. Voltage-gated potassium channels open more slowly than the voltage-gated sodium channels and stay open longer. Voltage-gated potassium channels open in response to membrane depolarization. As potassium levels the cell down its concentration gradient, the membrane potential returns to negative values, actually overshooting the resting potential by about 20mV. At this point the voltage-gated potassium channels close. 3. Potassium leak channels and the Na+/K+ ATPase continue to function (as they always do) to bring the membrane back to resting potential. These factors alone would depolarize the membrane potential even without the voltage-gated potassium channels, but it would take a lot longer.

What are 4 situations that social psychologists have found in which attitudes better predict behavior?

1. When social influences are reduced 2. When general patterns of behavior, rather than specific behaviors, are observed 3. When specific, rather than general, attitudes are considered 4. When attitudes are made more powerful through self-reflection

Self-efficacy

A belief in one's own competence and effectiveness. It's how capable we believe we are of doing things.

Iconic memory

A brief photographic memory for visual information, which decays in a few tenths of a second

Status

A broad term in sociology that refers to all the socially defined positions within a society

Hegemony

A coerced acceptance of the values, expectations, and conditions as determined by the capitalist class.

Anomie

A concept that describes the social condition in which individuals are not provided with firm guidelines in relation to norms and values and there is minimal moral guidance or social ethic

Race

A description of a distinct social group based on certain shared characteristics

Sleep apnea

A disorder that causes people to intermittently stop breathing during sleep, which results in waking after a minute or so without air

Ecclesia

A dominant religious organization that includes most members of society, is recognized as the national or official religion, and tolerates no other religion.

Endocrine gland

A ductless gland whose secretory products are picked up by capillaries supplying blood to the region

Delusion

A false belief that is not due to culture, and is not relinquished despite evidence that it is false

Hallucination

A false sensory perception that occurs while a person is conscious

What might make it difficult to apply our conclusion of an experiment to the real world?

A flaw or limitation, known as external validity

Personality trait

A generally stable predisposition toward a certain behavior

Cortisol

A glucocorticoid, a hormone that shifts the body from using sugar (glucose) as an energy source towards using fat as an energy source. Stress hormone.

Group size

A group doesn't have to be very large, but a group of 3-5 people will elicit more conformity than one with only 1-2 people

Social support

A major determinant of health and well-being for humans and other animals

Masses

A mass is defined as a group whose formation is prompted through the efforts of mass media; masses consist of a relatively large number of people who may not be in close proximity but nevertheless share common interests.

Biofeedback

A means of recording and feeding back information about subtle autonomic responses in an attempt to train the individual to control those involuntary responses

What is a significant difference?

A measured difference between two groups that is large enough that it is probably not due to chance

Round window

A membrane-covered hole in the cochlea near the oval window. It releases excess pressure.

Schema

A mental blueprint containing common aspects of some part of the world

Survey method

A method for collecting information or data as reported by individuals

Neo-Malthusianism

A movement based on these principles that advocates for population control in order to reduce the negative effects of population strain

Parkinson's Disease

A movement disorder caused by the death of cells that generate dopamine in the basal ganglia and substantia nigra, two subcortical structures in the brain

Polysomnography (PSG)

A multimodal technique to measure physiological processes during sleep

Relative refractory period

A neuron can be induced to transmit an action potential, but the depolarization required is greater than normal because the membrane is hyperpolarized

Absolute refractory period

A neuron will not fire another action potential no matter how strong a membrane depolarization is induced

Positron emission tomography (PET)

A nuclear medicine imaging technique that produces a 3D image of functional metabolic processes across time. PET scans require the subject to be injected with a positron-emitting radionuclide tracer, which is introduced into the body on a biologically active molecule, such as glucose.

P-value

A p-value is a number from 0 to 1 that represents the probability that a difference observed in an experiment is due to chance. If, and only if, p < 0.05, scientists reject the null hypothesis.

Authoritative parenting

A parenting style that encourages the child to be independent but that still places limits and controls on behavior. This is the "best" parenting style, as it tends to produce children that are happier, have good emotional control and regulation, develop good social skills, and are confident in their abilities.

Eustachian tube (auditory tube)

A passageway from the back of the throat to the middle ear. It functions to equalize the pressure on both sides of the eardrum and is the cause of the "ear popping" one experiences at high altitudes or underwater.

Dissociative identity disorder

A person alternates among two or more distinct personality states, only one of which interacts with other people at a given time

Panic attack

A person commonly experienced intense dread, along with shortness of breath, chest pain, a choking sensation, and cardiac symptoms such as a rapid heartbeat or palpitations

Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)

A person feels tense or anxious much of the time about many issues, but does not experience panic attacks

Manic episode

A person has experienced an abnormal euphoric, unrestrained, or irritable mood for at least one week, as well as marked increase in either goal-directed activity or psychomotor agitation, which stems from an urge to be engaged in goal-directed activity but without the focus necessary to do so

Major depressive episode

A person has felt worse than usual for most of the day, nearly everyday, for at least 2 weeks

Mixed episode

A person has met the symptoms for both major depressive and manic episodes nearly everyday for at least a week, and the symptoms are severe enough to cause psychotic features, hospitalization, or impaired work, social, or personal functioning

Stage 3 and stage 4 sleep

A person transitions into slow wave sleep. Stage 3 and stage 4 are characterized by delta waves, which are high amplitude, low frequency waves and signify the deepest level of sleep.

Panic disorder

A person with panic disorder has suffered at least one panic attack and is worried about have more of them

Conversion Disorder

A person with this experiences a change in sensory or motor function-such as weakness, tremors, seizures, or difficulty talking or eating-that has no discernible physical or physiological cause and that seems to be significantly affected by psychological factors

Dependent personality disorder

A person with this feels a need to be taken care of by others and an unrealistic fear of being unable to take care of him- or herself

Narcissistic personality disorder

A person with this feels grandiosely self-important, with fantasies of beauty, brilliance, and power

Avoidant personality disorder

A person with this feels inadequate, inferior, and undesirable and is preoccupied with fears of criticism and conflict

Antisocial personality disorder

A person with this has a history of serious behavior problems beginning as a young teen, including significant aggression against people or animals; deliberate property destruction; lying or theft; and serious rule violation

Depersonalization disorder

A person with this has a recurring or persistent feeling of being cut off or detached from his or her body or mental processes, as if observing themselves from the outside, in something like an out-of-body experience

Dissociative amnesia

A person with this has had at least one episode of forgetting some important personal information, creating gaps in memory that are usually related to severe stress or trauma

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

A person with this has obsessions, compulsions, or both

Schizotypal personality disorder

A person with this has several traits that cause problems interpersonally, including limited or inappropriate affect; magical or paranoid thinking; and odd beliefs, speech, behavior, appearance, and perceptions

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)

A person with this has suffered one or more major depressive episodes

Schizoid personality disorder

A person with this is a loner with little interest or involvement in close relationships, even those with family members

Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder

A person with this may be perfectionistic, rigid, and stubborn, with a strong need for control

Paranoid personality disorder

A person with this mistrusts and misinterprets others' motives and actions without sufficient cause, suspecting them of deceiving, harming, betraying, or attacking him or her

Histrionic personality disorder

A person with this strongly desires to be the center of attention, and often seeks to attract attention through personal appearance and seductive behavior

Borderline personality disorder

A person with this suffers from enduring or recurrent instability in his or her impulse control, mood, and image of self and others

Multiculturalism or pluralism

A perspective that endorses equal standing for all cultural traditions. It promotes the idea of cultures coming together in a true melting pot, rather than in a hierarchy.

Popular culture

A phrase used to describe features of culture that appeal to the masses, often those communicated through mass media, such as radio and television

Hormone receptor

A polypeptide that possesses a ligand-specific binding site

Ageism

A prejudice or discrimination against a person based on age, often against older people

Heterosexism

A prejudice or discrimination against a person based on their sexual orientation toward the same sex

Temporal summation

A presynaptic neuron fires action potentials so rapidly that the EPSPs or IPSPs pile up on top of each other

Classical conditioning

A process in which 2 stimuli are paired in such a way that the response to one of the stimuli changes. Ivan Pavlov's dog experiment. Has a neutral stimulus, unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response.

Social dysfunction

A process that has undesirable consequences and may actually reduce the stability of society

Mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR)

A protocol commonly used in the medical setting to help alleviate stress. Meditators have increased alpha and theta waves while they are meditating, with more experienced meditators showing greater improvements.

Ethnographic studies

A qualitative method in which researchers immerse themselves completely in the lives, culture, or way of life of the people they are studying. This also makes replication of the study difficult, and deep immersion in a culture can result in feelings of association and attachment with the culture by the researchers, which threatens objectivity

Electroencephalography (EEG)

A relatively noninvasive method of gathering functional information about brain activity. Electrodes are placed in the scalp to measure voltage fluctuations in the ionic currents of brain neurons.

Sect

A religious organization that is distinct from that of the larger society. Sects are often formed from breaking away from larger religious institutions.

Cult/New religious movement

A religious organization that is far outside society's norms and often involves a very different lifestyle

Subculture

A segment of society that shares a distinct pattern of traditions and values that differs from that of the larger society

Learned helplessness

A sense of exhaustion and lack of belief in one's ability to manage situations

Muscle spindle

A sensory organ specialized to detect muscle stretch

Psychological disorder

A set of behavioral and/or psychological symptoms that are not in keeping with cultural norms, and that are severe enough to cause significant personal distress and/or significant impairment to social, occupational, or personal functioning

Sociocultural evolution

A set of theories describing the processes through which societies and cultures have progressed over time

Social movements

A social movement is defined as collective behavior with the intention of promoting change. There are active movements, which attempt to foster social change, like revolutions, and there are expressive movements, which attempt to foster individual change, like support groups.

Ethnogenesis

A social process that results in the creation of separate ethnicities

Mob

A specific example of a crowd in which emotion is heightened and behavior is directed toward a specific and violet cause. Historical example is lynchpin.

Moral panic

A specific form of panic as a result of a perceived threat to social order-which lead to numerous executions

Communism

A specific socialist structure in which there is common ownership of the means of production, but also the absence of currencies, classes, and states, based on shared economic, political, and social ideologies

Reference group

A standard measure that people compare themselves to

Groupthink

A state of harmony within a group, because everyone is seemingly in a state of agreement, it can lead to some pretty terrible decisions

Algorithm

A step-by-step procedure

Chunking

A strategy in which information to be remembered is organized into discrete groups of data. Like grouping phone number into sets of 3 and a set of 4.

Self-handicapping

A strategy in which people create obstacles and excuses to avoid self-blame when they do poorly

Insight

A sudden flash of inspiration

State capitalism

A system in which companies are privately run, but work closely with the government in forming laws and regulations

Welfare capitalism

A system in which most of the economy is private with the exception of extensive social welfare programs to serve certain needs within society

Just world phenomenon

A tendency to believe that the world is fair and people get what they deserve

Belief perseverance

A tendency to cling to beliefs despite the presence of contrary evidence

Mental set

A tendency to fixate on solutions that worked in the past though they may not apply to the current situation

Functional fixedness

A tendency to perceive the functions of objects as fixed and unchanging

Confirmation bias

A tendency to search only for information that confirms our preconceived thinking, rather than information that might not support it

Bureaucracy

A term used to describe an administrative body and the process by which this body accomplishes work tasks

Social Cognitive Theory

A theory of behavior change that emphasizes the interactions between people and their environment

Nomadism

A traditional method of continuous travel in search of natural resources as a method of sustenance, "hunting and gathering," are not considered migration because there is no intention to settle

Schwann cells

A type of glial cell that exist in conjunction with neurons, wrapping layers of specialized membrane around the axons

Church

A type of religious organization that is well-integrated into the larger society

Tertiary care

A very specialized form of healthcare. It is based on consultations with specialist care providers and often occurs in hospitals or care facilities designed just for the purpose of caring for patients with a limited set of conditions

Social network

A web of social relationships, including those in which a person is directly linked to others as well as those in which people are indirectly connected through others

Agents of social control

Ability to attach stigmas to certain behaviors

Dyssomnias

Abnormalities in the amount, quality, or timing of sleep, and include insomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnea

Adrenal gland

Above the kidney. There are 2 adrenal glands, one above each kidney.

Negative reinforcement

Absence of aversive stimulus

Negative punishment

Absence of rewarding stimulus

Emergence

According to the Gestalt principle, when attempting to identify an object, we first identify its outline, which then allows us to figure out what the object is. Only after the whole emerges do we start to identify the parts that make up the whole, such as the dog's face, legs, or the chain attached to his collar.

Researchers can never...

Account for EVERY potential extraneous variable

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE)

Acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft is degraded by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase

What are the processes by which classically-conditioned responses are developed and maintained?

Acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination

Deviance

Actions that violate the dominant social norms

Motor function

Acts on the integrative function, carried out by the PNS

Positive

Adds to

Accommodate

Adjusting our schemas to take into account the new experiences

Comparing CT scans and MRIs

Advantage of CT scans include a very rapid acquisition of images of a large portion of the body, generally lower cost, more open and less noisy machinery, subjects do not have to remain completely motionless, and there is no prohibition on implanted medical devices. For brain imaging, CT scans are preferred when speed is important, such as during a suspected stroke. Advantages of MRIs include higher resolution and therefore a more detailed image. MRI provides much more detail about soft tissues. Also, MRIs do not use x-rays, and do not include significant exposure to ionizing radiation, which make MRIs safer in most instances.

What are 3 good ways to deal with stress?

Aerobic exercise, biofeedback and relation, and social support

Repolarization

After depolarization, repolarization returns the membrane potential to normal

Misinformation effect

After people are exposed to subtle misinformation, they have a tendency to misremember

Reticular formation

Alertness and arousal are controlled by structures within the brain stem, known as reticular formation

Cranial nerves and spinal nerves

All neurons entering and exiting the CNS are carried by 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves

Utilitarianism

All rational choice paradigms share the fundamental premise that human behaviors are utilitarian. Utilitarianism is based on two assumptions: 1) that individual humans are rational in their actions, and 2) that in every human interaction, individuals will seek to maximize their own self-interest

Polygamy

Allows an individual to have multiple wives or husbands simultaneously

Organic solidarity

Allows society to integrate through a division of labor, which leads to each person having a different personal experience; thus, each movement is distinguishable and separate

Mechanical solidarity

Allows society to remain integrated because individuals have common beliefs that lead to each person having the same fundamental experience

Phonological loop

Allows us to repeat verbal information to help us remember it

External migration

Also called cross-border or international migration because it involves migration to another nation

Persistent depressive disorder (PDD)

Also called dysthymia disorder or dysthymia, is a less intense, but typically more chronic form of depression. Depression lost days for at least 2 years.

Cultural competence

Also called effective interactions that are between people from different cultures

Command economies

Also called planned economies, are based on a plan of production and the means of production are often public, state-owned; these include socialism and communism.

Anterior pituitary

Also called the adenohypophysis; portion of the pituitary that develops from nonneural tissue; consists of endocrine cells that synthesize and secrete several tropic and nontropic hormones

Posterior pituitary

Also called the neurohypophysis. It is composed of axons which descend from the hypothalamus

Fad

Also known as a craze, is an example of a collective behavior in which something 1) experiences a rapid and dramatic incline in reputation, 2) remains popular among a large population for a brief period, and 3) experiences a rapid and dramatic decline in reputation

Hallucinogens

Also known as psychedelics, distort perceptions in the absence of any sensory input, creating hallucinations. These include LSD and marijuana.

Mind-body dualism

Although schizophrenia is a thought disorder, the psychological characteristics have a physical or neurological basis mind and body=separate entities

Eidetic memory

An ability found in some children to remember an image in vivid detail for several minutes after brief exposure

Depolarization

An action potential is a disturbance in this membrane potential, a wave of depolarization of the plasma membrane that travels along an axon

Habit

An action that is performed repeatedly until it becomes automatic

Cultural relativism

An alternative to ethnocentrism; judging another culture based on its own standards

Prefrontal cortex

An area of the brain that is now known to be involved in reflection, planning, emotional regulation, and theory of mind-the ability to understand the perspectives of others. Phineas Gage injured this part of his brain.

Food desert

An area where healthy, fresh food is difficult to find because there are no proper grocery stores, making people more likely to eat high-calorie foods that have low nutritional value

Principle of aggregation

An attitude affects a person's aggregate or average behavior, but not necessarily each isolated act

Capitalism

An economic system in which resources and production are mainly privately owned, and goods/services are produced for a profit

Resting membrane potential

An electric potential across the plasma membrane of approximately -70 millivolts, with the interior of the cell negatively charged with respect to the exterior of the cell

Personality disorder

An enduring, rigid set of personality traits that deviates from cultural norms, impairs functioning, and causes distress either to the person with the disorder or to those in his or her life

Neuromuscular junction

An example of a chemical synapse that is commonly used is the neuromuscular junction between neurons and skeletal muscle

Physiological arousal

An excitation of the body's internal state

Learned helplessness

An external locus of control and learned helplessness are characteristic of many depressed and oppressed people, and they often result in passivity

Presbyopia

An inability to accommodate (focus). It results from loss of flexibility of the lens, which occurs with aging.

Anterograde amnesia

An inability to encode new memories

Retrograde amnesia

An inability to recall information that was previously encoded

Fixation

An inability to see the problem from a fresh perspective

Cohesion

An individual will more likely be swayed to agree with opinions that come from someone within a group with whom the individual identifies

Modeling

An observer sees the behavior being performed by another person. Later, with this model in mind, the observer imitates the behavior she or he observed

Gestalt

An organized whole perceived as more than the sum of its individual parts

Over-confidence

An overestimation of the accuracy of knowledge and judgements

Social Anxiety Disorder or Social Phobia

An unreasonable, paralyzing fear of feeling embarrassed or humiliated while one is seen or watched by others, even while performing routine activities such as eating in public or using a public restroom

Drive

An urge originating from a physiological discomfort such as hunger, thirst, or sleepiness

Archival studies

Analyze already collected data from historical records and authentic original documents

Convergence

Another binocular cue that describes the extent to which the eyes turn inward when looking at an object; the greater the angle of convergence or inward strain, the closer the object

Paradoxical sleep

Another name for REM sleep. Unlike the conscious state, REM sleep is characterized by low (almost no) skeletal muscle movement.

Hypophysis

Another name for the pituitary gland

Meritocracy

Another stratification system that uses merit, personal effort, to establish social standing

Cluster B

Antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic personality disorders associated with emotional, dramatic, and attention-seeking behaviors, and intense interpersonal conflict

Anxiety disorders

Anxiety disorders are characterized by excessive fear, of specific real things or more generally, and/or anxiety, of real or imagined future things or events, with both physiological and psychological symptoms Specific psychological disorders: -Separation Anxiety Disorder -Specific Phobia(s) -Social Anxiety Disorder -Panic Disorder -Generalized Anxiety Disorder

Observational studies

Any study in which individuals are observed and outcomes measured with no attempt to control the outcome

Mnemonic

Any technique for improving retention and retrieval of information from memory

Reinforcement

Anything that will increase the likelihood that a preceding behavior will be repeated; the behavior is supported by a reinforcement

Threshold potential

Approximately -50mV. Once this threshold is reached, the channels are opened fully, but below the threshold they are closed and do not allow the passage of any ions through the channel.

Parasomnias

Are abnormal behaviors that occur during sleep and include somnambulism and night terrors

Autocratic governments

Are controlled by a single person, or a selective small group, with absolute decision-making power. Autocracies include dictatorships, those ruled by one person, and fascist governments, those ruled by a small group of leaders.

Surface traits

Are evident from a person's behavior

Source traits

Are factors underlying human personality and behavior; source traits are fewer and more abstract

Oligarchic governments

Are less clear as leaders can be elected or unelected; the public might have the power to elect representation, but people have little influence in directing decisions and social change

Twin studies

Are often run to test the relationship between nature and nurture

States

Are situational; they are unstable, temporary, and variable aspects of personality that are influenced by the external environment

Beliefs

Are the convictions or principles that people hold

Secondary reinforcers

Are those that are learned to be reinforcers. These are neutral stimuli that are paired with primary reinforcers to make them conditioned. For example, suppose that every time a child reads a book, she receives a stamp. After acquiring 10 stamps, she can exchange these for a small pizza.

Behavioral neuroscience

Area of psychology that looks for the neurophysiology correlates of behavior. Answers 2 questions: "What parts of the brain are active during specific behaviors?" and "How do neurotransmitters and other chemicals affect behavior?"

Thomas Robert Malthus

Argued that population is the result of available resources from sustenance, such as productive farmland

Social constructionism

Argues that people actively shape their reality through social interactions; reality is therefore something that is socially constructed rather than inherent

Relative motion

As we move, stable objects appear to move as well

Peg word method

Assigning images to a sequence of number. For recall, the images of the places could be called upon to bring into awareness the associated topics.

Humanistic therapy

Assumed problem: barriers to self-understanding and self-acceptance Therapy goals: personal growth through self-insight General method: active listening and unconditional positive regard

Cognitive behavioral (CBT)

Assumed problem: maladaptive behavior and/or negative, self-defeating thoughts Therapy goals: extinction and relearning of undesired thoughts/behaviors and healthier thinking and self-talk General method: reconditioning, desensitization, and reversal of self-blame

Psychoanalytic therapy

Assumed problem: unconscious forces and childhood experiences Therapy goals: reduce anxiety through self-insight General method: analysis and interpretation

Iris

At the back of the anterior chamber is a membrane called the iris with an opening called the pupil. The iris is the colored part of the eye, and muscles in the iris regulate the diameter of the pupil.

Behavioral genetics

Attempts to determine the role of inheritance in behavioral traits; the interaction between heredity and experience determines an individual's personality and social behavior

Signal detection theory

Attempts to predict how and when someone will detect the presence of a given sensory stimulus amidst all of the other sensory stimuli in the background

Pansexual

Attracted to people irrespective of gender or sex

Projection

Attributing one's own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to another person

What are the 3 categories of parenting styles?

Authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative

Kohlberg Stage 4 of 6

Authority and social-order maintaining orientation: Beyond a need for individual approval, individuals feel a duty to uphold laws, rules, and social conventions, "What am I supposed to do?"

Episodic memory

Autobiographical memory for information of personal importance, such as the situation surrounding a first kiss

Cluster C

Avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders, associated with tense, anxious, over-controlled behaviors

Self-consciousness

Awareness of one's self, self-concept includes physical, psychological, and social attributes, which can be influenced by the individual's attitudes, habits, beliefs, and ideas

Synaptic knob

Axons can branch multiple times and terminate in synaptic knobs that form connection with target cells

Infantile amnesia

Before the age of about 3.5 years old, we are unable to remember much, if anything

Genital stage

Begins in adolescence, when sexual themes resurface and a person's life/sexual energy fuels activities such as friendships, art, sports, and careers

Bottom-up processing

Begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the complex integration of information occurring in the brain

Deterministic

Behaviorism is deterministic, proposing that people begin as blank slates, and that environmental reinforcement and punishment completely determine an individual's subsequent behavior and personalities

Instinct

Behaviors that are unlearned and present in fixed patterns throughout a species

Taboo

Behaviors that customs forbid

Egosyntonic

Being generally in harmony with a person's ego or self-image

Internal locus of control

Believe they are able to influence outcomes through their own efforts and actions

Retina

Beneath the choroid is the retina, the surface upon which light is focused

Choroid

Beneath the sclera is a layer called the choroid. It contains darkly-pigmented cells; this pigmentation absorbs excess light within the eye.

Max Weber

Best known for refining and critiquing many of Marx's tenets of conflict theory, agreed with Marx that inequalities in a capitalist system would lead to conflict, but Weber did not believe that the collapse of capitalism was inevitable.

Retinal disparity

Binocular cue whereby the brain compares the images projected onto the two retinas in order to perceive distance

Bipolar and Related Disorders

Bipolar and Related Disorders involve mood swings or cycles (called episodes) ranging from manic to depressive, in which manic episodes tend to be followed by depressive episodes and vice versa Specific psychological disorders: -Bipolar I Disorder -Bipolar II Disorder -Cyclothymic Disorder

Urinary system

Bladder and urethral sphincter Parasympathetic (rest and digest): bladder contracts, urethral sphincter relaxes Sympathetic (fight or flight): bladed relaxes, urethral sphincter contracts

Mixed economies

Blend elements of command and market economies with both public and private ownership

Educational institutions have what functions?

Both manifest and latent functions. Their manifest functions are to systematically pass down knowledge and to give status to those who have been educated. Latent functions include socialization, serving as agents of change, and maintaining social control.

Hippocampus

Brain structure that plays a key role in forming memories

Harry Harlow and Margaret Harlow

Bred monkeys for experiments. infant monkeys separated from mothers at birth. artificial mothers made, one nourishing (wire frame with wooden head and bottle) and the other cloth (wire frame with wooden head and cloth blanket wrapped around it). baby monkeys preferred the cloth mother. contact comfort was an essential element of infant/mother bonding, essential to psychological development.

Warning colors

Bright colors meant to advertise to predators that an organism is toxic or noxious

Broca's aphasia

Broca's area was discovered when several people who had an injury to this area lost the ability to speak; a disorder now termed Broca's aphasia. People with Broca's aphasia know what they want to say, but are unable to generate fluent speech.

Ganglia

Bunches of somas located outside the central nervous system

Nuclei

Bundle of neuronal cell bodies found within the central nervous system

Sleep spindles

Bursts of waves. They have a frequency of 12-14 Hz and are moderately intense.

How are the cerebral hemispheres connected?

By a thick bundle of axons called the corpus callosum

C. Robert Cloninger

C. Robert Cloninger linked personality to brain systems involved with reward, motivation, and punishment. Linked to the level of activity of certain neurotransmitters in 3 interacting systems

What are the 5 spice traits in the Five-Factor Model?

CANOE Conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness to experience, and extroversion

Oligodendrocytes

CNS Form myelin-increase speed of conduction of APs along axon

Astrocytes

CNS Guide neuronal development Regulate synaptic communication via regulation of neurotransmitter levels

Ependymal cells

CNS Produce and circulate cerebrospinal fluid

Microglia

CNS Remove dead cells and debris

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

Can arise when a person feels intense fear, horror, or helplessness after experiencing, witnessing, or otherwise confronting an extremely traumatic event that involves actual or threatened death, serious injury, or sexual violence to the self or others

Values

Can be defined as a culture's standard for evaluating what is good or bad

Deviance

Can be defined as a violation of society's standards of conduct or expectations

Locus of control

Can be internal or external

Self-concept

Carl Roger's states that the self-concept is made up of the child's conscious, subjective perceptions and beliefs about him- or herself

Carl Rogers

Carl Rogers developed humanistic theory. Carl Rogers stated that when a child receives disapproval from a caregiver for certain behavior, he or she senses that the caregiver's positive regard is conditional

Motor neurons

Carry information from the nervous system toward organs which can act upon that information, known as effectors

Sensory neurons

Carry information toward the central nervous system and are called AFFERENT neurons

Texture gradient

Change from a coarse, distinct texture to a fine, indistinct texture indicates increasing distance

Sublimation

Channeling aggressive or sexual energy into positive, constructive activities, such as producing art

Leak channels

Channels that are open all the time, and that simple allow ions to "leak" across the membrane according to their gradient

REM sleep

Characterized by bursts of quick eye movements. The EEG measures waves that most resemble the beta waves seen in individuals when awake. The waves in REM sleep are sawtooth waves with low intensity and variable frequency.

Charles Spearman

Charles Spearman first coined the term general intelligence; Spearman believed that intelligence could be strictly quantified through cognitive tests, and those who possessed high general intelligence would do well on lots of different measures of cognitive ability

Pheromones

Chemical messengers employed by animals to communicate with each other

Pheromones

Chemical signals that cause a social response in members of the same species

Typification

Classifying objects and actions we observe quickly and routinely structure our own actions in immediate response

Light and shadow

Closer objects reflect more light than distant objects

Stimulus intensity

Coded by the frequency of action potentials

Neural networks

Codified routes for information processing

Stimulus location

Communicated by the receptive field of the sensory receptor sending the signal

Para-medical care

Community centers and agencies can provide para-medical care, such as patient education, in-home care work, and public health outreach

Within-subjects design

Compare the same group at different time points

What are the 3 ways that behaviors may be motivated by social influences?

Compliance, identification, and internalization

Compliance

Compliant behavior is motivated by the desire to seek reward or to avoid punishment

Basal nuclei

Composed of gray matter and are located deep within the cerebral hemispheres

Economics

Concerned with the production, distribution, and consumption of resources, both goods and services. Most economic structures fit into one of four categories: command, market, mixed, or traditional

Divided attention

Concerns when and if we are able to perform multiple tasks simultaneously

Reciprocal inhibition

Concurrent relaxation of the hamstring and contraction of the quadriceps is an example of reciprocal inhibition

Mary Ainsworth

Conducted a series of experiments called the "strange situation experiments," where mothers would leave their infants in an unfamiliar environment to see how the infants would react. These studies suggested that attachment styles vary among infants.

Albert Bandura

Conducted a series of experiments using a Bobo doll. The children tended to imitate the behavior they saw. Supports that humans are prone to imitation and modeling, and we are particularly likely to imitate those that we perceive as similar to ourselves, as successful, or as admirable in some way

How does conflict theory view society?

Conflict theory views society as a never-ending competition for limited resources, and at least in some respects, conflict theory is diametrically opposed to the functionalist perspective.

Assimilate

Conforming experiences into our existing schemes

Associations

Connect the nodes in the organized network

Impression management or self-presentation

Conscious or unconscious process whereby people attempt to manage their own images by influencing the perceptions of others

Latent functions

Consequences of a structure that are not officially sought or sanctioned. Latent functions can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful.

Traditional economies

Consider social customs in economic decisions; this practice is most common in rural areas and often involves battering and trading

Republican governments

Consider their countries to be public concerns and are thus democratic in nature, meaning that the people have the supreme power in these societies

George Herbert Mead

Considered the most important in the initial development of symbolic interactionism

Achieved status

Considered to be due largely to the individual's efforts

Traits

Considered to be internal, stable, and enduring aspects of personality that should be consistent across most situations

The person-situation controversy, also known as the trait versus state controversy

Considers the degree to which a person's reaction in a given situation is due to their personality (trait) or is due to the situation itself (state)

Democratic governments

Consist of elected leaders; the public has some degree of political decision-making power through either direct decisions or representation. Democracies include direct democracies, governments in which there is direct public participation, and representative democracies, in which there is indirect public participation through the election of representatives.

Authoritarian governments

Consist of unelected leaders; the public might have some individual freedoms but have no control over representation. Authoritarian governments include totalitarian, those in which unelected leaders regulate both public and private life through coercive means of control

What 3 factors influence whether we attribute behavior to internal or external causes?

Consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus

Personal identity

Consists of one's own sense of personal attributes, such as smart and funny

Social identity

Consists of social definitions of who you are; these can include race, religion, gender, occupation, and such

High culture

Consumption of the elite, like ballet or opera

Triad

Contains 3 members

Continuous reinforcement

Continuous reinforcement will result in rapid behavior acquisition, but will also result in rapid extinction when the reinforcement ceases

Monarchic governments

Controlled by a single person, or a selective small group, who inherited their leadership role, like kings and queens. There are both absolute and constitutional monarchies, in which leaders are limited through formal constitutions

Aristarchic governments

Controlled by a small group of people, selected based on specific qualifications, with decision-making power; the public is not involved in most political decisions. Aristarchies include aristocracies, ruled by elite citizens, and meritocracies, those with a record of meaningful social contributions.

Hypothalamus

Controls the physiological aspects of emotion, such as sweating and a racing heart

Kohlberg Level 2 of 3

Conventional level of moral reasoning: morality judged by comparing actions to society's views and expectations, acceptance of conventional definitions of "right" and "wrong." Typical of adolescents and adults.

Illusory correlation

Created between a group of people and a characteristic based on unique cases

Herd behavior

Crowds are thought to be emotional; often, in the context of the crowds, there is a non-permanent loss of rational thought and the crowd influences individual behaviors, sometimes referred to as herd behavior

Ethnicity

Cultural rather than biological

Cross-sectional study

Data collection or survey of a population or sample at a specific time

Experimental protocol should also include what?

Debriefing. In which participants are told after the experiment exactly what was done and why the experiment was conducted.

Adaptation

Decrease in firing frequency when the intensity of a stimulus remains constant

Publics

Defined as a group of individuals discussing a single issue, which conflicts with the common usage of the term. This form of collective behavior begins as the discussion begins and ceases as the discussion ceases and there can exist various publics to reflect various discussions. People in public share ideas.

Crowds

Defined as a group that shares a purpose

Consciousness

Defined as the awareness that we have of ourselves, our internal states, and the environment

Inclusive fitness

Defined by the number of offspring the organism has, how it supports its offspring, and how it's offspring support others in a group

Functional imaging

Demonstrate which parts of the brain are active, and to what extent, as experimental participants manifest a behavior

Organ of Corti

Dendrites from bipolar auditory afferent neurons are stimulated by hair cells, and tectorial membrane together are known as organ of Corti. The outer ear and middle ear convey sound waves to the cochlea, and the organ of Corti in the cochlea is the primary site at which auditory stimuli are detected.

Stage 2 sleep

Denoted by a change to two distinct wave patterns on the EEG. Although a person still experiences theta waves, these waves are intermixed with these two patterns: K-complexes and sleep spindles.

Barbiturates and alcohol

Depress the sympathetic nervous system "fight or flight" activity. Barbiturates are often prescribed as sleep aids. They are dangerous in combination with alcohol and prone to overdose-too much of a depressive effect can actually shut down life-sustaining organs.

Depressive Disorders

Depressive Disorders are characterized by a disturbance in mood or affect. Specific symptoms include difficulties in sleep, concentration, and/or appetite; fatigue; and inability to experience pleasure (anhedonia) Specific psychological disorders: -Major Depressive Disorder -Persistent Depressive Disorder (dysthymia) -Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder

Binocular cues

Depth cues that depend on information received from both eyes and are most important for perceiving depth when objects are close to us in our visual field

Monocular cues

Depth cues that depend on information that is available to either eye alone and are important for judging distances of objects that are far from us since the retinal disparity is only slight

Opiates

Derivatives of opium; depress neural functioning. They temporarily reduce pain by mimicking the brain's own pain relievers, neurotransmitters known as endorphins; pain is replaced with a blissful feeling. With prolonged use, the brain may stop producing endorphins, leading to a painful withdrawal from the drug.

Retinal

Derived from vitamin A

Primary care

Described the care provider responsible for ongoing preventative care or disease management, or community-based care, like an urgent care

Mood

Describes a baseline of weeks or months; mood is a person's sustained internal emotion that colors his or her view of life

Caste system

Describes a closed stratification where people can do nothing to change the category that they are born into

Associative learning

Describes a process of learning in which one event, object, or action is directly connected with another. Classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

Depth perception

Describes the ability to see objects in 3 dimensions despite the fact that images are imposed on the retina in only 2 dimensions

Intragenerational mobility

Describes the differences in social class between different members of the same generation

Foraging behavior

Describes the search for and exploitation of food resources by animals

Olfactory receptors

Detect airborne chemicals and allow us to smell things

Social behaviorism

Developed by George Herbert Mead; the mind and self emerge through the process of communicating with others

Hinduism

Developed in India and is a polytheistic religion practiced by about 14% of the world's population

Developed regions birth and death rates

Developed regions tend to have lower birth rates and death rates

Tribes

Development of small sub-ethnic groups

Premenstrual dysphoric disorder

Diagnosed only in woman, many of the symptoms of a major depressive episode are present, with the caveat that they intensify in the final week before the onset of menses and then improve and in many cases disappear in the week after menstruation has ended

Schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders

Diagnosed when someone has been experiencing one or more of the following positive symptoms: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking, disorganized or abnormal motor behaviors, and/or more negative symptoms, such as decreased emotional expression, abolition, and/or alogia (decreased or absent speech)

Schizophrenia

Diagnosed when someone has been experiencing positive and sometimes negative symptoms for longer than 6 months

Mass hysteria

Diagnostic label that refers to the collective delusion of some threat that spreads through emotions and escalates until it spirals out of control

Illness Anxiety Disorder

Differs from somatic symptom disorder in so far as the somatic aspect of the illness is not as central or can even be nonexistent

Biological influences

Disability, genetics, evolution, brain chemistry, and brain structure

Reverse discrimination

Discriminating against the majority

Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders

Disorders in this category are distinct from anxiety disorders in that they involve a pattern of obsessive thoughts or urges that are coupled with maladaptive behavioral compulsions; the compulsions are experienced as a necessary/urgent response to the obsessive thoughts/urges, creating rigid, anxiety-filled routines Specific psychological disorders: -Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder -Body Dysmorphic Disorder -Hoarding Disorder

Dissociative disorder

Disruptions in awareness, memory, and identity are extreme and/or frequent, and they cause distress or impair the person's functioning

Dissociative Disorders

Dissociative Disorders are characterized by disruptions in memory, awareness, identity, or perception. Many dissociative orders are thought to be caused by psychological trauma. Specific psychological disorders: -Dissociative Identity Disorder -Dissociative Amnesia -Depersonalization/Derealization Disorder

Loudness of sound

Distinguished by the amplitude of vibration, larger vibrations cause more frequent action potentials in auditory neurons

Economic interdependence

Division of labor on a global scale, countries might have the demand for products without the internal means of production

What does predictive validity do?

Does the test tell us about the variable of interest?

What is one of the causes for an intellectual disability?

Down Syndrome (trisomy 21): third copy of chromosome 21

If it's both biological and a sociocultural influence...

Drug use

Marginal poverty

Due to a lack of stable employment

Structural poverty

Due to underlying and pervasive effects of the society's institutions

Migration in seventeenth and eighteenth centuries

During this period, English colonists migrated to the U.S. Indentured servants also migrated through this process, accounting for more than half of all immigrants from Europe during the period

Migration of the late twentieth century to the present

During this period, the majority of migrants have been from Asia and Latin America

Migration in mid-nineteenth century

During this period, the most migrants came from Northern Europe

Migration of the early twentieth century

During this period, the most migrants came from southern and Eastern Europe

Stage 1 sleep

During this stage, the EEG is dominated by theta waves of low to moderate intensity and intermediate frequency

Spatial summation

EPSPs and IPSPs from all of the synapses on the postsynaptic membrane are summed at a given moment in time

Nernst equation

Ecell= E°cell - (RT/nF) (lnQ)

Market economies

Economic decisions are based on the market, "supply and demand," and the means of production are often private; these include laissez-faire and free market economies

Socialism

Economic system where resources and production are collectively owned. Private property is limited and government intervene to share property amongst all

Edward Thorndike

Edward Thorndike first proposed the idea of social intelligence in the 1920s, defined as the ability to manage and understand people

Action potentials

Electrochemical impulses. The action potential is a localized area of depolarization of the plasma membrane that travels in a wave-like manner along an axon.

Temperament

Emotional excitability: infants who are considered "difficult" have a temperament that is more irritable and unpredictable, while infants who are considered "easy" have a more placid, quieted and easygoing temperament

How did Erik Erikson extend Freud's theory of developmental stages?

Erickson added social and interpersonal factors, to supplement Freud's focus on unconscious conflicts within a person. And Erickson delineated 8 developmental stages and conflicts in adolescence and adulthood, to supplement Freud's focus on early childhood.

Dramaturgical approach

Erving Gorman, a prominent proponent of symbolic interaction, developed this philosophy to view people as theatrical performers and everyday life as a stage.

Social comparison

Evaluating our opinions by comparing them to those of others

While symbolic interactionists focus almost exclusively on one-on-one and small group interactions, social constructionists...

Examine the constructs of society from both macros and micro-sociological perspectives

Excitatory neurotransmitters cause postsynaptic depolarization called...

Exciters postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs)

Biographical studies

Exhaustive accounts of an individual's life experience

Social roles

Expectations for people of a given social status

Rationalization

Explaining and intellectually justifying one's impulsive behavior

Cognitive dissonance theory

Explains that we feel tension (dissonance) whenever we hold 2 thoughts or beliefs (cognitions) that are incompatible, or when attitudes and behaviors don't match

Elaboration likelihood model

Explains when people will be influenced by the content of the speech (or the logic of the argument), and when people will be influenced by other, more superficial characteristics like the appearance of the orator or the length of the speech

Feature-detection theory

Explains why a certain area of the brain is activated when looking at a face, a different area is activated when looking at the letters on this page, etc.

Correlational studies

Explore the relationship between 2 quantitative variables. The most commonly used type of correlation is the Pearson Correlation.

Reaction formation

Expressing the opposite of what one really feels, when it would feel too dangerous to express the real feeling

Incentives

External stimuli, objects, and events in the environment that either help induce or discourage certain behaviors

Hypervigilance

Extreme alertness

What are the five global factors? (Source traits)

Extroversion, anxiety, receptivity, accommodation, and self-control

Type 1 error (false positive)

Falsely suppose the veracity of a result that does not actually exist

If it's both a sociocultural and psychological influence...

Family dynamics and trauma

What are the six agents of socialization?

Family, school, peer groups, workplace, religion/government, and mass media/technology

B.F. Skinner

Famous for the "Skinner Box" to demonstrate operant conditioning in low level animals. On repeated trials, the rat would quickly push the lever to end the painful shock.

Hyperopia

Farsightedness, results from the focusing of light behind the retina. Hyperopia can be corrected by a convex (converging) lens, which causes light rays to converge before reaching the cornea.

Feeding and Eating Disorders

Feeding and eating disorders are characterized by abnormal eating disorders such as severe underrating (anorexia nervosa) and purging to maintain unhealthy weight (bulimia nervosa) Specific psychological disorders: -Anorexia Nervosa -Bulimia Nervosa -Pica -Binge Eating Disorder

Feminist sociologists

Feminist sociologists strive to understand both the social structures that contribute to gender differences and the effects of gender differences on individual interactions

Sympathetic

Fight or flight, mobilize energy Location of preganglionic soma: thoracolumbar=thoracic and lumbar spinal cord Preganglionic axon: short Ganglia: close to cord, far from target Postganglionic axon: long (norepinephrine [NE])

Integrity versus despair

Finally, in later life, a person must resolve the crisis of integrity versus despair, Erikson's eighth and final stage. If a person looks back with regrets and a lack of personal worth at this stage, he or she may feel hopeless, guilty, resentful, and self-rejecting.

Situational phobias

Flying, electors, bridges, crowds

Information-processing models

Focus on what happens between the ears. These models assume that information is taken in from the environment and processed through a series of steps including attention, perception, and storage into memory.

Humanistic theory

Focuses on healthy personality development. According to this theory, humans are seen as inherently good and as having free will, rather than having their behaviors determined by their early relationships.

Habituation

Follows a very similar process to habit. A person learns to "tune out" the stimulus.

Hypomanic episode

For at least 4 days, a person has experienced an abnormally euphoric or irritable mood, with at least 3 of the symptoms for a manic episode, but at a less severe level

Denial

Forceful refusal to acknowledge an emotionally painful memory

Political parties

Formal groups of people that share the same principles through appropriate policies

Immigration controls

Formal policies that define and regulate who has the right to settle in an area

Carl Rogers

Founder of humanistic psychology; came up with the ideal self and the real self

Francis Galton

Francis Galton first proposed a theory of general intelligence in the mid 1800s. Galton believed intelligence had a strong biological basis and could be quantified by testing certain cognitive tasks.

Manifest content

Freud believed that the plot lines of dreams, or manifest content, were symbolic versions of underlying latent content

Stranger anxiety

From about 8-12 months of age, young children display stranger anxiety, crying and clinging to caregiver, anytime around new faces

Sensorimotor Stage (Piaget)

From birth to roughly age 2. Babies and young infants experience the world through their senses and movement, such as looking, touching, mouthing, and grasping. They learn object permanence-the understanding that things continue to exist when they are out of sight. They also demonstrate stranger anxiety: distress when confronted with an unfamiliar person.

Traditional authority

From custom, tradition, or accepted practice

Corpus callosum

Function: connection -connects the left and right cerebral hemispheres

Limbic system

Function: emotion, memory, and learning -controls emotional states -links conscious and unconscious portions of the brain -helps with memory storage and retrieval

Midbrain

Function: eye movement -integration of visual and auditory information -visual and auditory reflexes -wakefulness and consciousness -coordinated information on posture and muscle tone

Hypothalamus

Function: homeostasis and behavior -controls homeostatic functions, like temperature regulation, fluid balance, appetite, through both neural and normal regulation -controls primitive emotions such as anger, rage, and sex drive -controls the pituitary gland

Thalamus

Function: integrating center and relay station -relay center for somatic (conscious) sensation -relays information between the spinal cord and the cerebral cortex

Medulla

Function: involuntary functions -controls autonomic processes such as blood pressure, blood flow, heart rate, respiratory rate, swallowing, and vomiting -controls reflex reactions such as coughing or sneezing -relays sensory information to the cerebellum and the thalamus

Basal nuclei

Function: movement -regulate body movement and muscle tone -coordination of learned movement patterns -general pattern of rhythm movements, such as controlling the cycle of arm and leg movements when walking -subconscious adjustments of conscious movements

Cerebellum

Function: movement coordination -integrating center -coordination of complex movement, balance and posture, muscle tone, and spatial equilibrium

Cerebral cortex

Function: perception, skeletal muscle movement, memory, attention, thought, language, and consciousness -divided into 4 lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital with specialized subfunctions -conscious thought processes and planning, awareness, and sensation -perception and processing of the special senses: vision, hearing, smell, taste, touch -intellectual function: intelligence, learning, reading, communication -abstract thought and reasoning -memory storage and retrieval -invitation and coordination of voluntary movement -complex motor patterns -language: speech production and understanding -personality

Pons

Function: relay station and balance -controls antigravity posture and balance -connects the spinal cord and medulla with upper regions of the brain -relays information to the cerebellum and thalamus

Spinal cord

Function: simple reflexes -controls simple stretch and tendon reflexes -controls primitive processes such as walking, urination, and sex organ function

Magnetonecephalography (MEG)

Functional neuroimaging technique for mapping brain activity that records the magnetic fields produced by the brain's electrical currents. MEG uses very sensitive magnetometers, typically using an array of SQUIDs.

Macro-level sociological theories

Functionalism and conflict theory

What are the four major sociological theories that explain society?

Functionalism, conflict theory, symbolic interactionism, and social constructionism

What are some of the other neurotransmitters?

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine

McDonaldization

George Ritzer describes the rationalization of fast food production as McDonaldization. This process has 4 components that reflect the principles of bureaucracy: efficiency, calculability (assessing performance through quantity and/or speed of output), predictability, and control (automating work where possible in order to make results more predictable)

Digestive system

Glands, motility, sphincters Parasympathetic (rest and digest): glands stimulate, motility stimulates, sphincters relax Sympathetic (fight or flight): glands inhibit, motility inhibits, sphincters contact

What does the cortex of the adrenal gland secrete?

Glucocorticoids (e.g. cortisol), mineralocorticoids (the main one if aldosterone), and some sex hormones

Group polarization

Groups tend to intensify the preexisting views of their members-the average view of a member of the group is accentuated

Hans Eysenck

Hans Eysenck proposed that a person's level of extroversion is based on individual differences in the reticular formation, which mediates arousal and consciousness

Proactive interference

Happens when information previously learned interferes with the ability to recall information learned later

Retroactive interference

Happens when newly learned information interferes with the recall of information learned previously

Role conflict

Happens when there is a conflict in society's expectations for multiple statuses held by the same person

Projection bias

Happens when we assume others have the same beliefs we do. Since people have a tendency to look for similarities between themselves and others, they often assume them even when this is unfounded

What are the 6 major universal emotions?

Happiness, sadness, surprise, fear, disgust, and anger

Neuritic plaques

Hard formations of beta-amyloid protein and neurofibrillary tangles. This is what causes Alzheimer's Disease.

Addiction

Has a strong biological basis. Stimulates the release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens.

Preganglionic neuron

Has its cell body in the brainstem or spinal cord. It sends an axon to an autonomic ganglion, located outside the spinal column.

Mirror neurons

Have been identified in various parts of the human brain, including the pre motor cortex, supplementary motor area, primary somatosensory cortex, and the inferior parietal cortex. Some postulate that mirror neurons help us understand the actions of others and help us learn through imitation.

Biopsychosocial model of psychological disorders

Have biological influences, sociocultural influences, and psychological influences

Thyroid hormone and cortisol

Have broad effects on metabolism and energy usage. Thyroid hormone is produced from the amino acid tyrosine in the thyroid gland and comes in 2 forms, with three or four iodine atoms per molecule.

Alpha waves

Have low amplitudes and high frequencies. These waves are the first indicator that a person is ready to drift off to sleep: the body relaxes; the person feels drowsy and closes his or her eyes

What did Durkheim propose?

He proposed the existence of a "collective conscience." Collective conscience is his name for how people of a shared culture come to think in the same manner due to their shared beliefs, ideas, and moral attitudes, all which operate to unify society.

Cardiovascular system

Heart rate and contractility: blood flow to skeletal muscle Parasympathetic (rest and digest): decreased heart rate Sympathetic (fight or flight): increased heart rate and increased blood flow to skeletal muscle

Nigrostriatal circuit

Heavily involved in movement and coordination

Executive functions

Higher order thinking processes such as planning, organizing, inhibiting behavior, and decision-making

Status

Higher-status people have stronger influence on opinions

B.F. Skinner's Behaviorist model of language acquisition

Holds that infants are trained in language by operant conditioning. Skinner argued that language use, though complex, is a form of behavior like any other, and so it is as subject to conditioning as a rat pulling a lever to receive a food pellet.

We need a control group that is...

Homogenous and as similar as possible to the experimental group except for the variable of interest-the treatment

What is the signs of the endocrine system and that is defined as a molecule which is secreted into the bloodstream by an endocrine gland?

Hormone

Tropic hormones

Hormones that stimulate other glands to release their hormones

Appraisal

How a stressful event is interpreted by the individual

Howard Gardner

Howard Gardner put forth a theory on multiple intelligences, which breaks intelligence down into 7 different modalities: logical, linguistic, spatial, musical, kinesthetic, naturalist, intrapersonal, and interpersonal intelligences.

Peptides

Hydrophilic, large (polypeptides) or small (amino acid derivatives) Site of synthesis: rough ER Regulation of release: stored in vesicles until a signal for secretion is received Transport in bloodstream: free Specificity: only target cells have appropriate surface receptors (exception: thyroxine=cytoplasmic) Mechanism of effect: bind to receptors that generate second messengers which result in modification of enzyme activity Timing of effect: rapid, short-lived

Steroids

Hydrophobic, small Site of synthesis: smooth ER Regulation of release: synthesized only when needed and then used immediately, not stored Transport in bloodstream: stuck to protein carrier Specificity: only target cells have appropriate cytoplasmic receptors Mechanism of effect: bind to receptors that alter gene expression by regulating DNA transcription Timing of effect: slow, long-lasting

Psychic energy is distributed among what 3 personality components that function together?

Id, ego, and superego

Identification

Identification behavior is motivated by the desire to be like another person or group

Excitatory

If a neurotransmitter, such as acetylcholine, opens a channel that depolarizes the postsynaptic membrane, the neurotransmitter is termed excitatory

Sampling bias

If it is not equally likely for all members of a population to be sampled

Bilateral descent

If kin groups involve both the maternal and paternal relations

Relative size

If objects are assumed to be the same size, the one that casts the smaller image on the retina appears more distant

Interposition

If one object blocks the view of another, we perceive it as closer

Psychologically fixated

If parents either frustrate or overindulge the child's expression of sensual pleasure at a certain stage so that the child does not resolve that stage's developmental conflicts, the child becomes psychologically fixated at that stage, and will, as an adult, continue to seek sensual pleasure through behaviors related to that stage.

Mixed methods research

If researchers were to use both between-subjects and within-subjects techniques and make comparisons between them

Significant difference probability

If the probability of an observed difference is found to be 5% (0.05) or less, this constitutes a significant difference

Unattended channel

Ignoring input to the other ear

Method of loci

Imagining moving through a familiar place, such as your home, and in each place, leaving a visual representation of a topic to be remembered

1. Trust versus mistrust

In Erikson's first stage, the infant's task is to resolve the crisis of trust versus mistrust. If an infant's physical and emotional needs are not met, as an adult he or she may mistrust the world and interpersonal relationships.

Industry versus inferiority

In Erikson's fourth stage, the school-age child must resolve the crisis of industry versus inferiority. If a child's needs to understand the world, develop a gender-role identity, succeed in school, and set and attain personal goals are not met at this stage, as an adult he or she may feel inadequate.

Behaviorism

In behaviorism, all psychological phenomena are explained by describing the observable events of behaviors and their consequences

Escape

In escape, an individual learns how to get away from an aversive stimulus by engaging in a particular behavior

Informational influence

In group discussion, the most common ideas to emerge are the ones that favor the dominant viewpoint

Actualizing tendency

In humanistic theory, the most basic motivate of all people is the actualizing tendency, which is an innate drive to maintain and enhance the organism

Moro (startle) reflex

In response to a loud sound or sudden movement, an infant will startle; the baby throws back its head and extends its arms and legs, cries, then pulls the arms and legs back in. This reflex is present at birth and lasts for about 6 months.

Tonic neck reflex

In response to its head being turned to one side, the baby will stretch out its arm on the same side and the opposite arm bends up at the elbow. This reflex lasts about 6 to 7 months.

Palmar grasp reflex

In response to stroking the baby's palm, the baby's hand will grasp. This reflex lasts a few months.

Babinski reflex

In response to the sole of the foot being stroked, the baby's big toe moves upward or toward the top surface of the foot and the other toes fan out

Walking/stepping reflex

In response to the soles of a baby's feet touching a flat surface, they will attempt to "walk" by placing one foot in front of the other. This reflex disappears at around 6 weeks and reappears at around 8-12 months when a baby learns to walk.

Rooting reflex

In response to touching or stroking one of the baby's cheeks, the baby will turn its head in the direction of the stroke and open its mouth to "root" for a nipple

Phobias

In specific and social phobias, the sufferer feels a strong fear that he or she recognizes as unreasonable

Lens

In the back part of the posterior chamber is the lens. Its role is to fine-tune the angle of incoming light, so that the beams are perfectly focused upon the retina.

Macula

In the center of the macula is the fovea centralis (focal point) which contains only cones and is responsible for extreme visual acuity

Capitalism

In the economic system of capitalism, which encourages competition and private ownership, the burgeoisie, or ruling class, owns the means of production, while the proletariat, or working class, provides labor.

Muscle stretch reflex

In the muscle stretch reflex, a sensory neuron defects stretching of a muscle. The sensory neuron has a long dendrite and a long axon, which transmits an impulse to a motor neuron cell body in the spinal cord. The motor neuron's long axon synapses with the muscle that was stretched and causes it to contract.

Chemical synapses

In the nervous system, chemical synapses are found at the ends of axons where they meet their target cell; an action potential is converted into a chemical signal here

Autonomy versus shame and doubt

In the second stage, the toddler must resolve the crisis of autonomy versus shame and doubt. If a toddler's need to explore, make mistakes, and test limits is not met, as an adult he or she may be dependent rather than autonomous.

Generativity versus stagnation

In the seventh stage, which occurs in middle age, a person must resolve the crisis of generativity versus stagnation. If a person does not at this stage feel productive by helping the next generation and resolving differences between actual accomplishments and earlier dreams, he or she may become stuck in psychological stagnation.

Initiative versus guilt

In the third stage, the preschool-age child must resolve the crisis of initiative versus guilt. If a young child's need to make decisions is not met at this stage, as an adult he or she may feel guilty taking initiative and instead allow others to choose.

Population momentum

In which the children produced during periods of higher fertility rates reproduce; there are more women of reproductive age and thus more births overall, regardless of the number of births per women

Absolute poverty

Inability to meet a bare minimum of basic necessities, including clean drinking water, food, safe housing, and reliable access to healthcare

Relative poverty

Inability to meet the average standard of living within a society

False memories

Inaccurate recollections of an event and may be the result of the implanting of ideas

Kohlberg's stages of moral development

Include 6 identifiable developmental stages of moral reasoning, which form the basis of ethical behavior. Kohlberg's stages are grouped into 3 levels with 2 stages each. According to Kohlberg, stages cannot be skipped. Each stage provides a new and necessary moral perspective, and the understanding from each stage is retained and integrated at later stages. Interestingly, most adults attain but do not surpass the fourth stage, in which morality is dictated by outside forces.

Federalist governments

Include a governing representative head that shares power with constituent groups. There is a division between the central government, or the federal government, and the constituent governments, or the state, provincial, and local governments

Depressants

Include alcohol, barbiturates (tranquilizers), and opiates. They work by depressing, or slowing down, neural activity.

Parliamentary governments

Include both executive and legislative branches that are interconnected; members of the executive branch are accountable to members of the legislature

Stimulants

Include caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, and amphetamines ("speed"). They typically work by either increasing the release of neurotransmitters, reducing the reuptake of neurotransmitters, or both. Their overall effect is to speed up body functions, resulting in increased energy, respiratory rate, heart rate, and pupil dilation.

Presidential governments

Include organizing branches, as well as head of state

Secondary care

Includes acute care, like the emergency department, as well as, specialized form of healthcare

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Includes all other axons, dendrites, and cell bodies

Dual coding hypothesis

Indicates that it is easier to remember words with associated images than either words or images alone

Sub-replacement fertility

Indicates that the birth rate is less than the death rate, thus the population size will not be sustained

Weber's Law

Indicates that two stimuli must differ by a constant proportion in order for their difference to be perceptible

Nodes

Individual ideas that are stored in long-term memory in an organized network

Self-fulfilling prophecies

Individuals might internalize labels and redefine their concept of the self. Because of the societal preoccupation with labels, the individual might begin to exhibit more deviant behaviors to fulfill the expectations associated with specific ascribed labels.

Intellectual disability

Individuals who not only have a score of 70 on the intelligence test, but also that have difficulty adapting to everyday demands of life

Long-term memory

Information that is retained sometimes indefinitely; it is believed to have an infinite capacity

Depth of processing

Information that is thought about at a deeper level is better remembered. It's easier to remember the general plot of a book than exact words.

What is internal validity?

Inherent flaw in the design of the experiment

Inhibitory neurotransmitters cause what?

Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs)

Frontal lobes

Initiate all voluntary movement and are involved in complex reasoning skills and problem solving

Blood-injection-injury phobias

Injections, blood, surgical procedures

Medulla

Inner portion of adrenal gland

Broadbent Filter Model of Selective Attention

Inputs from the environment first enter a sensory buffer. One of these inputs is then selected and filtered based on physical characteristics of the input. This theoretical filter is designed to keep us from becoming overload and overwhelmed with information. Other sensory information stays in the sensory buffer briefly, but then quickly decays. At this point in the process, the information is still raw data that has just been filtered-it has not yet been transformed. Next step, information enters short-term memory storage system.

Insecurely attached infants

Insecurely attached infants in the presence of their mother are less likely to explore their surroundings and may even cling to their mother; when the mother leaves they will either cry loudly and remain upset or will demonstrate indifference to her departure and return

Myelin

Insulating sheath that speeds the transmission of impulses along an axon

Flashbulb memories

Intense, vivid "snapshots" or an emotionally intense experience

Internalization

Internalized behavior is motivated by values and beliefs that have been integrated into one's own value system

Kohlberg Stage 3 of 6

Interpersonal accord and conformity: Individuals focus on the approval and disapproval of others, and try to be "good" by living up to expectations, "What will make others like me?"

Intersectionality

Intersectionality posits that various human aspects subject to societal oppression do not exist isolated and separated from each other, but instead have complex, influential, and interwoven relationships

What is the correlation between a nation's crude death rate and its gross domestic product (GDP)?

Inverse correlation

Case studies

Involve in-depth exploration of one individual or case

Stanley Milgram's study of obedience

Involved fake shocks. The participants in this study believed that they were in control of experiment that delivered shocks to a student who was attempting to pass a memory test. The participants mostly obeyed due to higher authority even though they heard the pain the experiment was causing the fake "experimenter."

Parietal lobes

Involved in general sensations and in gustation. The parietal lobes receive input from mechanoreceptors and proprioceptors.

Mesocortical circuit

Involved in higher cortical functions, thought, planning, and emotional regulation

Nonverbal communication

Involves all of the methods for communication that we use that do not include words

Explicit or declarative memory

Involves being able to "declare" or voice what is known. Like reading a book on how to play basketball and then knowing in great detail the necessary steps.

Recognition

Involves identifying specific information from a set of information that is presented

Internal migration

Involves migration to another region of the same nation

Colonization

Involves migration to settled areas in which dominance is exerted over the foreign state

Conduction aphasia

Involves poor speech repetition despite intact comprehension and fluent speech

Recall and recognition

Involves retrieving information from memory without any clues, while recognition involves retrieving information from memory with clues

Cued recall

Involves retrieving the information when provided with a cue

Free recall

Involves retrieving the item "out of thin air"

Positive punishment

Involves the application, or pairing, of an undesirable stimulus with the behavior

Negative punishment

Involves the removal of a desirable stimulus after the behavior has occurred

The annual number of births per 1,000 women in a population

Involves the same experience as culture chock, but upon an individual's return to their initial environment

Social perception

Involves the understanding of others in our social world; it is the initial information we process about other people in order to try to understand their mindsets and intentions

Dorsal root ganglion

Is a bunch of somatic sensory neuron cell bodies located just dorsal to the spinal cord

Functionalism

Is a paradigm that conceptualizes society as a living organism with many different interrelated and interdependent parts, each of which has a distinct and necessary purpose. Functionalism can be traced back to Herbert Spencer.

Vagus nerve

Is an important example of a cranial nerve. The effects of this nerve upon the heart and GI tract are to decrease the heart rate and increase GI activity; as such it is part of the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system. It is a bundle of axons that end in ganglia on the surface of the heart, stomached and other visceral organs.

Normative influence

Is based on social desirability-wanting to be accepted or admired by others

Ideal self

Is constructed out of your life experiences, societal expectations, and the things you admire about role models. The ideal self is the person you "ought to be."

Bipolar I disorder

Is diagnosed only if there has been a spontaneous manic episode not triggered by treatment for depression or caused by another medical condition or medication

Observational learning, also known as social learning or vicarious learning

Is learning through watching and imitating others

Cerebellum

Is located behind the pons and below the cerebral hemispheres. It is an integrating center where complex movements are coordinated. An instruction for movement from the forebrain must be sent to the cerebellum, where the billions of decisions necessary for smooth execution of the movement are made. Damage to the cerebellum results in poor hand-eye coordination and balance. Both the cerebellum and the pons receive information from the vestibular apparatus in the inner ear, which monitors acceleration and position relative to gravity.

Correlation

Is not causation

Reticular activating system (RAS)

Is responsible for arousal or wakefulness

Attribution theory

Is rooted in social psychology and attempts to explain how individuals view behavior, both our new behavior and the behavior of others. Given a set of circumstances, individuals attribute behavior to internal causes, dispositional attribution, or external causes, situational attribution.

Evolutionary game theory

Is used to try and predict large, complex systems, such as the overall behavior of a population

What else does social constructionism do?

It analyzes the effects of mass media and contends that mass media corporations have become the main mechanisms by which our social institutions transmit culture to preserve power and authority

Selection bias

It can compromise results. Selection bias is purposely selecting which studies to evaluate in a meta-analysis: a big-picture analysis of many studies to look for trends in the data

Cocktail party effect

It happens when information of personal importance from previously unattended channels catches our attention

Vicarious emotions

It has been proposed that mirror neurons in humans are responsible for vicarious emotions, such as empathy, and that a problem in the mirror neuron system might underlie disorders such as autism

Type 2 error (false negative)

It is better to incorrectly conclude that there is no effect than to falsely suppose the veracity of a result that does not actually exist

Self-reference effect

It is easier to remember things that are personally relevant

Primary effect and the recency effect

It is hypothesized that first items are more easily recalled because they have had the most time to be encoded and transferred to long-term memory. Last items may be more easily recalled because they may still be in the phonological loop, and thus may be readily available.

Maintain

It is possible to initially condition a behavior using a continuous reinforcement schedule, and then maintain that behavior using an intermittent reinforcement schedule

Difference threshold

JND, is the minimum noticeable difference between any two sensory stimuli, 50% of the time

Jeffrey Alan Gray

Jeffrey Alan Gray proposed that personality is governed by interactions among 3 brain systems that respond to rewarding and punishing stimuli. Linked to "fight or flight" sympathetic nervous system.

Justification of effort

Just as people may modify their attitudes to match their language, they may also modify them to match their behaviors

Posterior chamber

Just behind the iris is the posterior chamber, also containing aqueous humor

Anterior chamber

Just inside the cornea is the anterior chamber (front chamber), which contains a fluid termed aqueous humor

Karl Marx

Karl Marx is closely identified with conflict theory and looked at the economic conflict between different social classes

Kinship

Kinship is considered a cultural group rather than a biological one

Repression

Lack of recall of an emotionally painful memory

Asexuality

Lack of sexual attraction

Organizations

Large, more impersonal groups that come together to pursue particular activities and meet goals efficiently

Secondary group

Larger and more impersonal, and may interact for specific reasons for shorter periods of time

Consolidation

Lasts for seconds to hours, and can potentially be converted into long-term memory through a process called consolidation

Rational-legal authority

Legal rules and regulations are stipulated in a document like the Constitution

Cornea

Light enters the eye by passing through the cornea, the clear portion at the front of the eye. Light is bent or refracted as it passes through the cornea, since the refractive index of the cornea is higher than that of air.

Vitreous chamber

Light passes through the vitreous chamber en route from the lens to the retina. This chamber contains a thick, jelly-like fluid called vitreous humor.

Self-actualization

Like a child learning to walk, a person will grow toward self-actualization, or realizing his or her human potential, as long as no obstacle intervenes

Short-term memory

Limited in duration and in capacity

Sucking reflex

Linked with the rooting reflex, in response to anything touching the roof of the baby's mouth, it will begin to suck

Prefrontal cortex

Located at the front of the brain, which controls approach and avoidance behaviors-the behavioral aspects of emotion

Pons

Located below the midbrain and above the medulla oblongata. It is the connection point between the brain stem and the cerebellum. The pons controls some autonomic functions and coordinated movement; it plays a role in balance and antigravity posture.

Medulla

Located below the pons and is the area of the brain that connects to the spinal cord. It functions in relaying information between other areas of the brain, and regulates vital autonomic functions such as blood pressure and digestive functions. Also, the respiratory rhythmicity centers are found here.

Lambic system

Located between the cerebrum and the diencephalon. It includes the amygdala, the cingulate gyrus, and the hippocampus and works closely with parts of the cerebrum, diencephalon, and midbrain. The limbic system is important in emotion and memory.

Broca's area

Located in the dominant hemisphere of the frontal lobe of the brain and is involved in the complicated process of speech production

Wernicke's area

Located in the posterior section of the temporal lobe in the dominant hemisphere of the brain (the left for most people), is involved in the comprehension of speech and written language

Vestibular hair cells

Located within special organs called semicircular canals, also found in the inner ear. Their role is to detect acceleration and position relative to gravity.

Explicit memory

Long-term memory to explicit memory to episodic memory and semantic memory

Implicit memory

Long-term memory to implicit memory to procedural memory

Life course perspective or life course approach

Looks at how key events in a person's life such as marriage, death, and the birth of children unfold over time and lead to a person's development

What are preventative checks?

Lower the birth rate, like abstinence, birth control, late marriage, and same-sex relationships

P-value relationship

Make sure you know what p-values represent, and that a lower value suggests a stronger relationship

Bipolar II disorder

Manic phases are less extreme, and excludes manic or mixed episodes, although it may include a hypomanic episode

Class consciousness

Marx defined class consciousness as exploited workers' awareness of the reasons for their oppression

Socialism

Marx termed this communism, in which all means of production are owned by all workers equally

Genocide

Mass execution with the intention of eliminating a specific social group

Material culture

Material culture involves physical objects or artifacts

Matrilineal descent

Maternal relations

Stimulus duration

May or may not be coded explicitly. Tonic receptors fire action potentials as long as the stimulus continues. Phasic receptors only fire action potentials when the stimulus begins, and do not explicitly communicate the duration of the stimulus.

Symbolic interactionism-George Herbert Mead

Mead believed that there is a specific path to development of the self. During the preparatory stage, children merely imitate others, as they have no concept of how others see things. In the play stage, children take on the roles of others through playing. During the game stage, children learn to consider multiple roles simultaneously, and can understand the responsibilities of multiple roles. Finally the child develops an understanding of the generalized other, the common behavioral expectations of general society. Mead also characterized the "me" and the "I."

What did George Herbert Mead propose?

Mead proposed the difference between the "I" and the "me." Mead thought there were two important components to identify: the individualistic self, which sought to establish its own unique identity through social interactions in the face of social pressures and expectations, and the social self, which internalized the characteristics of the social environment. The "I" represents the individualistic self. There is a connection with grammar and linguistics. I, as a subject pronoun, represents the part of the self that is the active agent, the part that acts on other people and things and has its own autonomy and will. On the other hand, the object pronoun "me" is used to represent the social self. This is when others are acting and interpreting our behavior and we are the object of their actions and interpretations.

Confederates

Meaning that they were part of the experiment

Mere presence

Means that people are simply in each other's presence, either completing similar activities or apparently minding their own business

Relatability

Means that they produce stable and consistent results, measure what they're supposed to, known as construct validity, and that repeated measurements lead to similar results, known as replicability

Case fatality rate

Measures deaths as the result of a set diagnosis or procedure, sometimes specific to the beginning or late stages

Prevalence rate

Measures the number of individuals experiencing a disease

Incidence rate

Measures the number of new cases of a disease

Semantic memory

Memory for factual information, such as the capital of England

Echoic memory

Memory for sound, which lasts for about 3-4 seconds

Patriarchy

Men have more authority than women

Schemas

Mental frameworks that shape and are shaped by our experience

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts

What are the 3 key elements that might have an impact on persuasiveness?

Message characteristics, source characteristics, and target characters

Persuasion attempt: Central route

Message is given-high motivation and ability to think about the message-deep processing, focused on the quality of the message arguments-lasting change that resists fading and counterattacks

Persuasion attempt: Peripheral route

Message is given-low motivation or ability to think about the message-superficial processing, focused on surface features such as the communicator's attractiveness or the number of arguments presented-temporary change that is susceptible to fading and counterattacks

Urban sprawl

Migration of people from urban areas to otherwise remote areas

White flight

Migration of whites from cities to more racially homogenous suburbs

Mimicry

Mimicking another organism to benefit themselves

REM rebound

Missing REM sleep for one night results in an increase in REM sleep later to make up for it, called REM rebound

Judaism

Monotheistic and formed the historical basis for Christianity and Islam

Retrograde amnesia

More recent memories degrading first, such that the last memories to fade are typically the oldest

Depressive disorder

More than active moodiness; it is a persistent pattern of abnormal and often painful mood symptoms severe enough to cause significant personal and/or impairment to social, occupational, or personal functioning

Negative feedback or feedback inhibition

Most feedback in the endocrine system is negative. The result of hormone secretion inhibits further secretion.

Normative organizations

Motivate membership based on morally relevant goals, for example, Mothers Against Dunk Driving (MADD)

Efferent neurons

Motor neurons, which carry information away from the central nervous system and innervate effectors, are called efferent neurons. Efferents go to effectors.

Biological perspective

Much of what we call personality is at least partly due to innate biological differences among people

Dependent variable

Must be equally well-defined and must also meet the criterion of being quantitative instead of qualitative

Mesolimbic circuit

Natural pathway for feelings of reward and pleasure

Myopia

Nearsightedness. Myopia can be corrected by a concave (diverging) lens, which will cause the light rays to diverge slightly before they reach the cornea.

Drive-Reduction Theory

Need (for example, for food, water) to drive (hunger, thirst) to drive-reducing behaviors (eating, drinking)

Neurocognitive Disorders

Neurocognitive Disorders are characterized by cognitive abnormalities or general decline in memory, problem-solving, and/or perception Specific psychological disorders: -Major and Mild Neurocognitive Disorders (MMND) -MMND Due to Alzheimer's Disease -MMND Due to Parkinson's Disease -Major or Mild Vascular Neurocognitive Disorder

Neurodevelopmental Disorders

Neurodevelopment Disorders are characterized by developmental deficits varying from specific learning impairments to global impairments of social skills or intelligence Specific psychological disorders: -Intellectual Disability -Attention-deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) -Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

Visual cortex

Neurons in the visual cortex fire in response to very specific information; feature-detecting neurons are specific neurons in the brain that fire in response to particular visual features, such as lines, edges, angles, and movement

Neuroendocrine cells

Neurons which secrete hormones into the bloodstream

Multipolar neurons

Neurons with many dendrites and one axon

Bipolar neurons

Neurons with one dendrite

Inhibitory

Neurotransmitters that induce hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane are termed inhibitory

Activation period

Neurotransmitters: extremely fast (a few milliseconds) Hormones: can be longer (a few seconds to a few days)

Targets cells

Neurotransmitters: neighboring neurons or cells Hormones: can be more distant cells throughout the body

Produced by

Neurotransmitters: neurons Hormones: endocrine glands

Area of operation

Neurotransmitters: synaptic cleft between neurons Hormones: bloodstream

Body temperature falls

Normal body temperature-body temp falls-internal response: vasoconstriction (conserves heat) and shivering (generates heat)-external response: curling in, snuggling, seeking warmth, adding layers-heat is retained-normal body temperature

Body temperature rises

Normal body temperature-body temp rises-internal response: vasodilation (heat loss) and sweating (heat loss as sweat evaporates)-external response: stretching out, seeking shade, shedding layers-heat is lost to the environment-normal body temperature

Emmetropia

Normal vision is termed emmetropia

Mores ("more-ays")

Norms that are highly important for the benefit of society and so are often strictly enforced. Like animal abuse.

Folkways

Norms that are less important but shape everyday behavior, like styles or dress and ways of greeting

Kohlberg Stage 1 of 6

Obedience and punishment orientation: Individuals focus on the direct consequences to themselves of their actions, "How can I avoid punishment?"

Vicarious

Observational, or vicarious, learning occurs when a person watches another person's behavior and its consequences, thereby learning the rules, strategies, and expected outcomes in different situations

Electrical synapses

Occur when the cytoplasms of two cells are joined by gap junctions

Avoidance

Occurs when a person performs a behavior to ensure an aversive stimulus is not presented

Desensitization

Occurs when a stimulus that previously evoked an exaggerated response no longer evokes an exaggerated response

Nonassociative learning

Occurs when an organism is repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus. Two important types of nonassociative learning are habituation and sensitization.

Urban blight

Occurs when less functioning areas of larger cities degrade as a result of urban decline

Amalgamation

Occurs when majority and minority groups combine to form a new group

Spreading activation

Occurs when one item brought into working memory triggers an activation of related memory

Serial position effect

Occurs when someone attempts to memorize a series, such as a list of words. In an immediate recall condition, the individual is more likely to recall the first and last items on the list

Top-down processing

Occurs when the brain applies experience and expectations to interpret sensory information

Extinction

Occurs when the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli are no longer paired, so the conditioned response eventually stops occurring

Malthusian Catastrophe

Occurs when the means of sustenance are not enough to support the population, resulting in population reduction through actual or predicted famine

Dishabituation

Occurs when the previously habituated stimulus is removed

Population aging

Occurs when there is a disproportionate amount of older people in a population

Intergenerational mobility

Occurs when there is an increase or decrease in social class between parents and children within a family

False consensus

Occurs when we assume that everyone else agrees with what we do, even though they may not

Long-term potentiation

Occurs when, following brief periods of stimulation, an increase in the synaptic strength between 2 neurons leads to stronger electrochemical responses to a given stimuli

Psychological dependence

Often associated with the use of a drug in response to painful emotions related to depression, anxiety, or trauma

Heteronormative beliefs

Often enforce strict gender roles and involve prejudice and discrimination against non-heterosexual individuals

Positive transfer

Old information facilitating the learning of new information through positive transfer

Nasopharynx (nasal cavity)

Olfaction is accomplished by olfactory receptors in the roof of the nasopharynx. The receptors detect airborne chemicals that dissolve in the mucus covering the nasal membrane.

Olfactory bulbs

Olfactory nerves project directly to the olfactory bulbs of the brain

No prior commitment

Once people have made public commitments, they tend to stick to them

What are the two main sociological concepts describe what illness can be like for a patient?

One concept, the sick role, describes society's response to illness. The second concept, illness experience, explains the patient's subjective experience of illness.

Persuasion

One method of attitude and behavior change

Jean Piaget

One of the first developmental psychologists who studied cognitive development in children; he argued against the prevailing belief that children were much like miniature adults in their thought processes and abilities

Taste-aversion

One powerful and very long-lasting association in most animals is taste-aversion caused by nausea and/or vomiting

Altruistic behavior

One that helps ensure the success or survival of the rest of a social group, possibly at the expense of the success or survival of the individual

Nuclear family

One way of conceptualizing family is to distinguish nuclear family, consisting of direct blood relations, and extended family, in which grandparents, aunts, uncles, and others are included

Self-esteem

One's overall self-evaluation of one's self-worth

Voltage-gated sodium channels

Open to allow sodium ions to flow down their gradient into the cell and depolarize that section of membrane

Reinforcement schedule

Operant conditioning relies on a reinforcement schedule

Blind spot

Optic disk is known as the blind spot because it contains no photoreceptors

Freud: 5 psychosexual stages

Oral stage, anal stage, phallic stage, latency stage, and genital stage

Operant conditioning

Organisms learn associations between behaviors and resulting consequences Response: voluntary Acquisition: associating response with consequence Extinction: response decreases without reinforcement Spontaneous recovery: reappearance, after a rest period of a response Generalization: response to a similar stimulus is also reinforced Discrimination: learning that certain responses, not others, will be reinforced

Classical conditioning

Organisms learn associations between stimuli that they don't control Response: involuntary, automatic Acquisition: associating 2 stimuli Extinction: conditioned response decreases as the conditioned stimulus is continually presented alone Spontaneous recovery: reappearance, after a rest period, of a response Generalization: response to a stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus Discrimination: ability to distinguish between conditioned stimulus and other stimuli

Non-governmental organizations (NGOs)

Organizations without an official government affiliation with the intention of contributing to the lessening of global issues

Cortex

Outer portion of adrenal gland

Schwann cells

PNS Form myelin-increase speed of conduction of APs along axon

Nociceptors

Pain receptors found everywhere in the body except the brain. Nociceptors may be somatic or autonomic. Autonomic pain receptors do not provide the conscious mind with clear pain information, but they frequently give a sensation of dull, aching pain. Nociceptors are the simplest type of sensory receptor, generally consisting of a free nerve ending that detects chemical signs of tissue damage.

Nociceptors

Pain receptors. They are stimulated by tissue injury.

Linear perspective

Parallel lines appear to converge as distance increases

Cluster A

Paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders associated with irrational, withdrawn, cold, or suspicious behaviors

Bronchial smooth muscle

Parasympathetic (rest and digest): constricts: closes airways Sympathetic (fight or flight): relaxes: opens airways

Genitals

Parasympathetic (rest and digest): erection/lubrication Sympathetic (fight or flight): ejaculation/orgasm

Shape

Parents shape the desired behavior by reinforcing the smaller intermediate behaviors necessary to achieve the final desired behavior

Attrition effects

Participant fatigue; participants drop out of study

Impression management

Participants adapt their responses based on social norms or perceived researcher expectations; self-fulfilling prophecy; methodology is not double-blind, Hawthorne Effect

Attrition

Participants dropping out of the study before it is completed

Cultural universals

Patterns or traits that are common to all people

Sociocultural influences

Peers, socioeconomic status, education, expectations, and roles

Incongruence

People choose behavior consistent with their self-concepts. If they encounter experiences in life that contradict their self-concepts, they feel uncomfortable incongruence

Mere exposure effect

People prefer repeated exposure to the same stimuli

Accountability

People tend to conform more when they must respond in front of others rather than in closed formats in which they cannot be held accountable for their opinions

Social facilitation effect

People tend to perform simple, well-learned tasks better when other people are present

Aggregate

People who exist in the same place but do not interact or share a common sense of identity make up an aggregate

Category

People who share similar characteristics but are not otherwise tied together would be considered a category

Wernicke's aphasia

People with Wernicke's aphasia do not have a problem producing speech, but are incapable of producing intelligible, meaningful language

External locus of control

Perceive outcomes as controlled by outside forces

Nodes of Ranvier

Periodic gaps in the myelin sheath

Personality Disorders

Personality Disorders are characterized by enduring maladaptive patterns of behavior and cognition that depart from social norms, present across a variety of contexts, and cause significant dysfunction and distress. These patterns permeate the broader personality of the person and typically solidify during late adolescence or early adulthood Specific psychological disorders: Cluster A: -Paranoid -Schizoid -Schizotypal Cluster B: -Antisocial -Borderline -Histrionic -Narcissistic Cluster C: -Avoidant -Dependent -Obsessive-compulsive

Behaviorist perspective

Personality is a result of learned behavior patterns based on a person's environment

Social cognitive perspective

Personality is formed by a reciprocal interaction among behavioral, cognitive, and environmental factors

Famous role-playing experiment

Philip Zimbardo's prison study at Stanford

What is the most important predictor of attraction?

Physical attractiveness

Homeostasis

Physiological consistency

Pitch (frequency)

Pitch of sound is distinguished by which regions of the basilar membrane vibrate, stimulating different auditory neurons

Primary groups

Play a more important role in an individual's life; these groups are usually smaller and include those with whom the individual engages with in person, in long-term, emotional ways

Endorphins

Pleasure, arousal, pain suppression

Noam Chomsky

Pointed out several major flaws with the application of behaviorism to language acquisition, and proposed an alternative to Skinner's model. Chomsky suggested that we all possess an innate feature unique to the human mind that allows people to gain mastery of language from limited exposure during the sensitive developmental years in early childhood. This idea was named "universal grammar" (UG).

Affirmative action

Policies that take factors like race or sex into consideration to benefit underrepresented groups in admissions or job hiring decisions. It has been used to benefit those believed to be current or past victims of discrimination.

Framed

Posed

Looking-glass self

Posited by Charles Cooley; which is the idea that a person's sense of self develops from interpersonal interactions with others in society and the perception of others. According to this idea, people shape their self-concepts based on their understanding of how others perceive them

Malthus described that two forms of checks on population growth?

Positive checks and preventative checks

Reconstructive memory

Posits that rather than an episodic recall of events that took place, memory is a constructive process that involves building a memory from similar experiences, social expectations, perceptions, cues, and feelings, all of which are combined with recollection of the event itself to form a memory experience

Kohlberg Level 3 of 3

Post-conventional level of moral reasoning: morality judged by internal ethical guidelines; rules viewed as useful but malleable guidelines. Many people never reach this abstract level of moral reasoning.

Kohlberg Level 1 of 3

Pre-conventional level of moral reasoning: morality judged by direct consequences to the self, no internalization of "right" and "wrong." Typical of children.

Gestalt law of common fate

Predicts that objects moving in the same direction or moving in synchrony are perceived as a group or unit

Law of connectedness

Predicts that things that are joined or linked or grouped are perceived as connected

Law of closure

Predicts that we will perceive things as a complete and logical entity, because our brains will fill in the gaps in the information

Total fertility rate

Predicts the total number of births per single woman in a population with the assumption that the woman experiences the current recorded age-specific fertility rates and reaches the end of her reproductive life

Patrilineal descent

Preference for paternal relations

Positive punishment

Presence of aversive stimulus

Situational effects

Presence of laboratory conditions changes outcome, like pre-test and post-test, presence of experimenter, claustrophobia in an MRI machine

Positive reinforcement

Presence of rewarding stimulus

Pacinian corpuscles

Pressure sensors located deep in the skin

Expressive functions

Primary groups serve expressive functions, meeting emotional needs

Temporal lobes

Process auditory and olfactory sensation and are involved in short-term memory, language comprehension, and emotion

Occipital lobes

Process visual sensation

Integrative function

Processing information is the integrative function, carried out by CNS

Joint capsule receptors

Proprioceptor that detects pressure, tension, and movement in the joints

Golgi tendon organs

Proprioceptor that monitors tension in the tendons

Meninges

Protective sheath of the brain and spinal cord. The dorsal root ganglia are protected within the vertebral column but are outside the meninges and thus outside the CNS.

Structural imaging

Provides a picture of the brain; they show anatomical regions, and where they are located with respect to each other. They do not offer any insight into which regions are active at any given time.

Fixed-ratio schedule

Provides the reinforcement after a set number of instances of the behavior. High response rate.

Fixed-interval schedule

Provides the reinforcement after a set period of time that is constant. Not a very high response rate, especially after a while.

Variable-interval schedule

Provides the reinforcement after an inconsistent amount of time. Not a very high response rate, especially after a while.

Variable-ratio schedule

Provides the reinforcement after an unpredictable number of occurrences. Highest response rate.

Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders

Psychotic Disorders are characterized by a general "loss of contact with reality" which can include "positive" symptoms such as delusions and hallucinations and/or "negative" symptoms such as flattened affect (monotone vocal expression) Specific psychological disorders: -Delusional Disorder -Brief Psychotic Disorder -Schizophreniform Disorder -Schizophrenia -Schizoaffective Disorder

Na+/K+ ATPase

Pumps 3 sodium ions out of the cell and 2 potassium ions into the cell with the hydrolysis of 1 ATP molecule

Eye

Pupil; muscles controlling lens Parasympathetic (rest and digest): pupils construct and muscles controlling lens has near vision accommodation Sympathetic (fight or flight): pupils dilate and muscles controlling lends accommodate for far vision

Hierarchies

Putting information into groups of a organization, like types of birds, so it is memorized easier

What are positive checks

Raise the death rate, like disease, disasters, hunger, and wars

Saltatory conduction

Rapid jumping conduction in myelinated axons

Rational choice theorists

Rational choice theorists examine the relative power of interacting individuals and analyze how differing parameters of an exchange relationship can shape an individual's ability to get favorable returns from that exchange

Raymond Cattell

Raymond Cattell proposed two types of intelligence: fluid intelligence (Gf), which is the ability to "think on your feet" and solve novel problems, and crystallized intelligence (Gc), which is the ability to recall and apply already-learned information.

Sensory function

Receiving information is the sensory function of the nervous system, carried out by PNS

Touch

Receptor: Pacinian corpuscles, free nerve endings, temperature receptors Receptor types: mechanoreceptors, nociceptors, thermoreceptors Organ: skin Stimulus: pressure, pain, temperature

Interoception

Receptor: aortic arch baroreceptors, pH receptors Receptor type: baroreceptors, chemoreceptors Organ: aortic arch, aortic arch/medulla oblongata Stimulus: blood pressure, pH

Hearing

Receptor: auditory hair cells Receptor type: mechanoreceptors Organ: organ of Corti Stimulus: vibration

Olfaction

Receptor: olfactory nerve endings Receptor type: chemoreceptors Organ: individual neurons Stimulus: airborne chemicals

Vision

Receptor: rods and cones Receptor type: electromagnetic Organ: retina Stimulus: light

Taste

Receptor: taste cells Receptor type: chemoreceptors Organ: taste bud Stimulus: food chemicals

Urban renewal

Redevelopment of urban areas

Displacement

Redirecting aggressive or sexual impulses from a forbidden action or object onto a less dangerous one

Factitious Disorder

Referred to as "Munchhausen Syndrome." It's imposed on self, a person has not just fabricated an illness but has gone the further step of either falsifying evidence or symptoms of the illness or inflicting harm to him- or herself to induce injury or illness

Attitude

Referring to a person's feelings and beliefs about other people or events around them, and their tendency to react behaviorally based on those underlying evaluations

Monogamy

Refers to a form of marriage in which 2 individuals are married only to each other

Polygyny

Refers to a man married to more than one woman

Exogamy

Refers to a requirement to marry outside a particular group, with it being the norm in almost all cultures to prohibit sexual relationships between certain relatives

Stereotype threat

Refers to a self-fulfilling fear that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype

Meditation

Refers to a variety of techniques, many of which have been practiced for thousands of years, and which usually involve the training of attention

Polyandry

Refers to a woman married to more than one man

Proprioception

Refers to awareness of self, body position, and is also known as your kinesthetic sense. An example is the muscle spindle, a mechanoreceptor.

Implicit or procedural memory

Refers to conditioned associations and knowledge of how to do something

Suburbanization

Refers to population growth in the fringes of urban areas

Anarchy

Refers to societies without a public government; common implication of "lawlessness"

Social mobility

Refers to the ability to move up or down within the social stratification system

Relative deprivation

Refers to the conscious experience of individuals or groups that do not have the resources needed for the social experiences and services that are seen as appropriate to their social position

Mortality

Refers to the death rate in a population, and this also includes both general and specific measures

Population-lag effect

Refers to the fact that changes in total fertility rates are often not reflected in the birth rate for several generations

Urbanization

Refers to the growth of urban areas as the result of global change

Neural plasticity

Refers to the malleability of the brain's pathways and synapses based on behavior, the environment, and neural processes

Morbidity

Refers to the nature and extent of disease in a population

Cultural capital

Refers to the non-financial social assets that promote social mobility

Social capital

Refers to the potential for social networks to allow for upward social mobility

Endogamy

Refers to the practice of marrying within a particular group

Generalization

Refers to the process by which stimuli other than the original conditioned stimulus elicit the conditioned response

Acquisition

Refers to the process of learning the conditioned response

Gentrification

Refers to the renovation of urban areas in a process of urban renewal

Social reproduction

Refers to the structures and activities in place in a society that serve to transmit and reinforce social inequality form one general to the next

Prejudice

Refers to the thoughts, attitudes, and feelings someone holds about a group that are not based on actual experience

Social stratification

Refers to the way that people are categorized in society; people can be categorized by race, education, wealth, and income (among other things)

Institutional discrimination

Refers to unjust and discriminatory practices employed by large organizations that have been codified into operating procedures, processes, or institutional objectives

What are the 5 stages of motor development?

Reflexive movement, rudimentary movement, fundamental movement, specialized movement, and application of movement

Leptin

Regulate energy, inhibit hunger

Continuous

Reinforcer given after every single response Response rate: slow Extinction rate: fast Best way to teach new behavior, but has the fastest rate of extinction

Fixed interval

Reinforcer given after set amount of time Response rate: medium Extinction rate: medium Long pause in responding following reinforcement, followed by accelerating rate

Fixed ratio

Reinforcer given after set number of responses Response rate: fast Extinction rate: medium Post-reinforcement pause may be an analogue to procrastination

Variable interval

Reinforcer given after variable amount of time Response rate: fast Extinction rate: slow Tends to produce a low to moderate steady rate of responding

Variable ratio

Reinforcer given after variable number of responses Response rate: fast Extinction rate: slow Slowest rate of extinction: behavior persists longer deviate lack of reinforcer

Prospective memory

Remembering to do things in the future

Compulsions

Repeated physical or mental behaviors (like counting) that are performed in response to an obsession or in accordance with a set of strict rules, in order to reduce distress or prevent something dreaded from occurring

Obsessions

Repeated, intrusive, uncontrollable thoughts or impulses that cause distress or anxiety

Rehearsal

Repeating something over and over again until, for example, you're able to write something down. Repeated rehearsal, like the Pledge of Allegiance, can encode into long-term memory

Good experimental designs require what?

Reproducibility

Teacher expectancy theory

Research has shown that teachers tend to quickly form expectations of individual students, and once they have formed these expectations, they tend to act toward the student with these expectations in mind. If the student accepts the teacher's expectations as reasonable, the student will begin to perform in accordance with them as well

Cognitive psychology

Researchers began to focus on the brain, cognitions (thoughts), and their effects on how people navigate the world

Transgenesis

Researchers can use transgenesis, the introduction of an exogenous or outside gene, or knockout genes to alter genotype while controlling for environment

Longitudinal studies

Researchers may be interested in how individuals develop over time along some research variable

Phenomenological studies

Researchers studying themselves. Phenomenological studies are interested in describing phenomena, using the introspective method to explore research questions. Phenomenological studies offer the advantage of detail and in-depth understanding, but the data is subjective, potentially affecting validity. It is also difficult to generalize data and the small sample size reduce external validity.

Mechanoreceptors

Respond to mechanical disturbances. Like Pacinian corpuscles, auditory hair cells, and vestibular hair cells

Mechanoreceptors

Respond to mechanical disturbances. Three examples of mechanoreceptors are Pacinian corpuscles, auditory hair cells, and vestibular hair cells

Chemoreceptors

Respond to particular chemicals, like olfactory receptors and gustatory receptors

Chemoreceptors

Respond to particular chemicals. Two examples are olfactory receptors and gustatory receptors.

Parasympathetic

Rest and digest, stores energy Location of preganglionic soma: craniosacral = brainstem "cranial" and sacral spinal cord Preganglionic axon: long Ganglia: far from cord, close to target Postganglionic axon: short (ACh)

Regression

Reverting to an earlier, less sophisticated behavior

Iron Law of Oligarchy

Revolutionary organizations inevitably become less revolutionary as their organizational structures develop and become entrenched

Sanctions

Rewards and punishments for behaviors that are in accord with or against norms

Concrete Operational Stage

Rightly from age 7 to 11. Children learn to think logically about concrete events. This helps them learn the principle of conservation: the idea that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape. They also grasp mathematical concepts during this time.

Glutamate

Rods and cones release the neurotransmitter glutamate onto the bipolar cells, inhibiting them from firing

What are 3 examples of situations where behaviors are likely to influence attitudes

Role playing, public declarations, and justification of effort

Formal Operational Stage

Roughly from age 12 through adulthood. People learn abstract reasoning (hypothesizing) and moral reasoning

Preoperational Stage (Piaget)

Roughly from ages 2 to 7. During this time, children learn that things can be represented through symbols such as words and images. This accompanied their learning during pretend play and development of language, but they still lack logical reasoning. They also are egocentric, meaning they do not understand that others have different perspectives.

Lack of statistical power

Sample groups have higher variability; sample size is too small

Public declaration

Saying something publicly can become believing it in the absence of bribery, coercion, or some other blatant external motive

Resource model of attention

Says that we have a limited pool of resources on which to draw when performing tasks, both modality-specific resources and general resources

Fundamentalism

Second response to modernist societies in which there is strong attachment to traditional religious beliefs and practices and a strict adherence to basic religious doctrines resulting from a literalist interpretation of these texts

Instrumental functions

Secondary groups serve instrumental functions, meeting pragmatic needs

Exocrine glands

Secrete their products into the external environment by way of ducts, which empty into the gastrointestinal lumen or the external world

Securely attached infants

Securely attached infants in the presence of their mother will play and explore; when the mother leaves the room, the infant is distressed, and when the mother returns, the infant will seek contact with her and is easily consoled

Self-schemas

Self-concept is how an individual defines him- or herself based on beliefs that person has about him- or herself, known as self-schemas

What are the three powerful influences on an individual's development of self-concept?

Self-efficacy, locus of control, and self-esteem

Kohlberg Stage 2 of 6

Self-interest orientation: Individuals focus on the behavior that will be in their best interest, with limited interest in the needs of others, "What's in it for me?"

Semicircular canals

Semicircular canals with the utricle and saccule are important to the sense of balance

Postganglionic neuron

Sends an axon to an effector (smooth muscle or gland)

Exteroceptors

Sensory receptors that detect stimuli from the outside world

Interceptors

Sensory receptors that respond to internal stimuli

Visuospatial sketchpad

Serves a similar purpose for visuospatial information through the use of mental images

Amygdala

Serves as the conductor of the orchestra of our emotional experiences

Dementia

Severe loss of cognitive ability beyond what would be expected from normal aging

Latency stage

Sexual interests subside and are replaced by interests in other areas such as school, friends, and sports

Acronym

Short words or phrases that represent longer strings of information

Acute stress disorder

Similar to PTSD, but its symptoms last between 3 days and 1 month. Some instances of PTSD begin as Acute Stress Disorder

Cyclothymic disorder

Similar to the bipolar disorders, but the moods are less extreme, with symptoms not meeting the criteria for either a manic or a major depressive episode

What else impacts attraction in people?

Similarity

Freud's Iceberg Analogy

Small part of superego and ego are at the preconscious level and small part of super who and ego are at the conscious level. The id is entirely in the unconscious level.

Normative behavior

Social behaviors that follow the spoken or unspoken rules and expectations for the behavior of its members and meet the ideal social standard

Macro or micro level theory

Social constructionism

Social constructionists

Social constructionists focus on social constructs that change across cultures and within a single culture over time. Social constructionism claims that social attributes such as rape, gender, sexuality, and class are constructs of society, and that the same is true of our concepts of occupational status, power, and mental health/illness.

Kohlberg Stage 5 of 6

Social contract orientation: Individuals see laws as social contracts to be changed when they do not promote general welfare, "The greatest good for the greatest number of people"

According to social cognitive theory, what factors can influence a person's attitude to change?

Social factors, observational learning, and environmental factors can also influence a person's attitude change.

Social institutions

Social institutions are complexes of roles, norms, and values organized into a relatively stable form that contribute to social order by governing the behavior of people

Hypnotism

Social interaction in which a hypnotist has a subject focus attention on what is being said, relax and feel tired, "let go," and accept suggestions easily through the use of vivid imagination

How is social order possible?

Social order is possible because individuals realize that their best interests are often served through cooperation and compromises with others

Stigma

Society often devalues deviant members by assigning demeaning labels, called stigma. Entire groups may be labeled based on physical or behavioral qualities.

Group pressure or peer pressure

Solomon Asch wanted to test the effects of group pressure on individuals' behavior, so he designed a series of simple experiments where subjects would be asked to participate in a study on visual perception. When subjects were placed in a room with several other people that they thought were also participating in the study, but were actually confederates (part of the experiment), the results were quite different.

Somatic Symptom Disorders

Somatic Symptom Disorders are characterized by symptoms that cannot be explained by a medical condition or substance use, and are not attributable to another psychological disorder, but that nonetheless cause emotional distress Specific psychological disorders: -Somatic Symptom Disorder -Illness Anxiety Disorder -Conversion Disorder -Factitious Disorder (imposed on self or another)

Mindguarding

Some members of the group prevent dissenting opinions from permeating the group by filtering out information and facts that go against the beliefs of the group

Autocrine

Some signaling molecules notify the activity of the cell which secreted them

Positive reinforcement

Some sort of desirable stimulus that occurs immediately following a behavior

Negative reinforcement

Some sort of undesirable stimulus that is removed immediately following a behavior

Primary reinforcers

Somehow innately satisfying or desirable. These are reinforcers that we do not need to learn to see as reinforcers because they are integral to our survival.

Ultimate cause of a person's illness

Someone working from the perspective of the medical model might look for the ultimate cause of a person's illness

Proximate cause

Someone working from the social model would be attuned to a more proximate cause-something about the patient's life circumstances that out him/her at greater risk of exposure

Latent learning

Something is learned but not expressed as an observable behavior until it is required

Alan Baddeley's model

Sought to better define short-term memory, which he renamed working memory. Working memory consists of 4 components- a phonological loop, a visuospatial sketchpad, an episodic buffer, and a central executive.

Abraham Maslow: Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Sought to explain human behavior by creating a hierarchy of needs. 5 different needs on a pyramid. On the bottom of the pyramid is Physiological needs: need to maintain internal homeostasis, like obtaining food, water, and oxygen, eliminate waste, regulate internal temperature, rest, engage in activity, reproduce. Next going up is Safety needs: need to feel safe and protected, establish routine and familiarity, feel like the world is organized and predictable. Next is Love and Belongingness: need to receive and give love, affection, and trust; need to be a part of a group or community, avoid loneliness. Next is Esteem needs: need to achieve self-esteem and independence; need to receive esteem and respect from others. On the top of the pyramid is Self-actualization: need to realize one's full potential and find meaning beyond one's self.

Auditory cortex

Sound stimuli are processed in the auditory cortex, located in the temporal lobe of the brain

Source characteristics

Source characteristics of the person or venue delivering the message, such as expertise, knowledge, and trustworthiness, are also of importance. People are much more likely to be persuaded by a major study than pages in a local tabloid.

Auditory hair cells

Specialized cell found in the cochlea of the inner ear. It detects vibrations caused by sound waves.

Glial cells

Specialized, non-neuronal cells that typically provide structural and metabolic support to neurons

Non-material culture

Specific to social thoughts and ideas, such as values

Physical attractiveness stereotype

Specific type of halo effect; people tend to rate attractive individuals more favorably for personality traits and characteristics than they do those who are less attractive

Animal phobias

Spiders, snakes, dogs

Egalitarian family

Spouses are treated as equals and may be involved in more negotiation when making decisions

Self-verification

States that individuals want to be understood in terms of their deeply held core beliefs

Psychoanalytic theory

States that personality is shaped by a person's unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories. Psychoanalytic theory was developed by Sigmund Freud. He stated that two instinctual drives motivate human behavior.

Malthusianism

States that the possible rate of population increase exceeds the possible rate of resource increase