Psychology MCAT
Self-fulfilling prophecy
Stereotypes can lead to behaviors that affirm the original stereotype in what is known as a self-fulfilling prophecy
Thermoreceptors
Stimulated by changes in temperature
Electromagnetic receptors
Stimulated by electromagnetic waves. Example are the rod and cone cells of the retina of the eye, photoreceptors
Modality
Stimulus modality is the type of stimulus
Cannon-Bard Theory
Stimulus then physiological response and emotion happen at the same time
Schachter-Singer Theory
Stimulus then physiological response then cognitive interpretation then emotion
James-Lange Theory of emotion
Stimulus then physiological response then emotion
Reproductive memory
Storage of the original stimulus input and subsequent recall
Psychological influences
Stress, social skills, self-esteem, coping skills, and learned helplessness
Cortisol hormone
Stress, sympathetic nervous system response
How do you help counter the placebo effect?
Studies must be double blind: neither the person administering the treatment nor the participants truly know if they are assigned to the treatment or control groups
Sociobiology
Study of how biology and evolution have affected human social behavior
Authoritarian parenting
Style of parenting in which parent is rigid and overly strict, showing little warmth to the child
Permissive parenting
Style of parenting in which parent makes few, if any demands on a child's behavior
Hydrophilic hormones
Such as peptides and amino acid derivatives, must bind to receptors on the cell surface
Hydrophobic hormones
Such as the steroid hormones, bind to receptors in the cellular interior
Activation-synthesis theory
Suggests that dreams are byproducts of brain activation during REM sleep. This theory allows for the possibility that dreams are far from purposeful. Some proponents have suggested that the purpose of dreams is to provide a template of consciousness on which the mind can practice consciousness-development
Dissociation theory
Suggests that hypnotism is an extreme form of divided consciousness
Selective priming
Suggests that people can be selectively primed to observe something, either by encountering it frequently or by having an expectation
Social Influence theory
Suggests that people do and report what's expected of them
Dopamine hypothesis
Suggests that the pathway for the neurotransmitter dopamine is hyperactive in people with schizophrenia
Law of proximity
Suggests that things that are near each other seem to be grouped together
Law of continuity
Suggests that we perceive smooth, continuous lines and forms, rather than a disjointed one
The frustration-aggression principle
Suggests that when someone is blocked from achieving a goal, this frustration can trigger anger, which can lead to aggression
Stress-diathesis theory
Suggests that while genetic inheritance provides a biological predisposition for schizophrenia, stressors elicit the onset of the disease
Symbolic culture
Symbolic culture consists of symbols that are recognized by people of the same culture
Micro-level sociological theory
Symbolic interactionism
Symbolic interactionism
Symbolic interactionism emphasizes the ways by which individuals actively shape their world through their understanding and subsequent behavioral responses to the meanings they attribute to the societal symbols through which individuals define their reality.
Adrenal medulla
Sympathetic (fight or flight): release of epinephrine
Skin
Sympathetic (fight or flight): sweating and general vasoconstriction; emotional vasodilation (blushing)
The autonomic division is further split into what 2 subdivisions?
Sympathetic and parasympathetic
Negative
Takes away
Target characteristics
Target characteristics of the person receiving the message, such as self-esteem, intelligence, mood, and other such personal characteristics, have an important influence on whether a message will be perceived as persuasive.
Gustatory receptors
Taste buds
Buddhism
Teaches overcoming cravings for physical or material pleasures primarily through meditative practices
If it's both biological and a psychological influence
Temperament and IQ
The halo effect
Tendency to believe that people have inherently good or bad natures, rather than looking at individual characteristics
Belief bias
Tendency to judge arguments based on what one believes about their conclusions rather than on whatever they use sound logic
Somnambulism (sleepwalking)
Tends to occur during slow wave sleep (stage 3), usually during the first third of the night
Fundamental attribution error
That we tend to underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate the impact of a person's character or personality. We assume that people ARE how they act.
The phallic stage is also known as what?
The Oedipus complex in a boy, and as the Electra complex in a girl. Girls are also said to experience penis envy during the phallic stage.
Empathy
The ability to identify with others' emotions, is relatively equal between the sexes
Recall
The ability to retrieve information
"All-or-nothing"
The action potential is an "all-or-nothing" event
Summation
The addition of stimuli of synapses
Crude birth rate (CBR)
The annual number of births per 1,000 people in a population
The general fertility rate
The annual number of births per 1,000 women in a population
Infant mortality rate
The annual number of deaths per 1,000 infants under one year of age
What's a common incorrect assumption that social science researches did to make with their findings?
The assumption that the findings they make while studying a group of young adults in college apply to all adults in a society
What comprises the outer ear?
The auricle or pinna and the external auditory canal comprise the outer ear
Neuron
The basic functional and structural unit of the nervous system. Neurons have only one axon, but most possess many dendrites.
Observational learning
The behavioral component includes patterns of behavior learned through classical and operant conditioning
Optimism bias
The belief that bad things happen to other people, but not to us
Circadian rhythms
The biological waxing and waning of alertness over the 24-hour day
Ganglion cells
The bipolar cells in turn synapse with ganglion cells, whose axons comprise the optic nerve, which travels from each eye toward the occipital lobe of the brain where complex analysis of a visual image occurs.
Neurogenesis
The birth of new neurons
Hypothalamic-pituitary portal system
The blood supply used for efficient transport of hypothalamic releasing and inhibiting factors to the anterior pituitary
When the sympathetic system is activated...
The body is prepared for "fight or flight"
When the parasympathetic system is activated...
The body is prepared to "rest and digest"
Central nervous system (CNS)
The brain and spinal cord
Polarized cells
The cells can be described as polarized; negative on the inside and positive on the outside
Somatic Symptom Disorder
The central complaint is one or more somatic symptoms-such as chronic pain or headaches or fatigue-diagnosis requires evidence of diminished functioning stemming from excessive preoccupation with and/or anxiety about the symptoms
What are the two cognitive routes that persuasion follows?
The central route and the peripheral route
Phallic stage
The child seeks pleasure through genitals. At this stage, the child is both sexually attracted to the opposite-sex parent and hostile toward the same-sex parent, who is seen as a rival.
Anal stage
The child seeks sensual pleasure through control of elimination
Oral stage
The child seeks sensual pleasure through oral activities such as sucking and chewing
Between-subjects design
The comparisons are made between subjects, from one group to another
Under the central rouge, what are people persuaded by?
The content of the argument. They ruminate over the key features of the argument and allow those features to influence their decision to change their point of view.
Outsourcing
The contracting of third parties for specific operations
Sclera
The cornea is continuous as it borders with the white of the eye, the sclera
Ciliary muscle
The curvature of the lens is varied by the ciliary muscle
The forebrain includes what?
The diencephalon and the telencephalon. The diencephalon included the thalamus and hypothalamus.
Ego
The ego is ruled by the reality principle. It uses logical thinking and planning to control consciousness and the id. The ego tries to find realistic ways to satisfy the id's desire for pleasure.
Hypothalamic-pituitary control axis
The endocrine control center. The hypothalamus exerts its control of the pituitary by secreting its hormones into the bloodstream, just like any other endocrine gland.
What does the entire CNS float in?
The entire CNS floats in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), a clear liquid that serves various functions such as shock absorption and exchange of nutrients and waste with the CNS
Message characteristics
The features of the message itself, such as the logic and number of key points in the argument. Message characteristics also include more superficial things, such as the length of the speech or article, and its grammatical complexity
Replacement fertility rate
The fertility rate at which the population will remain balanced
Social epidemiology
The field that studies how social organization contributes to the prevalence, incidence, and distribution of disease across and within populations
Identify versus role confusion
The fifth stage occurs in adolescence, and involves resolving the crisis of identity versus role confusion. If an adolescent does not test limits and clarify his or her identity, goals, and life meaning, he or she may develop role confusion.
Bystander effect
The finding that a person is less likely to provide help when there are other bystanders
Cognitive behavioral therapy
The goal is to help the client become aware of their irrational or dysfunctional thoughts and beliefs and substitute rational or accurate beliefs and thoughts, which will lead to more functional feelings and behaviors
Humanistic therapy, also called person-centered therapy
The goal is to provide an environment that will help clients trust and accept themselves and their emotional reactions, so they can learn and grow from their experiences
What are the 3 subdivisions of the brain?
The hindbrain, the midbrain, and the forebrain
Incongruity
The ideal self is usually an impossible standard to meet, and that when the real self falls short of the ideal self, the result is incongruity
Referred pain
The illusion of pain on the skin, when the autonomic pain receptor nerves cross paths with somatic afferents from the skin.
Anterograde amnesia
The inability to form new memories
Agnosia
The inability to recognize objects through sensory mechanisms despite intact function of the underlying sense itself-a vital aspect of perception and cognition-is often due to damage at the occipitoparietal border
Personality
The individual pattern of thinking, feeling, and behavior associated with each person
Sensory memory
The initial recording of sensory information in the memory system, is a very brief snapshot that quickly decays
Reciprocal determinism
The interaction between a person's behaviors (conscious actions), personal factors (individual motivational forces or cognitions; personality differences that drive a person to act), and environment (situational factors)
Cerebrum
The largest region of the human brain and consists of the large, paired cerebral hemispheres. The hemispheres of the cerebrum consist of the cerebral cortex plus an inner core of white matter connecting the cortex to the diencephalon.
Christianity
The largest single faith in the world, with about 30% of the population across the globe identifying as Christian, though there are multiple denominations
What did Sigmund Freud say are the two instinctual drives that motivate human behavior?
The libido, or life instinct, drives behaviors focused on survival, growth, creativity, pain avoidance, and pleasure. Libido is commonly defined as "sex drive," but libido includes more than just sexual energy. The other is death instinct, which drives aggressive behaviors fueled by an unconscious wish to die or to hurt oneself or others.
Adjustment disorders
The maladaptive response is to a stressor rather than a trauma. This response may last between 3 and 6 months.
Equilibrium potential
The membrane potential at which the driving force (the gradient) does not exist; there would be no net movement of ions across the membrane
What comprises the middle ear?
The middle ear is divided from the outer ear by the tympanic membrane or eardrum. The middle ear consists of the ossicles, three small bones called the malleus (hammer), the incus (anvil), and the stapes (stirrup).
Absolute threshold
The minimum stimulus intensity required to activate a sensory receptor 50% of the time
Insomnia
The most common sleep disorder and is characterized by difficulty falling or staying asleep
Proximity
The most powerful predictor of friendship
Alzheimer's disease
The most prevalent form of dementia, affecting a large number of people who reach their 80's and especially their 90's
Long-term potentiation process
The neurons involved in the circuit develop an increased sensitivity, which results in increased potential for neural firing after a connection has been stimulated. This increased potential can last for hours or even weeks.
Acetylcholine (ACh)
The neurotransmitter that is released at the neuromuscular junction
Manifest functions
The official, intended, and anticipated consequences of a structure. Manifest functions are at least arguably beneficial.
Experimental design offers what?
The only way to confidently establish a causal relationship between two variables.
Discrimination
The opposite of generalization, and occurs when the conditioned stimulus is differentiated from other stimuli; thus, the conditioned response only occurs for conditioned stimuli
Sensitization
The opposite of habituation. During sensitization, there is an increase in responsiveness due to either a repeated application of a stimulus or a particularly aversive or noxious stimulus.
Central executive
The overseer of the entire process, and orchestrates the process by shifting and dividing attention
Refractory
The passage of one action potential makes the neuron nonresponsive to membrane depolarization and unable to transmit another action potential for a short period of time
Vibration of the oval window creates pressure waves in what?
The perilymph and the endolymph, the fluids in the cochlea. Sound vibrations are first conveyed through air, next through bone, and then through liquid before being sensed.
Under the peripheral route, what are people persuaded by?
The peripheral route functions when people focus on superficial or secondary characteristics of the speech or the orator. Under these circumstances, people are persuaded by the attractiveness of the orator, the length of the speech, whether the orator is considered an expert in his field, and other features.
Real self
The person you actually are
Conformity
The phenomenon of adjusting behavior or thinking based on the behavior or thinking of others is called conformity
Optic disk
The point on the retina where many axons from ganglion cells converge to form the optic nerve is the optic disk
Somatic division
The portion of the PNS concerned with conscious sensation and deliberate, voluntary movement of skeletal muscle is the somatic division
Autonomic division
The portion of the PNS concerned with digestion, metabolism, circulation, perspiration, and other involuntary processes is the autonomic division
Hypothalamus
The portion of the brain which controls much of the endocrine system is the hypothalamus, located at the center of the brain. The hypothalamus controls the endocrine system by releasing tropic hormones that regular other tropic hormones, called releasing and inhibiting factors or releasing and inhibiting hormones.
Charismatic authority
The power of their persuasion
Basilar membrane
The pressure waves in the endolymph cause vibration of the basilar membrane, a thin membrane extending throughout the coiled length of the cochlea. The basilar membrane is covered with the auditory receptor cells known as hair cells.
Binding problem
The problem of how all these different aspects of visual processing are assembled together and related to a single object, rather than something else in the visual field
Punishment
The process by which a behavior is followed by a consequence that decreases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated
Medicalization
The process by which a condition comes to be reconceptualized as a disease with a medical diagnosis and a medical treatment
Assimilation
The process in which an individual forsakes aspects of his or her own cultural tradition to adopt those of a different culture
Informational social influence
The process of complying because we want to do the right thing and we feel like others "know something I don't"
Role exit
The process of disengaging from a role that has become closely tied to one's self-identity to take on another
Globalization
The process of increasing interdependence of societies and connections between people across the world
Encoding
The process of transferring sensory information into our memory system
Secularization
The process through which religion loses its social significance in modern societies
Industrialization
The process through which societies transform from agrarian to industrial in nature and industrialized countries have more people living in urban areas than non-industrialized countries do
Cultural transmission
The process through which this information is spread across generations, or the mechanisms of learning
Monosynaptic reflex arc
The quadriceps (thigh) muscle contracts when the patellar tendon is stretched by tapping with a reflex hammer. A reflex such as this one, involving only 2 neurons and one synapse, is known as a monosynaptic reflex arc.
Response threshold
The quantity of information or activation needed to trigger a response
Yerkes-Dodson Law
The relationship between performance and emotional arousal is an upside down U-shaped correlation: people perform best when they are moderately aroused
Summation
The response threshold is reached by the summation of input signals from multiple nodes
Rods and cones
The retina is located at the back of the eye. It contains electromagnetic receptor cells (photoreceptors) known as rods and cones which are responsible for detecting light.
Bipolar cells
The rods and cones synapse with nerve cells called bipolar cells. These cells have only one axon and one dendrite.
Islam
The second largest religion in the world
How is the self developed for interactionists?
The self is developed through 3 important activities: language, games, and play.
Maturation
The sequence of biological growth processes in human development
Reflex
The simplest example of nervous system activity
Dyad
The smallest social group, known as dyad, contains 2 members
Social model of disease
The social model of disease emphasizes the effect one's social class, employment status, neighborhood, exposure to environmental toxins, diet, and many other factors can have on a person's health
Id
The source of energy and instincts. It is ruled by the pleasure principle. The id seeks to reduce tension, avoid pain, and gain pleasure. It does not use logical or moral reasoning, and it does not distinguish mental images from external objects. According to Freud, young children function almost entirely from the id.
Spotlight model
The spotlight is a beam that can shine anywhere within an individual's visual field. It is important to note that this beam describes the movement of attention, not the movement of the eyes.
Inner ear
The stapes attaches to the oval window, a membrane that divides the middle and inner ear. Structures of the inner ear include the cochlea, the semicircular canals, the utricle, and the saccule.
Master status
The status that dominates the others and determines that individual's general position in society
Foot-in-the-door phenomenon
The strategy involves enticing people to take small actions, such as signing a free petition or joining a mailing list, at first. Upon obtaining this level of involvement, the stakes are raised to accepting bumper sim tickets or lawn signs. Then, further involvement is encouraged when donations or volunteer time is requested
Gender schema theory
The study of how gender beliefs become socialized in society
Sociology
The study of how individuals interact with, shape, and are subsequently shaped by the society in which they live
Psychometrics
The study of how to measure psychological variables through testing
Social epidemiology
The study of the distribution of health and disease across a population, with the focus on using social concepts to explain patterns of health and illness in a population
Self-concept or self-identity
The sum of an individual's knowledge and understanding of his- or herself
Superego
The superego inhibits the id and influences the ego to follow moralistic and idealistic goals rather than just realistic goals; the superego strives for a "higher purpose." Based on societal values as learned from one's parents, the superego makes judgements of right and wrong and strives for perfection.
Taste bud
The taste bud is composed of a bunch of specialized epithelial cells, shaped roughly like an onion. In the center is a taste pore, with taste hairs that detect food chemicals.
Response bias
The tendency for respondents to not have perfect insight into their state and provide inaccurate responses
Multistability
The tendency of ambiguous images to pop back and forth unstable between interpretations in our brains
What are demand characteristics?
The tendency of participants to consciously or subconsciously act in ways that match how they are expected to behave, can also threaten internal validity
Self-serving bias
The tendency to attribute successes to ourselves and our failures to others or the external environment
Hindsight bias or the knew-it-along effect
The tendency to believe that an event was predictable after it has already occurred
Self-reference effect
The tendency to better remember information relevant to ourselves
Actor-observer bias
The tendency to blame our actions on the situation and blame the actions of others on their personalities
Language acquisition
The term used by psychologists to refer to the way infants learn to understand and speak their native language
Insight learning
The term used to describe when previously learned behaviors are suddenly combined in unique ways
Thomas theorem
The theory that interpretation of a situation affects the response to that situation
Retention interval
The time since the information was learned, the more information will be forgotten; with the most forgetting occurring rapidly in the first few days before leveling off
Carrying capacity
The total possible population that can be supported with relevant resources and without significant negative effects in a given area
Cultural diffusion
The transfer of elements of culture from one social group to another
Demographic transition (DT)
The transition from overall higher to overall lower birth and death rates as a result of a country's development from a pre-industrial to industrial framework due to both economic and social changes
Adolescence
The transitional stage between childhood and adulthood
Scapegoats
The unfortunate people at whom displaced aggression is directed
Diagnostical and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5)
The universal authority on the classification and diagnosis of psychological disorders
Computerized Tomography (CT)
The use of a device that employs a computer to analyze data obtained by a scanning beam of X-rays to produce a two-dimensional picture of a "slice" through the body
The vestibular complex is made up of what 3 semicircular canals?
The utricle, the saccule, and the ampullae
Norms
The visible and invisible rules of social conduct within a society
Placebo effect
The well-known fact that just believing that treatment is being administered can lead to a measurable result
Educational segregation
The widening disparity between children from high-income neighborhoods and those from low-income neighborhoods
Intimacy versus isolation
The young adult faces the sixth stage: to resolve the crisis of intimacy versus isolation. If a person does not form intimate relationships at this stage, he or she may become alienated and isolated.
Episodic buffer
Theorized to integrate information from the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad with a sense of time, and to interface with long-term memory stores
Gestalt Laws of Grouping
There are also several gestalt grouping laws meant to help explain how we tend to perceive things: the law of proximity, law of continuity, law of closure, gestalt law of common fate, and law of connectedness
Unanimity
There is a strong pressure not to dissent when everyone else agrees
Social loafing
There is a tendency for people to exert less effort if they are being evaluated as a group than if they are individually accountable
Hair cells
These cells have cilia (hairs) projecting from their apical (top) surfaces (opposite the basilar membrane). The hairs contact the tectorial membrane, and when the basilar membrane moves, the hairs are dragged across the tectorial membrane and they bend.
Feral children
These children are individuals who were not raised with human contact or care, and a large part of our understanding about the importance of socialization is derived from what has been learned about their experiences and the terrible consequences of growing up without proper human care and contact
Null hypothesis
They assume that there is no causal relationship between the variables and any effect that they measure, if there is one, is due to chance
Ethical considerations of experiments
They just contain some type of disclosure, an outline given to participants before the experiment begins that clarifies incentives and expectations while reminding them of their right to terminate the experiment at any time.
Innate
Things we know how to do instinctively, not because someone taught us to do them
Inhibitory interneuron
This is a short neuron which forms an inhibitory synapse with a motor neuron innervating the hamstring muscle. When the sensory neuron is stimulated by stretch, it stimulates both the quadriceps motor neuron and the inhibitory interneuron to the hamstring motor neuron. As a result, the quadriceps contract and the hamstring relaxes.
Edwin Sutherland's differential association
This perspective argues that deviance is a learned behavior resulting from interactions between individuals and their communities. The process of learning deviance involves learning the techniques of deviant behaviors as well as the motives and values that rationalize these behaviors, and it is no different than other learning processes in its mechanism.
Robert Merton's structural strain theory
This perspective purports that deviance is the result of experienced strain, either individual or structural. Merton specified that anomie is the state in which there is a mismatch between the common social goals and the structural or institutionalized means of obtaining these goals. Individuals experience social strain because existing social structures are inadequate, there is pressure to use deviant methods to prevent failure.
Howard Becker's labeling theory
This perspective suggests that deviance is the result of society's response to a person rather than something inherent in the person's actions; behaviors become deviant through social processes.
Coercive organizations
Those for which members do not have a choice in joining, like prisons
Utilitarian organizations
Those in which members get paid for their efforts, such as businesses
Ascribed status
Those that are assigned to a person by society regardless of the person's own efforts. Like gender and race.
Pull factors
Those things that are attractive about an area and "pull" people there
Push Factors
Those things that are unattractive about an area and "push" people to leave
Refugees
Those who migrate to settled areas as a result of displacement
Settlers
Those who migrate to unsettled areas
Narcolepsy
Those with narcolepsy experience periodic, overwhelming sleepiness during waking periods that usually last less than 5 minutes
Donald Broadbent
Thought of the brain as a processing system with a limited capacity and sought to map out the steps that went into creating memories from raw sensory data. He developed the Broadbent Filter Model of Selective Attention.
Natural environment phobias
Thunderstorms, heights, water, lightning
Ego defense mechanisms
To cope with anxiety and protect the ego, all people develop ego defense mechanisms that unconsciously deny or distort reality
Large enough sample size
To make sure that the experiment picks up an effect, it is necessary to have a large enough sample size. A larger sample size is usually preferred. This increases the power of the experiment, or the ability to pick up an effect if one is actually present.
What's the objective of having a similar control group?
To rule out extraneous, or confounding, variables, variables other than the treatment that could potentially explain an experimental result
Brainstem
Together, the medulla, pons, and midbrain constitute the brainstem, which contains important processing centers and relays information to or from the cerebellum and cerebrum
Selection criteria
Too restrictive of inclusion/exclusion criteria for participants, like sample is not representative
Cultural lag
Transformative social changes, such as technological innovations often challenge our understanding of the world because there is no social consensus about the new innovation; the creation of new social rules "lags" behind. This is called cultural lag. The foundational work on cultural lag explained that material culture changes much faster than non-material culture, which often resists change.
Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders
Traumas and stressors are central to the definition of these disorders, which involve unhealthy or pathological responses to one or more harmful or life-threatening events, including witnessing such an event. Subsequent symptoms include patterns of anxiety, depression, depersonalization, nightmares, insomnia, and/or a heightened startle response Specific psychological disorders: -Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTST) -Acute Stress Disorder -Adjustment Disorders
What are types of ways of problem solving?
Trial and error, algorithms, and heuristics
Anne Treisman's Attentuation Model
Tried to account for the cocktail party effect. Treisman believed that rather than a filter, the mind has an attenuator, which works like a volume knob-it "turns down" the unattended sensory input, rather than eliminating it.
Oxytocin
Trust, formation of social bonds, sexual reproduction, mother-infant bonding
What are good ways to study the relationship between nature vs nurture?
Twin studies and adoption studies
K-complex
Typically has a duration of a half second and is large and slow. These each occur as a single wave amongst the theta waves.
Latent content
Unconscious drives and wishes that are difficult to express
Kohlberg Stage 6 of 6
Universal ethical principles: Morality is based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical principles; laws are only valid if they are grounded in justice
All-trans form
Upon absorbing a photon of light, retinal is converted to the all-trans form. This triggers a series of reactions that ultimately closes the sodium channel, and the cell hyperpolarizes.
Epinephrine
Upon activation of the sympathetic system, the adrenal gland is stimulated to release epinephrine, also known as adrenaline
Raymond Cattell
Used factor analysis with hundreds of surface traits to identify which traits were related to each other
Operant conditioning
Used reinforcement and punishment to mold behavior. It is important for the reinforcement or the punishment to occur around the same time as the behavior in order for learning to occur
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
Uses a computer to combine a series of magnetic resonance images taken less than a second apart to provide a functional picture of how brain activity changes over time. fMRI can display changes in oxygen levels in various regions of the brain in real time and can be used to produce activation maps that indicate the areas of the brain involved in particular mental processes.
Behavioral therapy
Uses conditioning to shape a client's behaviors in the desired direction. Using the ABC model, the therapist first performs a functional assessment to determine the antecedents (A) and consequences (C) of the behavior (B). Common applications of behavioral therapy include relaxation training and systematic desensitization to help clients manage fear and anxiety.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
Uses strong magnets which cause protons to align, spin, and generate a detectable radio-frequency signal that is measured by antennas close to the anatomy being examined.
Psychoanalytic therapy
Uses various methods to help a patient become aware of his or her unconscious motives and to gain insight into the emotional issues and conflicts that are presenting difficulties.
False memories
Using imagination to create inaccurate memories
Night terrors
Usually occur during stage 3, unlike nightmares, which occur during REM sleep toward morning
Social cues
Verbal or no verbal hints that guide social interactions; therefore specific traits may remain hidden
Non-normative behavior
Viewed as incorrect because it challenges shared values and institutions, thus threatening social structure and cohesion
Racial formation perspective
Was created with the purpose of deconstructing race in its modern form
Beta waves
Waves demonstrated during alert, focused, and active consciousness. These waves have even higher frequencies than alpha waves and lower amplitudes.
Back stage
We can "let down our guard" and be ourselves
Dramaturgical perspective
We imagine ourselves as playing certain roles when interacting with others
Relative clarity
We perceive hazy objects as being more distant than sharp, clear objects
Relative height
We perceive objects that are higher in the visual field as farther away
Front stage
We play a role and use impression management to craft the way we come across to other people
Protestant/Puritan work ethic
Weber theorized that the Protestant/Puritan work ethic, a widely held religious belief that lauded the morality of hard work for the sake of Godliness, was a critical factor in the success of the capitalist system in replacing the feudalist system that preceded it in Western Europe.
Mood-dependent memory
What we learn in one state is most easily recalled when we are once again in that emotional state, a phenomenon known as mood-dependent memory
Role strain
When a single status results in conflicting expectations
Synaptic cleft
When action potentials travel down an axon and reach the synaptic knob, chemical messengers are released and travel across a very small gap called the synaptic cleft to the target cell
Synaptic transmission
When an action potential reaches the end of an axon at a synapse, the signal is transformed into a chemical signal with the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft
Spontaneous recovery
When an extinct conditioned response occurs again when the conditioned stimulus is presented after some period of time
Attended channel
When an individual is instructed to listen to information coming into one ear
Ethnocentrism
When different cultures interact, there is often a tendency to judge people from another culture by the standards of one's own culture, called ethnocentrism
Transition shock
When individuals experience changes that necessitate a period of adjustment
Deindividuation
When people lose their sense of restraint and their individual identity in exchange for identifying with a group or mob mentality, a situation called deindividuation
Source monitoring
When recalling information people are also susceptible to forgetting one particular fact-the information's source
Referred pain
When receptors create the illusion of pain on the skin, when their nerves cross paths with somatic afferents from the skin
Hyperpolarized
When repolarization occurs, there is a brief period in which the membrane potential is more negative than the resting potential caused by voltage-gated potassium channels that have not closed yet
Factitious disorder imposed on another
When someone creates and/or inflicts physical or psychological symptoms in someone else, often a child-and then presents the other person as ill or injured-the perpetrator of the deception is diagnosed with this
Culture shock
When the disorientation is the result of an individual being subjected to alternative cultures and foreign environments, such as through leisure travel or permanent relocation
Positive self-concept
When the ideal self and the real self are similar
Normative social influence
When the motivation for compliance is desire for the approval of others and to avoid rejection
Overpopulation
When there are more people than can be sustained
Derealization disorder
Where a person experiences a feeling that people or objects in the external world are unreal
What is the randomized block technique?
Where researchers evaluate where participants fall along the variables they wish to equalize across experimental and control groups
Parallel processing
Whereby many aspects of a visual stimulus are processed simultaneously instead of in a step-by-step or serial fashion
Educational stratification
While education has long been touted as the path to upward mobility in the U.S., it can also reinforce and perpetuate social inequalities
Hidden curriculum
While many forms of student socialization are intentional, there are other lessons learned in school known as hidden curriculum.
Discrimination
While prejudice involves thinking a certain way, discrimination involves acting a certain way toward a group
Physical dependence
Withdrawal is an uncomfortable and often physically painful experience without the use of a drug. This discomfort is alleviated when the ulcer takes the drug, thus reinforcing further drug use.
Priming
Within the network model of memory, hints may activate a closely related node, making it easier to retrieve the node being searched for. Prior activation of these nodes and associations is called priming.
Matriarchy
Women have more authority than men
Negative feedback
Works by maintaining stability or homeostasis; a system produces a product or end result, which feeds back to stop the system and maintain the product or end result within tightly controlled boundaries
Classical conditioning: how it works
You get the neutral stimulus to be associated with the unconditional stimulus so that together it creates a conditioned stimulus, where the neutral stimulus takes over the unconditioned stimulus and elicits a conditioned response (salivation)
From sound to hearing:
sound waves -> auricle -> external auditory canal -> tympanic membrane -> malleus -> incus -> stapes -> oval window -> perilymph -> endolymph -> basilar membrane -> auditory hair cells -> tectorial membrane -> neurotransmitters stimulate bipolar auditory neurons -> brain -> perception
Social cognition
the ability of the brain to store and process information regarding social perception
Who is the founder of sociology?
Émile Durkheim. To Durkheim, a society's capacity to maintain social order and stability is paramount to its functional success.
Reflexive movement
(0-1 year) include involuntary movements (e.g. blinking, grasping, sucking)
Rudimentary movement
(0-2 years) these are the first voluntary movements (e.g. crawling, sitting, standing)
Application of movement
(14+ years) movements are applied and refined throughout the span of one's lifetime
Fundamental movement
(2-7 years) child is beginning to coordinate his limbs (e.g. running, catching a ball)
Specialized movement
(7-14 years) fundamental movements are mastered and applied to completing specific actions (e.g. playing sports, riding a bike, gymnastics)
Dopamine pathways
-Reward (motivation) -Pleasure, euphoria -Motor function (fine tuning) -Compulsion -Perseveration
Global inequalities
-certain countries hold a majority of the resources -access to resources along countries seriously impacts other social factors, such as mortality -the burden of inequality is placed on certain segments of the population
Melatonin
-circadian rhythm, sleepiness, sleep irritation -shortages can lead to insomnia
Acetylcholine
-excitation at neuromuscular junction, parasympathetic nervous system activity -shortages can lead to dysfunction of the Gi tract and paralysis
Serotonin pathways
-mood -memory processing -sleep -cognition
Serotonin
-mood, digestion, sleep, memory, sexual desire -shortages can lead to aggression, compulsive behavior, overeating, and depression
Glutamate
-primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, learning, long-term potentiation -shortages can lead to fatigue, low concentration and energy
Gamma Aminobutyric Acid (GABA)
-primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain -shortages can lead to stress and anxiety, depression, ADHD, panic disorders, and a host of other disorders
Dopamine
-reward, mood, pleasure, smooth motor movements, focus and attention -shortages can lead to depression, lethargy, and difficulty coordinating motion
Children from poorer neighborhoods...
-tend to attend poorer schools and receive poorer educations -are far less likely than children from wealthier neighborhoods to pursue a four-year college degree, and even more unlikely to pursue education beyond college, like a graduate or medical degree -are more likely to end up with lower-paying jobs, and perpetuate the cycle of poverty for themselves
Epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
-two similar molecules both involved in fight or flight response, sympathetic nervous system activation (both are hormones and neurotransmitters) -shortages can lead to fatigue, lack of focus, apathy
What are the alternatives to the traditional family?
1) Cultural differences 2) Divorce 3) Cohabitation 4) Lesbian and gay relationships
What are the 6 factors that influence conformity?
1) Group size 2) Unanimity 3) Cohesion 4) Status 5) Accountability 6) No prior commitment
Over history, families have tended to serve what 5 functions?
1) Reproduction and the monitoring of sexual behavior 2) Protection 3) Socialization-passing down norms and values of society 4) Affection and companionship 5) Social status-social position is often based on family background and reputation
What are the steps involved in the transmission of a signal across a chemical synapse in the nervous system?
1. An action potential reaches the end of an axon, the synaptic knob 2. Depolarization of the presynaptic membrane opens voltage-gated calcium channels 3. Calcium influx into the presynaptic cell causes exocytosis of neurotransmitter stored in secretory vesicles 4. Neurotransmitter molecules diffuse across the narrow synaptic cleft 5. Neurotransmitter binds to receptor proteins in the postsynaptic membrane. These receptors are ligand-gated ion channels 6. The opening of these ion channels in the postsynaptic cell alters the membrane polarization 7. If the membrane depolarization of the postsynaptic cell reaches the threshold of voltage-gated sodium channels, an action potential is initiated 8. Neurotransmitter in the synaptic cleft is degraded and/or removed to terminate the signal
What are the 3 different types of stressors?
1. Catastrophes 2. Significant life changes 3. Daily hassles
What are the non-experimental designs?
1. Correlational studies 2. Ethnographic studies 3. Twin studies 4. Longitudinal studies 5. Case studies 6. Phenomenological studies 7. Surveys 8. Other studies
What are Herbert Blumer's 4 main forms of collective behavior?
1. Crowds 2. Publics 3. Masses 4. Social movements
What are the forms of religious organizations?
1. Ecclesia 2. Church 3. Sect 4. Cult/New religious movement
Max Weber's 5 characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy
1. It covers a fixed area of activity 2. It is hierarchically organized 3. Workers have expert training in an area of specialty 4. Organizational rank is impersonal, and advancement depends on technical qualification, rather than favoritism 5. Workers follow set procedures to increase predictability and efficiency
What are the 5 types of sensory receptors?
1. Mechanoreceptors 2. Chemoreceptors 3. Nociceptors 4. Thermoreceptors 5. Electromagnetic receptors
What are the 7 newborn reflexes?
1. Moro (startle) reflex 2. Rooting reflex 3. Sucking reflex 4. Babinski reflex 5. Tonic neck reflex 6. Palmar grasp reflex 7. Walking/stepping reflex
What are 3 different ways that individuals and environments interact?
1. People choose their environments which in turn shape them. For example, the college that you chose to attend had some sort of a unique impact on you 2. Personality shapes how people interpret and respond to their environment. For example, people prone to depression are more likely to view their jobs as pointless 3. A person's personality influences the situation to which she then reacts. Experiments have demonstrated that how you treat someone else influences how they will treat you. For example, if you call customer service because you are furious about something, you are more likely to receive a defensive or aggressive response on the phone.
What are the steps to a good experimental design?
1. Select the population 2. Operationalize the independent and dependent variables. The researchers must create an operational definition: a specification of precisely what they mean by each variable 3. Carefully select control and experimental groups 4. Randomly sample from the population 5. Randomly assign individuals to groups 6. Measure the results 7. Test the hypothesis
Piaget's theory had what 4 developmental stages?
1. Sensorimotor Stage 2. Preoperational Stage 3. Concrete Operational Stage 4. Formal Operational Stage
What are Erik Erikson's 8 developmental stages?
1. Trust versus mistrust 2. Autonomy versus shame and doubt 3. Initiative versus guilt 4. Industry versus inferiority 5. Identity versus role confusion 6. Intimacy versus isolation 7. Generatively versus stagnation 8. Integrity versus despair
What factors produce the depolarization effect?
1. Voltage-gated sodium channels inactivate very quickly after they open, shutting off the flow of sodium into the cell. The channels remain inactivated until the membrane potential nears resting values again. 2. Voltage-gated potassium channels open more slowly than the voltage-gated sodium channels and stay open longer. Voltage-gated potassium channels open in response to membrane depolarization. As potassium levels the cell down its concentration gradient, the membrane potential returns to negative values, actually overshooting the resting potential by about 20mV. At this point the voltage-gated potassium channels close. 3. Potassium leak channels and the Na+/K+ ATPase continue to function (as they always do) to bring the membrane back to resting potential. These factors alone would depolarize the membrane potential even without the voltage-gated potassium channels, but it would take a lot longer.
What are 4 situations that social psychologists have found in which attitudes better predict behavior?
1. When social influences are reduced 2. When general patterns of behavior, rather than specific behaviors, are observed 3. When specific, rather than general, attitudes are considered 4. When attitudes are made more powerful through self-reflection
Self-efficacy
A belief in one's own competence and effectiveness. It's how capable we believe we are of doing things.
Iconic memory
A brief photographic memory for visual information, which decays in a few tenths of a second
Status
A broad term in sociology that refers to all the socially defined positions within a society
Hegemony
A coerced acceptance of the values, expectations, and conditions as determined by the capitalist class.
Anomie
A concept that describes the social condition in which individuals are not provided with firm guidelines in relation to norms and values and there is minimal moral guidance or social ethic
Race
A description of a distinct social group based on certain shared characteristics
Sleep apnea
A disorder that causes people to intermittently stop breathing during sleep, which results in waking after a minute or so without air
Ecclesia
A dominant religious organization that includes most members of society, is recognized as the national or official religion, and tolerates no other religion.
Endocrine gland
A ductless gland whose secretory products are picked up by capillaries supplying blood to the region
Delusion
A false belief that is not due to culture, and is not relinquished despite evidence that it is false
Hallucination
A false sensory perception that occurs while a person is conscious
What might make it difficult to apply our conclusion of an experiment to the real world?
A flaw or limitation, known as external validity
Personality trait
A generally stable predisposition toward a certain behavior
Cortisol
A glucocorticoid, a hormone that shifts the body from using sugar (glucose) as an energy source towards using fat as an energy source. Stress hormone.
Group size
A group doesn't have to be very large, but a group of 3-5 people will elicit more conformity than one with only 1-2 people
Social support
A major determinant of health and well-being for humans and other animals
Masses
A mass is defined as a group whose formation is prompted through the efforts of mass media; masses consist of a relatively large number of people who may not be in close proximity but nevertheless share common interests.
Biofeedback
A means of recording and feeding back information about subtle autonomic responses in an attempt to train the individual to control those involuntary responses
What is a significant difference?
A measured difference between two groups that is large enough that it is probably not due to chance
Round window
A membrane-covered hole in the cochlea near the oval window. It releases excess pressure.
Schema
A mental blueprint containing common aspects of some part of the world
Survey method
A method for collecting information or data as reported by individuals
Neo-Malthusianism
A movement based on these principles that advocates for population control in order to reduce the negative effects of population strain
Parkinson's Disease
A movement disorder caused by the death of cells that generate dopamine in the basal ganglia and substantia nigra, two subcortical structures in the brain
Polysomnography (PSG)
A multimodal technique to measure physiological processes during sleep
Relative refractory period
A neuron can be induced to transmit an action potential, but the depolarization required is greater than normal because the membrane is hyperpolarized
Absolute refractory period
A neuron will not fire another action potential no matter how strong a membrane depolarization is induced
Positron emission tomography (PET)
A nuclear medicine imaging technique that produces a 3D image of functional metabolic processes across time. PET scans require the subject to be injected with a positron-emitting radionuclide tracer, which is introduced into the body on a biologically active molecule, such as glucose.
P-value
A p-value is a number from 0 to 1 that represents the probability that a difference observed in an experiment is due to chance. If, and only if, p < 0.05, scientists reject the null hypothesis.
Authoritative parenting
A parenting style that encourages the child to be independent but that still places limits and controls on behavior. This is the "best" parenting style, as it tends to produce children that are happier, have good emotional control and regulation, develop good social skills, and are confident in their abilities.
Eustachian tube (auditory tube)
A passageway from the back of the throat to the middle ear. It functions to equalize the pressure on both sides of the eardrum and is the cause of the "ear popping" one experiences at high altitudes or underwater.
Dissociative identity disorder
A person alternates among two or more distinct personality states, only one of which interacts with other people at a given time
Panic attack
A person commonly experienced intense dread, along with shortness of breath, chest pain, a choking sensation, and cardiac symptoms such as a rapid heartbeat or palpitations
Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)
A person feels tense or anxious much of the time about many issues, but does not experience panic attacks
Manic episode
A person has experienced an abnormal euphoric, unrestrained, or irritable mood for at least one week, as well as marked increase in either goal-directed activity or psychomotor agitation, which stems from an urge to be engaged in goal-directed activity but without the focus necessary to do so
Major depressive episode
A person has felt worse than usual for most of the day, nearly everyday, for at least 2 weeks
Mixed episode
A person has met the symptoms for both major depressive and manic episodes nearly everyday for at least a week, and the symptoms are severe enough to cause psychotic features, hospitalization, or impaired work, social, or personal functioning
Stage 3 and stage 4 sleep
A person transitions into slow wave sleep. Stage 3 and stage 4 are characterized by delta waves, which are high amplitude, low frequency waves and signify the deepest level of sleep.
Panic disorder
A person with panic disorder has suffered at least one panic attack and is worried about have more of them
Conversion Disorder
A person with this experiences a change in sensory or motor function-such as weakness, tremors, seizures, or difficulty talking or eating-that has no discernible physical or physiological cause and that seems to be significantly affected by psychological factors
Dependent personality disorder
A person with this feels a need to be taken care of by others and an unrealistic fear of being unable to take care of him- or herself
Narcissistic personality disorder
A person with this feels grandiosely self-important, with fantasies of beauty, brilliance, and power
Avoidant personality disorder
A person with this feels inadequate, inferior, and undesirable and is preoccupied with fears of criticism and conflict
Antisocial personality disorder
A person with this has a history of serious behavior problems beginning as a young teen, including significant aggression against people or animals; deliberate property destruction; lying or theft; and serious rule violation
Depersonalization disorder
A person with this has a recurring or persistent feeling of being cut off or detached from his or her body or mental processes, as if observing themselves from the outside, in something like an out-of-body experience
Dissociative amnesia
A person with this has had at least one episode of forgetting some important personal information, creating gaps in memory that are usually related to severe stress or trauma
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
A person with this has obsessions, compulsions, or both
Schizotypal personality disorder
A person with this has several traits that cause problems interpersonally, including limited or inappropriate affect; magical or paranoid thinking; and odd beliefs, speech, behavior, appearance, and perceptions
Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)
A person with this has suffered one or more major depressive episodes
Schizoid personality disorder
A person with this is a loner with little interest or involvement in close relationships, even those with family members
Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder
A person with this may be perfectionistic, rigid, and stubborn, with a strong need for control
Paranoid personality disorder
A person with this mistrusts and misinterprets others' motives and actions without sufficient cause, suspecting them of deceiving, harming, betraying, or attacking him or her
Histrionic personality disorder
A person with this strongly desires to be the center of attention, and often seeks to attract attention through personal appearance and seductive behavior
Borderline personality disorder
A person with this suffers from enduring or recurrent instability in his or her impulse control, mood, and image of self and others
Multiculturalism or pluralism
A perspective that endorses equal standing for all cultural traditions. It promotes the idea of cultures coming together in a true melting pot, rather than in a hierarchy.
Popular culture
A phrase used to describe features of culture that appeal to the masses, often those communicated through mass media, such as radio and television
Hormone receptor
A polypeptide that possesses a ligand-specific binding site
Ageism
A prejudice or discrimination against a person based on age, often against older people
Heterosexism
A prejudice or discrimination against a person based on their sexual orientation toward the same sex
Temporal summation
A presynaptic neuron fires action potentials so rapidly that the EPSPs or IPSPs pile up on top of each other
Classical conditioning
A process in which 2 stimuli are paired in such a way that the response to one of the stimuli changes. Ivan Pavlov's dog experiment. Has a neutral stimulus, unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response.
Social dysfunction
A process that has undesirable consequences and may actually reduce the stability of society
Mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR)
A protocol commonly used in the medical setting to help alleviate stress. Meditators have increased alpha and theta waves while they are meditating, with more experienced meditators showing greater improvements.
Ethnographic studies
A qualitative method in which researchers immerse themselves completely in the lives, culture, or way of life of the people they are studying. This also makes replication of the study difficult, and deep immersion in a culture can result in feelings of association and attachment with the culture by the researchers, which threatens objectivity
Electroencephalography (EEG)
A relatively noninvasive method of gathering functional information about brain activity. Electrodes are placed in the scalp to measure voltage fluctuations in the ionic currents of brain neurons.
Sect
A religious organization that is distinct from that of the larger society. Sects are often formed from breaking away from larger religious institutions.
Cult/New religious movement
A religious organization that is far outside society's norms and often involves a very different lifestyle
Subculture
A segment of society that shares a distinct pattern of traditions and values that differs from that of the larger society
Learned helplessness
A sense of exhaustion and lack of belief in one's ability to manage situations
Muscle spindle
A sensory organ specialized to detect muscle stretch
Psychological disorder
A set of behavioral and/or psychological symptoms that are not in keeping with cultural norms, and that are severe enough to cause significant personal distress and/or significant impairment to social, occupational, or personal functioning
Sociocultural evolution
A set of theories describing the processes through which societies and cultures have progressed over time
Social movements
A social movement is defined as collective behavior with the intention of promoting change. There are active movements, which attempt to foster social change, like revolutions, and there are expressive movements, which attempt to foster individual change, like support groups.
Ethnogenesis
A social process that results in the creation of separate ethnicities
Mob
A specific example of a crowd in which emotion is heightened and behavior is directed toward a specific and violet cause. Historical example is lynchpin.
Moral panic
A specific form of panic as a result of a perceived threat to social order-which lead to numerous executions
Communism
A specific socialist structure in which there is common ownership of the means of production, but also the absence of currencies, classes, and states, based on shared economic, political, and social ideologies
Reference group
A standard measure that people compare themselves to
Groupthink
A state of harmony within a group, because everyone is seemingly in a state of agreement, it can lead to some pretty terrible decisions
Algorithm
A step-by-step procedure
Chunking
A strategy in which information to be remembered is organized into discrete groups of data. Like grouping phone number into sets of 3 and a set of 4.
Self-handicapping
A strategy in which people create obstacles and excuses to avoid self-blame when they do poorly
Insight
A sudden flash of inspiration
State capitalism
A system in which companies are privately run, but work closely with the government in forming laws and regulations
Welfare capitalism
A system in which most of the economy is private with the exception of extensive social welfare programs to serve certain needs within society
Just world phenomenon
A tendency to believe that the world is fair and people get what they deserve
Belief perseverance
A tendency to cling to beliefs despite the presence of contrary evidence
Mental set
A tendency to fixate on solutions that worked in the past though they may not apply to the current situation
Functional fixedness
A tendency to perceive the functions of objects as fixed and unchanging
Confirmation bias
A tendency to search only for information that confirms our preconceived thinking, rather than information that might not support it
Bureaucracy
A term used to describe an administrative body and the process by which this body accomplishes work tasks
Social Cognitive Theory
A theory of behavior change that emphasizes the interactions between people and their environment
Nomadism
A traditional method of continuous travel in search of natural resources as a method of sustenance, "hunting and gathering," are not considered migration because there is no intention to settle
Schwann cells
A type of glial cell that exist in conjunction with neurons, wrapping layers of specialized membrane around the axons
Church
A type of religious organization that is well-integrated into the larger society
Tertiary care
A very specialized form of healthcare. It is based on consultations with specialist care providers and often occurs in hospitals or care facilities designed just for the purpose of caring for patients with a limited set of conditions
Social network
A web of social relationships, including those in which a person is directly linked to others as well as those in which people are indirectly connected through others
Agents of social control
Ability to attach stigmas to certain behaviors
Dyssomnias
Abnormalities in the amount, quality, or timing of sleep, and include insomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnea
Adrenal gland
Above the kidney. There are 2 adrenal glands, one above each kidney.
Negative reinforcement
Absence of aversive stimulus
Negative punishment
Absence of rewarding stimulus
Emergence
According to the Gestalt principle, when attempting to identify an object, we first identify its outline, which then allows us to figure out what the object is. Only after the whole emerges do we start to identify the parts that make up the whole, such as the dog's face, legs, or the chain attached to his collar.
Researchers can never...
Account for EVERY potential extraneous variable
Acetylcholinesterase (AChE)
Acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft is degraded by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase
What are the processes by which classically-conditioned responses are developed and maintained?
Acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination
Deviance
Actions that violate the dominant social norms
Motor function
Acts on the integrative function, carried out by the PNS
Positive
Adds to
Accommodate
Adjusting our schemas to take into account the new experiences
Comparing CT scans and MRIs
Advantage of CT scans include a very rapid acquisition of images of a large portion of the body, generally lower cost, more open and less noisy machinery, subjects do not have to remain completely motionless, and there is no prohibition on implanted medical devices. For brain imaging, CT scans are preferred when speed is important, such as during a suspected stroke. Advantages of MRIs include higher resolution and therefore a more detailed image. MRI provides much more detail about soft tissues. Also, MRIs do not use x-rays, and do not include significant exposure to ionizing radiation, which make MRIs safer in most instances.
What are 3 good ways to deal with stress?
Aerobic exercise, biofeedback and relation, and social support
Repolarization
After depolarization, repolarization returns the membrane potential to normal
Misinformation effect
After people are exposed to subtle misinformation, they have a tendency to misremember
Reticular formation
Alertness and arousal are controlled by structures within the brain stem, known as reticular formation
Cranial nerves and spinal nerves
All neurons entering and exiting the CNS are carried by 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves
Utilitarianism
All rational choice paradigms share the fundamental premise that human behaviors are utilitarian. Utilitarianism is based on two assumptions: 1) that individual humans are rational in their actions, and 2) that in every human interaction, individuals will seek to maximize their own self-interest
Polygamy
Allows an individual to have multiple wives or husbands simultaneously
Organic solidarity
Allows society to integrate through a division of labor, which leads to each person having a different personal experience; thus, each movement is distinguishable and separate
Mechanical solidarity
Allows society to remain integrated because individuals have common beliefs that lead to each person having the same fundamental experience
Phonological loop
Allows us to repeat verbal information to help us remember it
External migration
Also called cross-border or international migration because it involves migration to another nation
Persistent depressive disorder (PDD)
Also called dysthymia disorder or dysthymia, is a less intense, but typically more chronic form of depression. Depression lost days for at least 2 years.
Cultural competence
Also called effective interactions that are between people from different cultures
Command economies
Also called planned economies, are based on a plan of production and the means of production are often public, state-owned; these include socialism and communism.
Anterior pituitary
Also called the adenohypophysis; portion of the pituitary that develops from nonneural tissue; consists of endocrine cells that synthesize and secrete several tropic and nontropic hormones
Posterior pituitary
Also called the neurohypophysis. It is composed of axons which descend from the hypothalamus
Fad
Also known as a craze, is an example of a collective behavior in which something 1) experiences a rapid and dramatic incline in reputation, 2) remains popular among a large population for a brief period, and 3) experiences a rapid and dramatic decline in reputation
Hallucinogens
Also known as psychedelics, distort perceptions in the absence of any sensory input, creating hallucinations. These include LSD and marijuana.
Mind-body dualism
Although schizophrenia is a thought disorder, the psychological characteristics have a physical or neurological basis mind and body=separate entities
Eidetic memory
An ability found in some children to remember an image in vivid detail for several minutes after brief exposure
Depolarization
An action potential is a disturbance in this membrane potential, a wave of depolarization of the plasma membrane that travels along an axon
Habit
An action that is performed repeatedly until it becomes automatic
Cultural relativism
An alternative to ethnocentrism; judging another culture based on its own standards
Prefrontal cortex
An area of the brain that is now known to be involved in reflection, planning, emotional regulation, and theory of mind-the ability to understand the perspectives of others. Phineas Gage injured this part of his brain.
Food desert
An area where healthy, fresh food is difficult to find because there are no proper grocery stores, making people more likely to eat high-calorie foods that have low nutritional value
Principle of aggregation
An attitude affects a person's aggregate or average behavior, but not necessarily each isolated act
Capitalism
An economic system in which resources and production are mainly privately owned, and goods/services are produced for a profit
Resting membrane potential
An electric potential across the plasma membrane of approximately -70 millivolts, with the interior of the cell negatively charged with respect to the exterior of the cell
Personality disorder
An enduring, rigid set of personality traits that deviates from cultural norms, impairs functioning, and causes distress either to the person with the disorder or to those in his or her life
Neuromuscular junction
An example of a chemical synapse that is commonly used is the neuromuscular junction between neurons and skeletal muscle
Physiological arousal
An excitation of the body's internal state
Learned helplessness
An external locus of control and learned helplessness are characteristic of many depressed and oppressed people, and they often result in passivity
Presbyopia
An inability to accommodate (focus). It results from loss of flexibility of the lens, which occurs with aging.
Anterograde amnesia
An inability to encode new memories
Retrograde amnesia
An inability to recall information that was previously encoded
Fixation
An inability to see the problem from a fresh perspective
Cohesion
An individual will more likely be swayed to agree with opinions that come from someone within a group with whom the individual identifies
Modeling
An observer sees the behavior being performed by another person. Later, with this model in mind, the observer imitates the behavior she or he observed
Gestalt
An organized whole perceived as more than the sum of its individual parts
Over-confidence
An overestimation of the accuracy of knowledge and judgements
Social Anxiety Disorder or Social Phobia
An unreasonable, paralyzing fear of feeling embarrassed or humiliated while one is seen or watched by others, even while performing routine activities such as eating in public or using a public restroom
Drive
An urge originating from a physiological discomfort such as hunger, thirst, or sleepiness
Archival studies
Analyze already collected data from historical records and authentic original documents
Convergence
Another binocular cue that describes the extent to which the eyes turn inward when looking at an object; the greater the angle of convergence or inward strain, the closer the object
Paradoxical sleep
Another name for REM sleep. Unlike the conscious state, REM sleep is characterized by low (almost no) skeletal muscle movement.
Hypophysis
Another name for the pituitary gland
Meritocracy
Another stratification system that uses merit, personal effort, to establish social standing
Cluster B
Antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic personality disorders associated with emotional, dramatic, and attention-seeking behaviors, and intense interpersonal conflict
Anxiety disorders
Anxiety disorders are characterized by excessive fear, of specific real things or more generally, and/or anxiety, of real or imagined future things or events, with both physiological and psychological symptoms Specific psychological disorders: -Separation Anxiety Disorder -Specific Phobia(s) -Social Anxiety Disorder -Panic Disorder -Generalized Anxiety Disorder
Observational studies
Any study in which individuals are observed and outcomes measured with no attempt to control the outcome
Mnemonic
Any technique for improving retention and retrieval of information from memory
Reinforcement
Anything that will increase the likelihood that a preceding behavior will be repeated; the behavior is supported by a reinforcement
Threshold potential
Approximately -50mV. Once this threshold is reached, the channels are opened fully, but below the threshold they are closed and do not allow the passage of any ions through the channel.
Parasomnias
Are abnormal behaviors that occur during sleep and include somnambulism and night terrors
Autocratic governments
Are controlled by a single person, or a selective small group, with absolute decision-making power. Autocracies include dictatorships, those ruled by one person, and fascist governments, those ruled by a small group of leaders.
Surface traits
Are evident from a person's behavior
Source traits
Are factors underlying human personality and behavior; source traits are fewer and more abstract
Oligarchic governments
Are less clear as leaders can be elected or unelected; the public might have the power to elect representation, but people have little influence in directing decisions and social change
Twin studies
Are often run to test the relationship between nature and nurture
States
Are situational; they are unstable, temporary, and variable aspects of personality that are influenced by the external environment
Beliefs
Are the convictions or principles that people hold
Secondary reinforcers
Are those that are learned to be reinforcers. These are neutral stimuli that are paired with primary reinforcers to make them conditioned. For example, suppose that every time a child reads a book, she receives a stamp. After acquiring 10 stamps, she can exchange these for a small pizza.
Behavioral neuroscience
Area of psychology that looks for the neurophysiology correlates of behavior. Answers 2 questions: "What parts of the brain are active during specific behaviors?" and "How do neurotransmitters and other chemicals affect behavior?"
Thomas Robert Malthus
Argued that population is the result of available resources from sustenance, such as productive farmland
Social constructionism
Argues that people actively shape their reality through social interactions; reality is therefore something that is socially constructed rather than inherent
Relative motion
As we move, stable objects appear to move as well
Peg word method
Assigning images to a sequence of number. For recall, the images of the places could be called upon to bring into awareness the associated topics.
Humanistic therapy
Assumed problem: barriers to self-understanding and self-acceptance Therapy goals: personal growth through self-insight General method: active listening and unconditional positive regard
Cognitive behavioral (CBT)
Assumed problem: maladaptive behavior and/or negative, self-defeating thoughts Therapy goals: extinction and relearning of undesired thoughts/behaviors and healthier thinking and self-talk General method: reconditioning, desensitization, and reversal of self-blame
Psychoanalytic therapy
Assumed problem: unconscious forces and childhood experiences Therapy goals: reduce anxiety through self-insight General method: analysis and interpretation
Iris
At the back of the anterior chamber is a membrane called the iris with an opening called the pupil. The iris is the colored part of the eye, and muscles in the iris regulate the diameter of the pupil.
Behavioral genetics
Attempts to determine the role of inheritance in behavioral traits; the interaction between heredity and experience determines an individual's personality and social behavior
Signal detection theory
Attempts to predict how and when someone will detect the presence of a given sensory stimulus amidst all of the other sensory stimuli in the background
Pansexual
Attracted to people irrespective of gender or sex
Projection
Attributing one's own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to another person
What are the 3 categories of parenting styles?
Authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative
Kohlberg Stage 4 of 6
Authority and social-order maintaining orientation: Beyond a need for individual approval, individuals feel a duty to uphold laws, rules, and social conventions, "What am I supposed to do?"
Episodic memory
Autobiographical memory for information of personal importance, such as the situation surrounding a first kiss
Cluster C
Avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders, associated with tense, anxious, over-controlled behaviors
Self-consciousness
Awareness of one's self, self-concept includes physical, psychological, and social attributes, which can be influenced by the individual's attitudes, habits, beliefs, and ideas
Synaptic knob
Axons can branch multiple times and terminate in synaptic knobs that form connection with target cells
Infantile amnesia
Before the age of about 3.5 years old, we are unable to remember much, if anything
Genital stage
Begins in adolescence, when sexual themes resurface and a person's life/sexual energy fuels activities such as friendships, art, sports, and careers
Bottom-up processing
Begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the complex integration of information occurring in the brain
Deterministic
Behaviorism is deterministic, proposing that people begin as blank slates, and that environmental reinforcement and punishment completely determine an individual's subsequent behavior and personalities
Instinct
Behaviors that are unlearned and present in fixed patterns throughout a species
Taboo
Behaviors that customs forbid
Egosyntonic
Being generally in harmony with a person's ego or self-image
Internal locus of control
Believe they are able to influence outcomes through their own efforts and actions
Retina
Beneath the choroid is the retina, the surface upon which light is focused
Choroid
Beneath the sclera is a layer called the choroid. It contains darkly-pigmented cells; this pigmentation absorbs excess light within the eye.
Max Weber
Best known for refining and critiquing many of Marx's tenets of conflict theory, agreed with Marx that inequalities in a capitalist system would lead to conflict, but Weber did not believe that the collapse of capitalism was inevitable.
Retinal disparity
Binocular cue whereby the brain compares the images projected onto the two retinas in order to perceive distance
Bipolar and Related Disorders
Bipolar and Related Disorders involve mood swings or cycles (called episodes) ranging from manic to depressive, in which manic episodes tend to be followed by depressive episodes and vice versa Specific psychological disorders: -Bipolar I Disorder -Bipolar II Disorder -Cyclothymic Disorder
Urinary system
Bladder and urethral sphincter Parasympathetic (rest and digest): bladder contracts, urethral sphincter relaxes Sympathetic (fight or flight): bladed relaxes, urethral sphincter contracts
Mixed economies
Blend elements of command and market economies with both public and private ownership
Educational institutions have what functions?
Both manifest and latent functions. Their manifest functions are to systematically pass down knowledge and to give status to those who have been educated. Latent functions include socialization, serving as agents of change, and maintaining social control.
Hippocampus
Brain structure that plays a key role in forming memories
Harry Harlow and Margaret Harlow
Bred monkeys for experiments. infant monkeys separated from mothers at birth. artificial mothers made, one nourishing (wire frame with wooden head and bottle) and the other cloth (wire frame with wooden head and cloth blanket wrapped around it). baby monkeys preferred the cloth mother. contact comfort was an essential element of infant/mother bonding, essential to psychological development.
Warning colors
Bright colors meant to advertise to predators that an organism is toxic or noxious
Broca's aphasia
Broca's area was discovered when several people who had an injury to this area lost the ability to speak; a disorder now termed Broca's aphasia. People with Broca's aphasia know what they want to say, but are unable to generate fluent speech.
Ganglia
Bunches of somas located outside the central nervous system
Nuclei
Bundle of neuronal cell bodies found within the central nervous system
Sleep spindles
Bursts of waves. They have a frequency of 12-14 Hz and are moderately intense.
How are the cerebral hemispheres connected?
By a thick bundle of axons called the corpus callosum
C. Robert Cloninger
C. Robert Cloninger linked personality to brain systems involved with reward, motivation, and punishment. Linked to the level of activity of certain neurotransmitters in 3 interacting systems
What are the 5 spice traits in the Five-Factor Model?
CANOE Conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness to experience, and extroversion
Oligodendrocytes
CNS Form myelin-increase speed of conduction of APs along axon
Astrocytes
CNS Guide neuronal development Regulate synaptic communication via regulation of neurotransmitter levels
Ependymal cells
CNS Produce and circulate cerebrospinal fluid
Microglia
CNS Remove dead cells and debris
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
Can arise when a person feels intense fear, horror, or helplessness after experiencing, witnessing, or otherwise confronting an extremely traumatic event that involves actual or threatened death, serious injury, or sexual violence to the self or others
Values
Can be defined as a culture's standard for evaluating what is good or bad
Deviance
Can be defined as a violation of society's standards of conduct or expectations
Locus of control
Can be internal or external
Self-concept
Carl Roger's states that the self-concept is made up of the child's conscious, subjective perceptions and beliefs about him- or herself
Carl Rogers
Carl Rogers developed humanistic theory. Carl Rogers stated that when a child receives disapproval from a caregiver for certain behavior, he or she senses that the caregiver's positive regard is conditional
Motor neurons
Carry information from the nervous system toward organs which can act upon that information, known as effectors
Sensory neurons
Carry information toward the central nervous system and are called AFFERENT neurons
Texture gradient
Change from a coarse, distinct texture to a fine, indistinct texture indicates increasing distance
Sublimation
Channeling aggressive or sexual energy into positive, constructive activities, such as producing art
Leak channels
Channels that are open all the time, and that simple allow ions to "leak" across the membrane according to their gradient
REM sleep
Characterized by bursts of quick eye movements. The EEG measures waves that most resemble the beta waves seen in individuals when awake. The waves in REM sleep are sawtooth waves with low intensity and variable frequency.
Charles Spearman
Charles Spearman first coined the term general intelligence; Spearman believed that intelligence could be strictly quantified through cognitive tests, and those who possessed high general intelligence would do well on lots of different measures of cognitive ability
Pheromones
Chemical messengers employed by animals to communicate with each other
Pheromones
Chemical signals that cause a social response in members of the same species
Typification
Classifying objects and actions we observe quickly and routinely structure our own actions in immediate response
Light and shadow
Closer objects reflect more light than distant objects
Stimulus intensity
Coded by the frequency of action potentials
Neural networks
Codified routes for information processing
Stimulus location
Communicated by the receptive field of the sensory receptor sending the signal
Para-medical care
Community centers and agencies can provide para-medical care, such as patient education, in-home care work, and public health outreach
Within-subjects design
Compare the same group at different time points
What are the 3 ways that behaviors may be motivated by social influences?
Compliance, identification, and internalization
Compliance
Compliant behavior is motivated by the desire to seek reward or to avoid punishment
Basal nuclei
Composed of gray matter and are located deep within the cerebral hemispheres
Economics
Concerned with the production, distribution, and consumption of resources, both goods and services. Most economic structures fit into one of four categories: command, market, mixed, or traditional
Divided attention
Concerns when and if we are able to perform multiple tasks simultaneously
Reciprocal inhibition
Concurrent relaxation of the hamstring and contraction of the quadriceps is an example of reciprocal inhibition
Mary Ainsworth
Conducted a series of experiments called the "strange situation experiments," where mothers would leave their infants in an unfamiliar environment to see how the infants would react. These studies suggested that attachment styles vary among infants.
Albert Bandura
Conducted a series of experiments using a Bobo doll. The children tended to imitate the behavior they saw. Supports that humans are prone to imitation and modeling, and we are particularly likely to imitate those that we perceive as similar to ourselves, as successful, or as admirable in some way
How does conflict theory view society?
Conflict theory views society as a never-ending competition for limited resources, and at least in some respects, conflict theory is diametrically opposed to the functionalist perspective.
Assimilate
Conforming experiences into our existing schemes
Associations
Connect the nodes in the organized network
Impression management or self-presentation
Conscious or unconscious process whereby people attempt to manage their own images by influencing the perceptions of others
Latent functions
Consequences of a structure that are not officially sought or sanctioned. Latent functions can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful.
Traditional economies
Consider social customs in economic decisions; this practice is most common in rural areas and often involves battering and trading
Republican governments
Consider their countries to be public concerns and are thus democratic in nature, meaning that the people have the supreme power in these societies
George Herbert Mead
Considered the most important in the initial development of symbolic interactionism
Achieved status
Considered to be due largely to the individual's efforts
Traits
Considered to be internal, stable, and enduring aspects of personality that should be consistent across most situations
The person-situation controversy, also known as the trait versus state controversy
Considers the degree to which a person's reaction in a given situation is due to their personality (trait) or is due to the situation itself (state)
Democratic governments
Consist of elected leaders; the public has some degree of political decision-making power through either direct decisions or representation. Democracies include direct democracies, governments in which there is direct public participation, and representative democracies, in which there is indirect public participation through the election of representatives.
Authoritarian governments
Consist of unelected leaders; the public might have some individual freedoms but have no control over representation. Authoritarian governments include totalitarian, those in which unelected leaders regulate both public and private life through coercive means of control
What 3 factors influence whether we attribute behavior to internal or external causes?
Consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus
Personal identity
Consists of one's own sense of personal attributes, such as smart and funny
Social identity
Consists of social definitions of who you are; these can include race, religion, gender, occupation, and such
High culture
Consumption of the elite, like ballet or opera
Triad
Contains 3 members
Continuous reinforcement
Continuous reinforcement will result in rapid behavior acquisition, but will also result in rapid extinction when the reinforcement ceases
Monarchic governments
Controlled by a single person, or a selective small group, who inherited their leadership role, like kings and queens. There are both absolute and constitutional monarchies, in which leaders are limited through formal constitutions
Aristarchic governments
Controlled by a small group of people, selected based on specific qualifications, with decision-making power; the public is not involved in most political decisions. Aristarchies include aristocracies, ruled by elite citizens, and meritocracies, those with a record of meaningful social contributions.
Hypothalamus
Controls the physiological aspects of emotion, such as sweating and a racing heart
Kohlberg Level 2 of 3
Conventional level of moral reasoning: morality judged by comparing actions to society's views and expectations, acceptance of conventional definitions of "right" and "wrong." Typical of adolescents and adults.
Illusory correlation
Created between a group of people and a characteristic based on unique cases
Herd behavior
Crowds are thought to be emotional; often, in the context of the crowds, there is a non-permanent loss of rational thought and the crowd influences individual behaviors, sometimes referred to as herd behavior
Ethnicity
Cultural rather than biological
Cross-sectional study
Data collection or survey of a population or sample at a specific time
Experimental protocol should also include what?
Debriefing. In which participants are told after the experiment exactly what was done and why the experiment was conducted.
Adaptation
Decrease in firing frequency when the intensity of a stimulus remains constant
Publics
Defined as a group of individuals discussing a single issue, which conflicts with the common usage of the term. This form of collective behavior begins as the discussion begins and ceases as the discussion ceases and there can exist various publics to reflect various discussions. People in public share ideas.
Crowds
Defined as a group that shares a purpose
Consciousness
Defined as the awareness that we have of ourselves, our internal states, and the environment
Inclusive fitness
Defined by the number of offspring the organism has, how it supports its offspring, and how it's offspring support others in a group
Functional imaging
Demonstrate which parts of the brain are active, and to what extent, as experimental participants manifest a behavior
Organ of Corti
Dendrites from bipolar auditory afferent neurons are stimulated by hair cells, and tectorial membrane together are known as organ of Corti. The outer ear and middle ear convey sound waves to the cochlea, and the organ of Corti in the cochlea is the primary site at which auditory stimuli are detected.
Stage 2 sleep
Denoted by a change to two distinct wave patterns on the EEG. Although a person still experiences theta waves, these waves are intermixed with these two patterns: K-complexes and sleep spindles.
Barbiturates and alcohol
Depress the sympathetic nervous system "fight or flight" activity. Barbiturates are often prescribed as sleep aids. They are dangerous in combination with alcohol and prone to overdose-too much of a depressive effect can actually shut down life-sustaining organs.
Depressive Disorders
Depressive Disorders are characterized by a disturbance in mood or affect. Specific symptoms include difficulties in sleep, concentration, and/or appetite; fatigue; and inability to experience pleasure (anhedonia) Specific psychological disorders: -Major Depressive Disorder -Persistent Depressive Disorder (dysthymia) -Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder
Binocular cues
Depth cues that depend on information received from both eyes and are most important for perceiving depth when objects are close to us in our visual field
Monocular cues
Depth cues that depend on information that is available to either eye alone and are important for judging distances of objects that are far from us since the retinal disparity is only slight
Opiates
Derivatives of opium; depress neural functioning. They temporarily reduce pain by mimicking the brain's own pain relievers, neurotransmitters known as endorphins; pain is replaced with a blissful feeling. With prolonged use, the brain may stop producing endorphins, leading to a painful withdrawal from the drug.
Retinal
Derived from vitamin A
Primary care
Described the care provider responsible for ongoing preventative care or disease management, or community-based care, like an urgent care
Mood
Describes a baseline of weeks or months; mood is a person's sustained internal emotion that colors his or her view of life
Caste system
Describes a closed stratification where people can do nothing to change the category that they are born into
Associative learning
Describes a process of learning in which one event, object, or action is directly connected with another. Classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
Depth perception
Describes the ability to see objects in 3 dimensions despite the fact that images are imposed on the retina in only 2 dimensions
Intragenerational mobility
Describes the differences in social class between different members of the same generation
Foraging behavior
Describes the search for and exploitation of food resources by animals
Olfactory receptors
Detect airborne chemicals and allow us to smell things
Social behaviorism
Developed by George Herbert Mead; the mind and self emerge through the process of communicating with others
Hinduism
Developed in India and is a polytheistic religion practiced by about 14% of the world's population
Developed regions birth and death rates
Developed regions tend to have lower birth rates and death rates
Tribes
Development of small sub-ethnic groups
Premenstrual dysphoric disorder
Diagnosed only in woman, many of the symptoms of a major depressive episode are present, with the caveat that they intensify in the final week before the onset of menses and then improve and in many cases disappear in the week after menstruation has ended
Schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders
Diagnosed when someone has been experiencing one or more of the following positive symptoms: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking, disorganized or abnormal motor behaviors, and/or more negative symptoms, such as decreased emotional expression, abolition, and/or alogia (decreased or absent speech)
Schizophrenia
Diagnosed when someone has been experiencing positive and sometimes negative symptoms for longer than 6 months
Mass hysteria
Diagnostic label that refers to the collective delusion of some threat that spreads through emotions and escalates until it spirals out of control
Illness Anxiety Disorder
Differs from somatic symptom disorder in so far as the somatic aspect of the illness is not as central or can even be nonexistent
Biological influences
Disability, genetics, evolution, brain chemistry, and brain structure
Reverse discrimination
Discriminating against the majority
Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders
Disorders in this category are distinct from anxiety disorders in that they involve a pattern of obsessive thoughts or urges that are coupled with maladaptive behavioral compulsions; the compulsions are experienced as a necessary/urgent response to the obsessive thoughts/urges, creating rigid, anxiety-filled routines Specific psychological disorders: -Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder -Body Dysmorphic Disorder -Hoarding Disorder
Dissociative disorder
Disruptions in awareness, memory, and identity are extreme and/or frequent, and they cause distress or impair the person's functioning
Dissociative Disorders
Dissociative Disorders are characterized by disruptions in memory, awareness, identity, or perception. Many dissociative orders are thought to be caused by psychological trauma. Specific psychological disorders: -Dissociative Identity Disorder -Dissociative Amnesia -Depersonalization/Derealization Disorder
Loudness of sound
Distinguished by the amplitude of vibration, larger vibrations cause more frequent action potentials in auditory neurons
Economic interdependence
Division of labor on a global scale, countries might have the demand for products without the internal means of production
What does predictive validity do?
Does the test tell us about the variable of interest?
What is one of the causes for an intellectual disability?
Down Syndrome (trisomy 21): third copy of chromosome 21
If it's both biological and a sociocultural influence...
Drug use
Marginal poverty
Due to a lack of stable employment
Structural poverty
Due to underlying and pervasive effects of the society's institutions
Migration in seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
During this period, English colonists migrated to the U.S. Indentured servants also migrated through this process, accounting for more than half of all immigrants from Europe during the period
Migration of the late twentieth century to the present
During this period, the majority of migrants have been from Asia and Latin America
Migration in mid-nineteenth century
During this period, the most migrants came from Northern Europe
Migration of the early twentieth century
During this period, the most migrants came from southern and Eastern Europe
Stage 1 sleep
During this stage, the EEG is dominated by theta waves of low to moderate intensity and intermediate frequency
Spatial summation
EPSPs and IPSPs from all of the synapses on the postsynaptic membrane are summed at a given moment in time
Nernst equation
Ecell= E°cell - (RT/nF) (lnQ)
Market economies
Economic decisions are based on the market, "supply and demand," and the means of production are often private; these include laissez-faire and free market economies
Socialism
Economic system where resources and production are collectively owned. Private property is limited and government intervene to share property amongst all
Edward Thorndike
Edward Thorndike first proposed the idea of social intelligence in the 1920s, defined as the ability to manage and understand people
Action potentials
Electrochemical impulses. The action potential is a localized area of depolarization of the plasma membrane that travels in a wave-like manner along an axon.
Temperament
Emotional excitability: infants who are considered "difficult" have a temperament that is more irritable and unpredictable, while infants who are considered "easy" have a more placid, quieted and easygoing temperament
How did Erik Erikson extend Freud's theory of developmental stages?
Erickson added social and interpersonal factors, to supplement Freud's focus on unconscious conflicts within a person. And Erickson delineated 8 developmental stages and conflicts in adolescence and adulthood, to supplement Freud's focus on early childhood.
Dramaturgical approach
Erving Gorman, a prominent proponent of symbolic interaction, developed this philosophy to view people as theatrical performers and everyday life as a stage.
Social comparison
Evaluating our opinions by comparing them to those of others
While symbolic interactionists focus almost exclusively on one-on-one and small group interactions, social constructionists...
Examine the constructs of society from both macros and micro-sociological perspectives
Excitatory neurotransmitters cause postsynaptic depolarization called...
Exciters postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs)
Biographical studies
Exhaustive accounts of an individual's life experience
Social roles
Expectations for people of a given social status
Rationalization
Explaining and intellectually justifying one's impulsive behavior
Cognitive dissonance theory
Explains that we feel tension (dissonance) whenever we hold 2 thoughts or beliefs (cognitions) that are incompatible, or when attitudes and behaviors don't match
Elaboration likelihood model
Explains when people will be influenced by the content of the speech (or the logic of the argument), and when people will be influenced by other, more superficial characteristics like the appearance of the orator or the length of the speech
Feature-detection theory
Explains why a certain area of the brain is activated when looking at a face, a different area is activated when looking at the letters on this page, etc.
Correlational studies
Explore the relationship between 2 quantitative variables. The most commonly used type of correlation is the Pearson Correlation.
Reaction formation
Expressing the opposite of what one really feels, when it would feel too dangerous to express the real feeling
Incentives
External stimuli, objects, and events in the environment that either help induce or discourage certain behaviors
Hypervigilance
Extreme alertness
What are the five global factors? (Source traits)
Extroversion, anxiety, receptivity, accommodation, and self-control
Type 1 error (false positive)
Falsely suppose the veracity of a result that does not actually exist
If it's both a sociocultural and psychological influence...
Family dynamics and trauma
What are the six agents of socialization?
Family, school, peer groups, workplace, religion/government, and mass media/technology
B.F. Skinner
Famous for the "Skinner Box" to demonstrate operant conditioning in low level animals. On repeated trials, the rat would quickly push the lever to end the painful shock.
Hyperopia
Farsightedness, results from the focusing of light behind the retina. Hyperopia can be corrected by a convex (converging) lens, which causes light rays to converge before reaching the cornea.
Feeding and Eating Disorders
Feeding and eating disorders are characterized by abnormal eating disorders such as severe underrating (anorexia nervosa) and purging to maintain unhealthy weight (bulimia nervosa) Specific psychological disorders: -Anorexia Nervosa -Bulimia Nervosa -Pica -Binge Eating Disorder
Feminist sociologists
Feminist sociologists strive to understand both the social structures that contribute to gender differences and the effects of gender differences on individual interactions
Sympathetic
Fight or flight, mobilize energy Location of preganglionic soma: thoracolumbar=thoracic and lumbar spinal cord Preganglionic axon: short Ganglia: close to cord, far from target Postganglionic axon: long (norepinephrine [NE])
Integrity versus despair
Finally, in later life, a person must resolve the crisis of integrity versus despair, Erikson's eighth and final stage. If a person looks back with regrets and a lack of personal worth at this stage, he or she may feel hopeless, guilty, resentful, and self-rejecting.
Situational phobias
Flying, electors, bridges, crowds
Information-processing models
Focus on what happens between the ears. These models assume that information is taken in from the environment and processed through a series of steps including attention, perception, and storage into memory.
Humanistic theory
Focuses on healthy personality development. According to this theory, humans are seen as inherently good and as having free will, rather than having their behaviors determined by their early relationships.
Habituation
Follows a very similar process to habit. A person learns to "tune out" the stimulus.
Hypomanic episode
For at least 4 days, a person has experienced an abnormally euphoric or irritable mood, with at least 3 of the symptoms for a manic episode, but at a less severe level
Denial
Forceful refusal to acknowledge an emotionally painful memory
Political parties
Formal groups of people that share the same principles through appropriate policies
Immigration controls
Formal policies that define and regulate who has the right to settle in an area
Carl Rogers
Founder of humanistic psychology; came up with the ideal self and the real self
Francis Galton
Francis Galton first proposed a theory of general intelligence in the mid 1800s. Galton believed intelligence had a strong biological basis and could be quantified by testing certain cognitive tasks.
Manifest content
Freud believed that the plot lines of dreams, or manifest content, were symbolic versions of underlying latent content
Stranger anxiety
From about 8-12 months of age, young children display stranger anxiety, crying and clinging to caregiver, anytime around new faces
Sensorimotor Stage (Piaget)
From birth to roughly age 2. Babies and young infants experience the world through their senses and movement, such as looking, touching, mouthing, and grasping. They learn object permanence-the understanding that things continue to exist when they are out of sight. They also demonstrate stranger anxiety: distress when confronted with an unfamiliar person.
Traditional authority
From custom, tradition, or accepted practice
Corpus callosum
Function: connection -connects the left and right cerebral hemispheres
Limbic system
Function: emotion, memory, and learning -controls emotional states -links conscious and unconscious portions of the brain -helps with memory storage and retrieval
Midbrain
Function: eye movement -integration of visual and auditory information -visual and auditory reflexes -wakefulness and consciousness -coordinated information on posture and muscle tone
Hypothalamus
Function: homeostasis and behavior -controls homeostatic functions, like temperature regulation, fluid balance, appetite, through both neural and normal regulation -controls primitive emotions such as anger, rage, and sex drive -controls the pituitary gland
Thalamus
Function: integrating center and relay station -relay center for somatic (conscious) sensation -relays information between the spinal cord and the cerebral cortex
Medulla
Function: involuntary functions -controls autonomic processes such as blood pressure, blood flow, heart rate, respiratory rate, swallowing, and vomiting -controls reflex reactions such as coughing or sneezing -relays sensory information to the cerebellum and the thalamus
Basal nuclei
Function: movement -regulate body movement and muscle tone -coordination of learned movement patterns -general pattern of rhythm movements, such as controlling the cycle of arm and leg movements when walking -subconscious adjustments of conscious movements
Cerebellum
Function: movement coordination -integrating center -coordination of complex movement, balance and posture, muscle tone, and spatial equilibrium
Cerebral cortex
Function: perception, skeletal muscle movement, memory, attention, thought, language, and consciousness -divided into 4 lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital with specialized subfunctions -conscious thought processes and planning, awareness, and sensation -perception and processing of the special senses: vision, hearing, smell, taste, touch -intellectual function: intelligence, learning, reading, communication -abstract thought and reasoning -memory storage and retrieval -invitation and coordination of voluntary movement -complex motor patterns -language: speech production and understanding -personality
Pons
Function: relay station and balance -controls antigravity posture and balance -connects the spinal cord and medulla with upper regions of the brain -relays information to the cerebellum and thalamus
Spinal cord
Function: simple reflexes -controls simple stretch and tendon reflexes -controls primitive processes such as walking, urination, and sex organ function
Magnetonecephalography (MEG)
Functional neuroimaging technique for mapping brain activity that records the magnetic fields produced by the brain's electrical currents. MEG uses very sensitive magnetometers, typically using an array of SQUIDs.
Macro-level sociological theories
Functionalism and conflict theory
What are the four major sociological theories that explain society?
Functionalism, conflict theory, symbolic interactionism, and social constructionism
What are some of the other neurotransmitters?
Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine
McDonaldization
George Ritzer describes the rationalization of fast food production as McDonaldization. This process has 4 components that reflect the principles of bureaucracy: efficiency, calculability (assessing performance through quantity and/or speed of output), predictability, and control (automating work where possible in order to make results more predictable)
Digestive system
Glands, motility, sphincters Parasympathetic (rest and digest): glands stimulate, motility stimulates, sphincters relax Sympathetic (fight or flight): glands inhibit, motility inhibits, sphincters contact
What does the cortex of the adrenal gland secrete?
Glucocorticoids (e.g. cortisol), mineralocorticoids (the main one if aldosterone), and some sex hormones
Group polarization
Groups tend to intensify the preexisting views of their members-the average view of a member of the group is accentuated
Hans Eysenck
Hans Eysenck proposed that a person's level of extroversion is based on individual differences in the reticular formation, which mediates arousal and consciousness
Proactive interference
Happens when information previously learned interferes with the ability to recall information learned later
Retroactive interference
Happens when newly learned information interferes with the recall of information learned previously
Role conflict
Happens when there is a conflict in society's expectations for multiple statuses held by the same person
Projection bias
Happens when we assume others have the same beliefs we do. Since people have a tendency to look for similarities between themselves and others, they often assume them even when this is unfounded
What are the 6 major universal emotions?
Happiness, sadness, surprise, fear, disgust, and anger
Neuritic plaques
Hard formations of beta-amyloid protein and neurofibrillary tangles. This is what causes Alzheimer's Disease.
Addiction
Has a strong biological basis. Stimulates the release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens.
Preganglionic neuron
Has its cell body in the brainstem or spinal cord. It sends an axon to an autonomic ganglion, located outside the spinal column.
Mirror neurons
Have been identified in various parts of the human brain, including the pre motor cortex, supplementary motor area, primary somatosensory cortex, and the inferior parietal cortex. Some postulate that mirror neurons help us understand the actions of others and help us learn through imitation.
Biopsychosocial model of psychological disorders
Have biological influences, sociocultural influences, and psychological influences
Thyroid hormone and cortisol
Have broad effects on metabolism and energy usage. Thyroid hormone is produced from the amino acid tyrosine in the thyroid gland and comes in 2 forms, with three or four iodine atoms per molecule.
Alpha waves
Have low amplitudes and high frequencies. These waves are the first indicator that a person is ready to drift off to sleep: the body relaxes; the person feels drowsy and closes his or her eyes
What did Durkheim propose?
He proposed the existence of a "collective conscience." Collective conscience is his name for how people of a shared culture come to think in the same manner due to their shared beliefs, ideas, and moral attitudes, all which operate to unify society.
Cardiovascular system
Heart rate and contractility: blood flow to skeletal muscle Parasympathetic (rest and digest): decreased heart rate Sympathetic (fight or flight): increased heart rate and increased blood flow to skeletal muscle
Nigrostriatal circuit
Heavily involved in movement and coordination
Executive functions
Higher order thinking processes such as planning, organizing, inhibiting behavior, and decision-making
Status
Higher-status people have stronger influence on opinions
B.F. Skinner's Behaviorist model of language acquisition
Holds that infants are trained in language by operant conditioning. Skinner argued that language use, though complex, is a form of behavior like any other, and so it is as subject to conditioning as a rat pulling a lever to receive a food pellet.
We need a control group that is...
Homogenous and as similar as possible to the experimental group except for the variable of interest-the treatment
What is the signs of the endocrine system and that is defined as a molecule which is secreted into the bloodstream by an endocrine gland?
Hormone
Tropic hormones
Hormones that stimulate other glands to release their hormones
Appraisal
How a stressful event is interpreted by the individual
Howard Gardner
Howard Gardner put forth a theory on multiple intelligences, which breaks intelligence down into 7 different modalities: logical, linguistic, spatial, musical, kinesthetic, naturalist, intrapersonal, and interpersonal intelligences.
Peptides
Hydrophilic, large (polypeptides) or small (amino acid derivatives) Site of synthesis: rough ER Regulation of release: stored in vesicles until a signal for secretion is received Transport in bloodstream: free Specificity: only target cells have appropriate surface receptors (exception: thyroxine=cytoplasmic) Mechanism of effect: bind to receptors that generate second messengers which result in modification of enzyme activity Timing of effect: rapid, short-lived
Steroids
Hydrophobic, small Site of synthesis: smooth ER Regulation of release: synthesized only when needed and then used immediately, not stored Transport in bloodstream: stuck to protein carrier Specificity: only target cells have appropriate cytoplasmic receptors Mechanism of effect: bind to receptors that alter gene expression by regulating DNA transcription Timing of effect: slow, long-lasting
Psychic energy is distributed among what 3 personality components that function together?
Id, ego, and superego
Identification
Identification behavior is motivated by the desire to be like another person or group
Excitatory
If a neurotransmitter, such as acetylcholine, opens a channel that depolarizes the postsynaptic membrane, the neurotransmitter is termed excitatory
Sampling bias
If it is not equally likely for all members of a population to be sampled
Bilateral descent
If kin groups involve both the maternal and paternal relations
Relative size
If objects are assumed to be the same size, the one that casts the smaller image on the retina appears more distant
Interposition
If one object blocks the view of another, we perceive it as closer
Psychologically fixated
If parents either frustrate or overindulge the child's expression of sensual pleasure at a certain stage so that the child does not resolve that stage's developmental conflicts, the child becomes psychologically fixated at that stage, and will, as an adult, continue to seek sensual pleasure through behaviors related to that stage.
Mixed methods research
If researchers were to use both between-subjects and within-subjects techniques and make comparisons between them
Significant difference probability
If the probability of an observed difference is found to be 5% (0.05) or less, this constitutes a significant difference
Unattended channel
Ignoring input to the other ear
Method of loci
Imagining moving through a familiar place, such as your home, and in each place, leaving a visual representation of a topic to be remembered
1. Trust versus mistrust
In Erikson's first stage, the infant's task is to resolve the crisis of trust versus mistrust. If an infant's physical and emotional needs are not met, as an adult he or she may mistrust the world and interpersonal relationships.
Industry versus inferiority
In Erikson's fourth stage, the school-age child must resolve the crisis of industry versus inferiority. If a child's needs to understand the world, develop a gender-role identity, succeed in school, and set and attain personal goals are not met at this stage, as an adult he or she may feel inadequate.
Behaviorism
In behaviorism, all psychological phenomena are explained by describing the observable events of behaviors and their consequences
Escape
In escape, an individual learns how to get away from an aversive stimulus by engaging in a particular behavior
Informational influence
In group discussion, the most common ideas to emerge are the ones that favor the dominant viewpoint
Actualizing tendency
In humanistic theory, the most basic motivate of all people is the actualizing tendency, which is an innate drive to maintain and enhance the organism
Moro (startle) reflex
In response to a loud sound or sudden movement, an infant will startle; the baby throws back its head and extends its arms and legs, cries, then pulls the arms and legs back in. This reflex is present at birth and lasts for about 6 months.
Tonic neck reflex
In response to its head being turned to one side, the baby will stretch out its arm on the same side and the opposite arm bends up at the elbow. This reflex lasts about 6 to 7 months.
Palmar grasp reflex
In response to stroking the baby's palm, the baby's hand will grasp. This reflex lasts a few months.
Babinski reflex
In response to the sole of the foot being stroked, the baby's big toe moves upward or toward the top surface of the foot and the other toes fan out
Walking/stepping reflex
In response to the soles of a baby's feet touching a flat surface, they will attempt to "walk" by placing one foot in front of the other. This reflex disappears at around 6 weeks and reappears at around 8-12 months when a baby learns to walk.
Rooting reflex
In response to touching or stroking one of the baby's cheeks, the baby will turn its head in the direction of the stroke and open its mouth to "root" for a nipple
Phobias
In specific and social phobias, the sufferer feels a strong fear that he or she recognizes as unreasonable
Lens
In the back part of the posterior chamber is the lens. Its role is to fine-tune the angle of incoming light, so that the beams are perfectly focused upon the retina.
Macula
In the center of the macula is the fovea centralis (focal point) which contains only cones and is responsible for extreme visual acuity
Capitalism
In the economic system of capitalism, which encourages competition and private ownership, the burgeoisie, or ruling class, owns the means of production, while the proletariat, or working class, provides labor.
Muscle stretch reflex
In the muscle stretch reflex, a sensory neuron defects stretching of a muscle. The sensory neuron has a long dendrite and a long axon, which transmits an impulse to a motor neuron cell body in the spinal cord. The motor neuron's long axon synapses with the muscle that was stretched and causes it to contract.
Chemical synapses
In the nervous system, chemical synapses are found at the ends of axons where they meet their target cell; an action potential is converted into a chemical signal here
Autonomy versus shame and doubt
In the second stage, the toddler must resolve the crisis of autonomy versus shame and doubt. If a toddler's need to explore, make mistakes, and test limits is not met, as an adult he or she may be dependent rather than autonomous.
Generativity versus stagnation
In the seventh stage, which occurs in middle age, a person must resolve the crisis of generativity versus stagnation. If a person does not at this stage feel productive by helping the next generation and resolving differences between actual accomplishments and earlier dreams, he or she may become stuck in psychological stagnation.
Initiative versus guilt
In the third stage, the preschool-age child must resolve the crisis of initiative versus guilt. If a young child's need to make decisions is not met at this stage, as an adult he or she may feel guilty taking initiative and instead allow others to choose.
Population momentum
In which the children produced during periods of higher fertility rates reproduce; there are more women of reproductive age and thus more births overall, regardless of the number of births per women
Absolute poverty
Inability to meet a bare minimum of basic necessities, including clean drinking water, food, safe housing, and reliable access to healthcare
Relative poverty
Inability to meet the average standard of living within a society
False memories
Inaccurate recollections of an event and may be the result of the implanting of ideas
Kohlberg's stages of moral development
Include 6 identifiable developmental stages of moral reasoning, which form the basis of ethical behavior. Kohlberg's stages are grouped into 3 levels with 2 stages each. According to Kohlberg, stages cannot be skipped. Each stage provides a new and necessary moral perspective, and the understanding from each stage is retained and integrated at later stages. Interestingly, most adults attain but do not surpass the fourth stage, in which morality is dictated by outside forces.
Federalist governments
Include a governing representative head that shares power with constituent groups. There is a division between the central government, or the federal government, and the constituent governments, or the state, provincial, and local governments
Depressants
Include alcohol, barbiturates (tranquilizers), and opiates. They work by depressing, or slowing down, neural activity.
Parliamentary governments
Include both executive and legislative branches that are interconnected; members of the executive branch are accountable to members of the legislature
Stimulants
Include caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, and amphetamines ("speed"). They typically work by either increasing the release of neurotransmitters, reducing the reuptake of neurotransmitters, or both. Their overall effect is to speed up body functions, resulting in increased energy, respiratory rate, heart rate, and pupil dilation.
Presidential governments
Include organizing branches, as well as head of state
Secondary care
Includes acute care, like the emergency department, as well as, specialized form of healthcare
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
Includes all other axons, dendrites, and cell bodies
Dual coding hypothesis
Indicates that it is easier to remember words with associated images than either words or images alone
Sub-replacement fertility
Indicates that the birth rate is less than the death rate, thus the population size will not be sustained
Weber's Law
Indicates that two stimuli must differ by a constant proportion in order for their difference to be perceptible
Nodes
Individual ideas that are stored in long-term memory in an organized network
Self-fulfilling prophecies
Individuals might internalize labels and redefine their concept of the self. Because of the societal preoccupation with labels, the individual might begin to exhibit more deviant behaviors to fulfill the expectations associated with specific ascribed labels.
Intellectual disability
Individuals who not only have a score of 70 on the intelligence test, but also that have difficulty adapting to everyday demands of life
Long-term memory
Information that is retained sometimes indefinitely; it is believed to have an infinite capacity
Depth of processing
Information that is thought about at a deeper level is better remembered. It's easier to remember the general plot of a book than exact words.
What is internal validity?
Inherent flaw in the design of the experiment
Inhibitory neurotransmitters cause what?
Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs)
Frontal lobes
Initiate all voluntary movement and are involved in complex reasoning skills and problem solving
Blood-injection-injury phobias
Injections, blood, surgical procedures
Medulla
Inner portion of adrenal gland
Broadbent Filter Model of Selective Attention
Inputs from the environment first enter a sensory buffer. One of these inputs is then selected and filtered based on physical characteristics of the input. This theoretical filter is designed to keep us from becoming overload and overwhelmed with information. Other sensory information stays in the sensory buffer briefly, but then quickly decays. At this point in the process, the information is still raw data that has just been filtered-it has not yet been transformed. Next step, information enters short-term memory storage system.
Insecurely attached infants
Insecurely attached infants in the presence of their mother are less likely to explore their surroundings and may even cling to their mother; when the mother leaves they will either cry loudly and remain upset or will demonstrate indifference to her departure and return
Myelin
Insulating sheath that speeds the transmission of impulses along an axon
Flashbulb memories
Intense, vivid "snapshots" or an emotionally intense experience
Internalization
Internalized behavior is motivated by values and beliefs that have been integrated into one's own value system
Kohlberg Stage 3 of 6
Interpersonal accord and conformity: Individuals focus on the approval and disapproval of others, and try to be "good" by living up to expectations, "What will make others like me?"
Intersectionality
Intersectionality posits that various human aspects subject to societal oppression do not exist isolated and separated from each other, but instead have complex, influential, and interwoven relationships
What is the correlation between a nation's crude death rate and its gross domestic product (GDP)?
Inverse correlation
Case studies
Involve in-depth exploration of one individual or case
Stanley Milgram's study of obedience
Involved fake shocks. The participants in this study believed that they were in control of experiment that delivered shocks to a student who was attempting to pass a memory test. The participants mostly obeyed due to higher authority even though they heard the pain the experiment was causing the fake "experimenter."
Parietal lobes
Involved in general sensations and in gustation. The parietal lobes receive input from mechanoreceptors and proprioceptors.
Mesocortical circuit
Involved in higher cortical functions, thought, planning, and emotional regulation
Nonverbal communication
Involves all of the methods for communication that we use that do not include words
Explicit or declarative memory
Involves being able to "declare" or voice what is known. Like reading a book on how to play basketball and then knowing in great detail the necessary steps.
Recognition
Involves identifying specific information from a set of information that is presented
Internal migration
Involves migration to another region of the same nation
Colonization
Involves migration to settled areas in which dominance is exerted over the foreign state
Conduction aphasia
Involves poor speech repetition despite intact comprehension and fluent speech
Recall and recognition
Involves retrieving information from memory without any clues, while recognition involves retrieving information from memory with clues
Cued recall
Involves retrieving the information when provided with a cue
Free recall
Involves retrieving the item "out of thin air"
Positive punishment
Involves the application, or pairing, of an undesirable stimulus with the behavior
Negative punishment
Involves the removal of a desirable stimulus after the behavior has occurred
The annual number of births per 1,000 women in a population
Involves the same experience as culture chock, but upon an individual's return to their initial environment
Social perception
Involves the understanding of others in our social world; it is the initial information we process about other people in order to try to understand their mindsets and intentions
Dorsal root ganglion
Is a bunch of somatic sensory neuron cell bodies located just dorsal to the spinal cord
Functionalism
Is a paradigm that conceptualizes society as a living organism with many different interrelated and interdependent parts, each of which has a distinct and necessary purpose. Functionalism can be traced back to Herbert Spencer.
Vagus nerve
Is an important example of a cranial nerve. The effects of this nerve upon the heart and GI tract are to decrease the heart rate and increase GI activity; as such it is part of the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system. It is a bundle of axons that end in ganglia on the surface of the heart, stomached and other visceral organs.
Normative influence
Is based on social desirability-wanting to be accepted or admired by others
Ideal self
Is constructed out of your life experiences, societal expectations, and the things you admire about role models. The ideal self is the person you "ought to be."
Bipolar I disorder
Is diagnosed only if there has been a spontaneous manic episode not triggered by treatment for depression or caused by another medical condition or medication
Observational learning, also known as social learning or vicarious learning
Is learning through watching and imitating others
Cerebellum
Is located behind the pons and below the cerebral hemispheres. It is an integrating center where complex movements are coordinated. An instruction for movement from the forebrain must be sent to the cerebellum, where the billions of decisions necessary for smooth execution of the movement are made. Damage to the cerebellum results in poor hand-eye coordination and balance. Both the cerebellum and the pons receive information from the vestibular apparatus in the inner ear, which monitors acceleration and position relative to gravity.
Correlation
Is not causation
Reticular activating system (RAS)
Is responsible for arousal or wakefulness
Attribution theory
Is rooted in social psychology and attempts to explain how individuals view behavior, both our new behavior and the behavior of others. Given a set of circumstances, individuals attribute behavior to internal causes, dispositional attribution, or external causes, situational attribution.
Evolutionary game theory
Is used to try and predict large, complex systems, such as the overall behavior of a population
What else does social constructionism do?
It analyzes the effects of mass media and contends that mass media corporations have become the main mechanisms by which our social institutions transmit culture to preserve power and authority
Selection bias
It can compromise results. Selection bias is purposely selecting which studies to evaluate in a meta-analysis: a big-picture analysis of many studies to look for trends in the data
Cocktail party effect
It happens when information of personal importance from previously unattended channels catches our attention
Vicarious emotions
It has been proposed that mirror neurons in humans are responsible for vicarious emotions, such as empathy, and that a problem in the mirror neuron system might underlie disorders such as autism
Type 2 error (false negative)
It is better to incorrectly conclude that there is no effect than to falsely suppose the veracity of a result that does not actually exist
Self-reference effect
It is easier to remember things that are personally relevant
Primary effect and the recency effect
It is hypothesized that first items are more easily recalled because they have had the most time to be encoded and transferred to long-term memory. Last items may be more easily recalled because they may still be in the phonological loop, and thus may be readily available.
Maintain
It is possible to initially condition a behavior using a continuous reinforcement schedule, and then maintain that behavior using an intermittent reinforcement schedule
Difference threshold
JND, is the minimum noticeable difference between any two sensory stimuli, 50% of the time
Jeffrey Alan Gray
Jeffrey Alan Gray proposed that personality is governed by interactions among 3 brain systems that respond to rewarding and punishing stimuli. Linked to "fight or flight" sympathetic nervous system.
Justification of effort
Just as people may modify their attitudes to match their language, they may also modify them to match their behaviors
Posterior chamber
Just behind the iris is the posterior chamber, also containing aqueous humor
Anterior chamber
Just inside the cornea is the anterior chamber (front chamber), which contains a fluid termed aqueous humor
Karl Marx
Karl Marx is closely identified with conflict theory and looked at the economic conflict between different social classes
Kinship
Kinship is considered a cultural group rather than a biological one
Repression
Lack of recall of an emotionally painful memory
Asexuality
Lack of sexual attraction
Organizations
Large, more impersonal groups that come together to pursue particular activities and meet goals efficiently
Secondary group
Larger and more impersonal, and may interact for specific reasons for shorter periods of time
Consolidation
Lasts for seconds to hours, and can potentially be converted into long-term memory through a process called consolidation
Rational-legal authority
Legal rules and regulations are stipulated in a document like the Constitution
Cornea
Light enters the eye by passing through the cornea, the clear portion at the front of the eye. Light is bent or refracted as it passes through the cornea, since the refractive index of the cornea is higher than that of air.
Vitreous chamber
Light passes through the vitreous chamber en route from the lens to the retina. This chamber contains a thick, jelly-like fluid called vitreous humor.
Self-actualization
Like a child learning to walk, a person will grow toward self-actualization, or realizing his or her human potential, as long as no obstacle intervenes
Short-term memory
Limited in duration and in capacity
Sucking reflex
Linked with the rooting reflex, in response to anything touching the roof of the baby's mouth, it will begin to suck
Prefrontal cortex
Located at the front of the brain, which controls approach and avoidance behaviors-the behavioral aspects of emotion
Pons
Located below the midbrain and above the medulla oblongata. It is the connection point between the brain stem and the cerebellum. The pons controls some autonomic functions and coordinated movement; it plays a role in balance and antigravity posture.
Medulla
Located below the pons and is the area of the brain that connects to the spinal cord. It functions in relaying information between other areas of the brain, and regulates vital autonomic functions such as blood pressure and digestive functions. Also, the respiratory rhythmicity centers are found here.
Lambic system
Located between the cerebrum and the diencephalon. It includes the amygdala, the cingulate gyrus, and the hippocampus and works closely with parts of the cerebrum, diencephalon, and midbrain. The limbic system is important in emotion and memory.
Broca's area
Located in the dominant hemisphere of the frontal lobe of the brain and is involved in the complicated process of speech production
Wernicke's area
Located in the posterior section of the temporal lobe in the dominant hemisphere of the brain (the left for most people), is involved in the comprehension of speech and written language
Vestibular hair cells
Located within special organs called semicircular canals, also found in the inner ear. Their role is to detect acceleration and position relative to gravity.
Explicit memory
Long-term memory to explicit memory to episodic memory and semantic memory
Implicit memory
Long-term memory to implicit memory to procedural memory
Life course perspective or life course approach
Looks at how key events in a person's life such as marriage, death, and the birth of children unfold over time and lead to a person's development
What are preventative checks?
Lower the birth rate, like abstinence, birth control, late marriage, and same-sex relationships
P-value relationship
Make sure you know what p-values represent, and that a lower value suggests a stronger relationship
Bipolar II disorder
Manic phases are less extreme, and excludes manic or mixed episodes, although it may include a hypomanic episode
Class consciousness
Marx defined class consciousness as exploited workers' awareness of the reasons for their oppression
Socialism
Marx termed this communism, in which all means of production are owned by all workers equally
Genocide
Mass execution with the intention of eliminating a specific social group
Material culture
Material culture involves physical objects or artifacts
Matrilineal descent
Maternal relations
Stimulus duration
May or may not be coded explicitly. Tonic receptors fire action potentials as long as the stimulus continues. Phasic receptors only fire action potentials when the stimulus begins, and do not explicitly communicate the duration of the stimulus.
Symbolic interactionism-George Herbert Mead
Mead believed that there is a specific path to development of the self. During the preparatory stage, children merely imitate others, as they have no concept of how others see things. In the play stage, children take on the roles of others through playing. During the game stage, children learn to consider multiple roles simultaneously, and can understand the responsibilities of multiple roles. Finally the child develops an understanding of the generalized other, the common behavioral expectations of general society. Mead also characterized the "me" and the "I."
What did George Herbert Mead propose?
Mead proposed the difference between the "I" and the "me." Mead thought there were two important components to identify: the individualistic self, which sought to establish its own unique identity through social interactions in the face of social pressures and expectations, and the social self, which internalized the characteristics of the social environment. The "I" represents the individualistic self. There is a connection with grammar and linguistics. I, as a subject pronoun, represents the part of the self that is the active agent, the part that acts on other people and things and has its own autonomy and will. On the other hand, the object pronoun "me" is used to represent the social self. This is when others are acting and interpreting our behavior and we are the object of their actions and interpretations.
Confederates
Meaning that they were part of the experiment
Mere presence
Means that people are simply in each other's presence, either completing similar activities or apparently minding their own business
Relatability
Means that they produce stable and consistent results, measure what they're supposed to, known as construct validity, and that repeated measurements lead to similar results, known as replicability
Case fatality rate
Measures deaths as the result of a set diagnosis or procedure, sometimes specific to the beginning or late stages
Prevalence rate
Measures the number of individuals experiencing a disease
Incidence rate
Measures the number of new cases of a disease
Semantic memory
Memory for factual information, such as the capital of England
Echoic memory
Memory for sound, which lasts for about 3-4 seconds
Patriarchy
Men have more authority than women
Schemas
Mental frameworks that shape and are shaped by our experience
Heuristics
Mental shortcuts
What are the 3 key elements that might have an impact on persuasiveness?
Message characteristics, source characteristics, and target characters
Persuasion attempt: Central route
Message is given-high motivation and ability to think about the message-deep processing, focused on the quality of the message arguments-lasting change that resists fading and counterattacks
Persuasion attempt: Peripheral route
Message is given-low motivation or ability to think about the message-superficial processing, focused on surface features such as the communicator's attractiveness or the number of arguments presented-temporary change that is susceptible to fading and counterattacks
Urban sprawl
Migration of people from urban areas to otherwise remote areas
White flight
Migration of whites from cities to more racially homogenous suburbs
Mimicry
Mimicking another organism to benefit themselves
REM rebound
Missing REM sleep for one night results in an increase in REM sleep later to make up for it, called REM rebound
Judaism
Monotheistic and formed the historical basis for Christianity and Islam
Retrograde amnesia
More recent memories degrading first, such that the last memories to fade are typically the oldest
Depressive disorder
More than active moodiness; it is a persistent pattern of abnormal and often painful mood symptoms severe enough to cause significant personal and/or impairment to social, occupational, or personal functioning
Negative feedback or feedback inhibition
Most feedback in the endocrine system is negative. The result of hormone secretion inhibits further secretion.
Normative organizations
Motivate membership based on morally relevant goals, for example, Mothers Against Dunk Driving (MADD)
Efferent neurons
Motor neurons, which carry information away from the central nervous system and innervate effectors, are called efferent neurons. Efferents go to effectors.
Biological perspective
Much of what we call personality is at least partly due to innate biological differences among people
Dependent variable
Must be equally well-defined and must also meet the criterion of being quantitative instead of qualitative
Mesolimbic circuit
Natural pathway for feelings of reward and pleasure
Myopia
Nearsightedness. Myopia can be corrected by a concave (diverging) lens, which will cause the light rays to diverge slightly before they reach the cornea.
Drive-Reduction Theory
Need (for example, for food, water) to drive (hunger, thirst) to drive-reducing behaviors (eating, drinking)
Neurocognitive Disorders
Neurocognitive Disorders are characterized by cognitive abnormalities or general decline in memory, problem-solving, and/or perception Specific psychological disorders: -Major and Mild Neurocognitive Disorders (MMND) -MMND Due to Alzheimer's Disease -MMND Due to Parkinson's Disease -Major or Mild Vascular Neurocognitive Disorder
Neurodevelopmental Disorders
Neurodevelopment Disorders are characterized by developmental deficits varying from specific learning impairments to global impairments of social skills or intelligence Specific psychological disorders: -Intellectual Disability -Attention-deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) -Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
Visual cortex
Neurons in the visual cortex fire in response to very specific information; feature-detecting neurons are specific neurons in the brain that fire in response to particular visual features, such as lines, edges, angles, and movement
Neuroendocrine cells
Neurons which secrete hormones into the bloodstream
Multipolar neurons
Neurons with many dendrites and one axon
Bipolar neurons
Neurons with one dendrite
Inhibitory
Neurotransmitters that induce hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane are termed inhibitory
Activation period
Neurotransmitters: extremely fast (a few milliseconds) Hormones: can be longer (a few seconds to a few days)
Targets cells
Neurotransmitters: neighboring neurons or cells Hormones: can be more distant cells throughout the body
Produced by
Neurotransmitters: neurons Hormones: endocrine glands
Area of operation
Neurotransmitters: synaptic cleft between neurons Hormones: bloodstream
Body temperature falls
Normal body temperature-body temp falls-internal response: vasoconstriction (conserves heat) and shivering (generates heat)-external response: curling in, snuggling, seeking warmth, adding layers-heat is retained-normal body temperature
Body temperature rises
Normal body temperature-body temp rises-internal response: vasodilation (heat loss) and sweating (heat loss as sweat evaporates)-external response: stretching out, seeking shade, shedding layers-heat is lost to the environment-normal body temperature
Emmetropia
Normal vision is termed emmetropia
Mores ("more-ays")
Norms that are highly important for the benefit of society and so are often strictly enforced. Like animal abuse.
Folkways
Norms that are less important but shape everyday behavior, like styles or dress and ways of greeting
Kohlberg Stage 1 of 6
Obedience and punishment orientation: Individuals focus on the direct consequences to themselves of their actions, "How can I avoid punishment?"
Vicarious
Observational, or vicarious, learning occurs when a person watches another person's behavior and its consequences, thereby learning the rules, strategies, and expected outcomes in different situations
Electrical synapses
Occur when the cytoplasms of two cells are joined by gap junctions
Avoidance
Occurs when a person performs a behavior to ensure an aversive stimulus is not presented
Desensitization
Occurs when a stimulus that previously evoked an exaggerated response no longer evokes an exaggerated response
Nonassociative learning
Occurs when an organism is repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus. Two important types of nonassociative learning are habituation and sensitization.
Urban blight
Occurs when less functioning areas of larger cities degrade as a result of urban decline
Amalgamation
Occurs when majority and minority groups combine to form a new group
Spreading activation
Occurs when one item brought into working memory triggers an activation of related memory
Serial position effect
Occurs when someone attempts to memorize a series, such as a list of words. In an immediate recall condition, the individual is more likely to recall the first and last items on the list
Top-down processing
Occurs when the brain applies experience and expectations to interpret sensory information
Extinction
Occurs when the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli are no longer paired, so the conditioned response eventually stops occurring
Malthusian Catastrophe
Occurs when the means of sustenance are not enough to support the population, resulting in population reduction through actual or predicted famine
Dishabituation
Occurs when the previously habituated stimulus is removed
Population aging
Occurs when there is a disproportionate amount of older people in a population
Intergenerational mobility
Occurs when there is an increase or decrease in social class between parents and children within a family
False consensus
Occurs when we assume that everyone else agrees with what we do, even though they may not
Long-term potentiation
Occurs when, following brief periods of stimulation, an increase in the synaptic strength between 2 neurons leads to stronger electrochemical responses to a given stimuli
Psychological dependence
Often associated with the use of a drug in response to painful emotions related to depression, anxiety, or trauma
Heteronormative beliefs
Often enforce strict gender roles and involve prejudice and discrimination against non-heterosexual individuals
Positive transfer
Old information facilitating the learning of new information through positive transfer
Nasopharynx (nasal cavity)
Olfaction is accomplished by olfactory receptors in the roof of the nasopharynx. The receptors detect airborne chemicals that dissolve in the mucus covering the nasal membrane.
Olfactory bulbs
Olfactory nerves project directly to the olfactory bulbs of the brain
No prior commitment
Once people have made public commitments, they tend to stick to them
What are the two main sociological concepts describe what illness can be like for a patient?
One concept, the sick role, describes society's response to illness. The second concept, illness experience, explains the patient's subjective experience of illness.
Persuasion
One method of attitude and behavior change
Jean Piaget
One of the first developmental psychologists who studied cognitive development in children; he argued against the prevailing belief that children were much like miniature adults in their thought processes and abilities
Taste-aversion
One powerful and very long-lasting association in most animals is taste-aversion caused by nausea and/or vomiting
Altruistic behavior
One that helps ensure the success or survival of the rest of a social group, possibly at the expense of the success or survival of the individual
Nuclear family
One way of conceptualizing family is to distinguish nuclear family, consisting of direct blood relations, and extended family, in which grandparents, aunts, uncles, and others are included
Self-esteem
One's overall self-evaluation of one's self-worth
Voltage-gated sodium channels
Open to allow sodium ions to flow down their gradient into the cell and depolarize that section of membrane
Reinforcement schedule
Operant conditioning relies on a reinforcement schedule
Blind spot
Optic disk is known as the blind spot because it contains no photoreceptors
Freud: 5 psychosexual stages
Oral stage, anal stage, phallic stage, latency stage, and genital stage
Operant conditioning
Organisms learn associations between behaviors and resulting consequences Response: voluntary Acquisition: associating response with consequence Extinction: response decreases without reinforcement Spontaneous recovery: reappearance, after a rest period of a response Generalization: response to a similar stimulus is also reinforced Discrimination: learning that certain responses, not others, will be reinforced
Classical conditioning
Organisms learn associations between stimuli that they don't control Response: involuntary, automatic Acquisition: associating 2 stimuli Extinction: conditioned response decreases as the conditioned stimulus is continually presented alone Spontaneous recovery: reappearance, after a rest period, of a response Generalization: response to a stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus Discrimination: ability to distinguish between conditioned stimulus and other stimuli
Non-governmental organizations (NGOs)
Organizations without an official government affiliation with the intention of contributing to the lessening of global issues
Cortex
Outer portion of adrenal gland
Schwann cells
PNS Form myelin-increase speed of conduction of APs along axon
Nociceptors
Pain receptors found everywhere in the body except the brain. Nociceptors may be somatic or autonomic. Autonomic pain receptors do not provide the conscious mind with clear pain information, but they frequently give a sensation of dull, aching pain. Nociceptors are the simplest type of sensory receptor, generally consisting of a free nerve ending that detects chemical signs of tissue damage.
Nociceptors
Pain receptors. They are stimulated by tissue injury.
Linear perspective
Parallel lines appear to converge as distance increases
Cluster A
Paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders associated with irrational, withdrawn, cold, or suspicious behaviors
Bronchial smooth muscle
Parasympathetic (rest and digest): constricts: closes airways Sympathetic (fight or flight): relaxes: opens airways
Genitals
Parasympathetic (rest and digest): erection/lubrication Sympathetic (fight or flight): ejaculation/orgasm
Shape
Parents shape the desired behavior by reinforcing the smaller intermediate behaviors necessary to achieve the final desired behavior
Attrition effects
Participant fatigue; participants drop out of study
Impression management
Participants adapt their responses based on social norms or perceived researcher expectations; self-fulfilling prophecy; methodology is not double-blind, Hawthorne Effect
Attrition
Participants dropping out of the study before it is completed
Cultural universals
Patterns or traits that are common to all people
Sociocultural influences
Peers, socioeconomic status, education, expectations, and roles
Incongruence
People choose behavior consistent with their self-concepts. If they encounter experiences in life that contradict their self-concepts, they feel uncomfortable incongruence
Mere exposure effect
People prefer repeated exposure to the same stimuli
Accountability
People tend to conform more when they must respond in front of others rather than in closed formats in which they cannot be held accountable for their opinions
Social facilitation effect
People tend to perform simple, well-learned tasks better when other people are present
Aggregate
People who exist in the same place but do not interact or share a common sense of identity make up an aggregate
Category
People who share similar characteristics but are not otherwise tied together would be considered a category
Wernicke's aphasia
People with Wernicke's aphasia do not have a problem producing speech, but are incapable of producing intelligible, meaningful language
External locus of control
Perceive outcomes as controlled by outside forces
Nodes of Ranvier
Periodic gaps in the myelin sheath
Personality Disorders
Personality Disorders are characterized by enduring maladaptive patterns of behavior and cognition that depart from social norms, present across a variety of contexts, and cause significant dysfunction and distress. These patterns permeate the broader personality of the person and typically solidify during late adolescence or early adulthood Specific psychological disorders: Cluster A: -Paranoid -Schizoid -Schizotypal Cluster B: -Antisocial -Borderline -Histrionic -Narcissistic Cluster C: -Avoidant -Dependent -Obsessive-compulsive
Behaviorist perspective
Personality is a result of learned behavior patterns based on a person's environment
Social cognitive perspective
Personality is formed by a reciprocal interaction among behavioral, cognitive, and environmental factors
Famous role-playing experiment
Philip Zimbardo's prison study at Stanford
What is the most important predictor of attraction?
Physical attractiveness
Homeostasis
Physiological consistency
Pitch (frequency)
Pitch of sound is distinguished by which regions of the basilar membrane vibrate, stimulating different auditory neurons
Primary groups
Play a more important role in an individual's life; these groups are usually smaller and include those with whom the individual engages with in person, in long-term, emotional ways
Endorphins
Pleasure, arousal, pain suppression
Noam Chomsky
Pointed out several major flaws with the application of behaviorism to language acquisition, and proposed an alternative to Skinner's model. Chomsky suggested that we all possess an innate feature unique to the human mind that allows people to gain mastery of language from limited exposure during the sensitive developmental years in early childhood. This idea was named "universal grammar" (UG).
Affirmative action
Policies that take factors like race or sex into consideration to benefit underrepresented groups in admissions or job hiring decisions. It has been used to benefit those believed to be current or past victims of discrimination.
Framed
Posed
Looking-glass self
Posited by Charles Cooley; which is the idea that a person's sense of self develops from interpersonal interactions with others in society and the perception of others. According to this idea, people shape their self-concepts based on their understanding of how others perceive them
Malthus described that two forms of checks on population growth?
Positive checks and preventative checks
Reconstructive memory
Posits that rather than an episodic recall of events that took place, memory is a constructive process that involves building a memory from similar experiences, social expectations, perceptions, cues, and feelings, all of which are combined with recollection of the event itself to form a memory experience
Kohlberg Level 3 of 3
Post-conventional level of moral reasoning: morality judged by internal ethical guidelines; rules viewed as useful but malleable guidelines. Many people never reach this abstract level of moral reasoning.
Kohlberg Level 1 of 3
Pre-conventional level of moral reasoning: morality judged by direct consequences to the self, no internalization of "right" and "wrong." Typical of children.
Gestalt law of common fate
Predicts that objects moving in the same direction or moving in synchrony are perceived as a group or unit
Law of connectedness
Predicts that things that are joined or linked or grouped are perceived as connected
Law of closure
Predicts that we will perceive things as a complete and logical entity, because our brains will fill in the gaps in the information
Total fertility rate
Predicts the total number of births per single woman in a population with the assumption that the woman experiences the current recorded age-specific fertility rates and reaches the end of her reproductive life
Patrilineal descent
Preference for paternal relations
Positive punishment
Presence of aversive stimulus
Situational effects
Presence of laboratory conditions changes outcome, like pre-test and post-test, presence of experimenter, claustrophobia in an MRI machine
Positive reinforcement
Presence of rewarding stimulus
Pacinian corpuscles
Pressure sensors located deep in the skin
Expressive functions
Primary groups serve expressive functions, meeting emotional needs
Temporal lobes
Process auditory and olfactory sensation and are involved in short-term memory, language comprehension, and emotion
Occipital lobes
Process visual sensation
Integrative function
Processing information is the integrative function, carried out by CNS
Joint capsule receptors
Proprioceptor that detects pressure, tension, and movement in the joints
Golgi tendon organs
Proprioceptor that monitors tension in the tendons
Meninges
Protective sheath of the brain and spinal cord. The dorsal root ganglia are protected within the vertebral column but are outside the meninges and thus outside the CNS.
Structural imaging
Provides a picture of the brain; they show anatomical regions, and where they are located with respect to each other. They do not offer any insight into which regions are active at any given time.
Fixed-ratio schedule
Provides the reinforcement after a set number of instances of the behavior. High response rate.
Fixed-interval schedule
Provides the reinforcement after a set period of time that is constant. Not a very high response rate, especially after a while.
Variable-interval schedule
Provides the reinforcement after an inconsistent amount of time. Not a very high response rate, especially after a while.
Variable-ratio schedule
Provides the reinforcement after an unpredictable number of occurrences. Highest response rate.
Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders
Psychotic Disorders are characterized by a general "loss of contact with reality" which can include "positive" symptoms such as delusions and hallucinations and/or "negative" symptoms such as flattened affect (monotone vocal expression) Specific psychological disorders: -Delusional Disorder -Brief Psychotic Disorder -Schizophreniform Disorder -Schizophrenia -Schizoaffective Disorder
Na+/K+ ATPase
Pumps 3 sodium ions out of the cell and 2 potassium ions into the cell with the hydrolysis of 1 ATP molecule
Eye
Pupil; muscles controlling lens Parasympathetic (rest and digest): pupils construct and muscles controlling lens has near vision accommodation Sympathetic (fight or flight): pupils dilate and muscles controlling lends accommodate for far vision
Hierarchies
Putting information into groups of a organization, like types of birds, so it is memorized easier
What are positive checks
Raise the death rate, like disease, disasters, hunger, and wars
Saltatory conduction
Rapid jumping conduction in myelinated axons
Rational choice theorists
Rational choice theorists examine the relative power of interacting individuals and analyze how differing parameters of an exchange relationship can shape an individual's ability to get favorable returns from that exchange
Raymond Cattell
Raymond Cattell proposed two types of intelligence: fluid intelligence (Gf), which is the ability to "think on your feet" and solve novel problems, and crystallized intelligence (Gc), which is the ability to recall and apply already-learned information.
Sensory function
Receiving information is the sensory function of the nervous system, carried out by PNS
Touch
Receptor: Pacinian corpuscles, free nerve endings, temperature receptors Receptor types: mechanoreceptors, nociceptors, thermoreceptors Organ: skin Stimulus: pressure, pain, temperature
Interoception
Receptor: aortic arch baroreceptors, pH receptors Receptor type: baroreceptors, chemoreceptors Organ: aortic arch, aortic arch/medulla oblongata Stimulus: blood pressure, pH
Hearing
Receptor: auditory hair cells Receptor type: mechanoreceptors Organ: organ of Corti Stimulus: vibration
Olfaction
Receptor: olfactory nerve endings Receptor type: chemoreceptors Organ: individual neurons Stimulus: airborne chemicals
Vision
Receptor: rods and cones Receptor type: electromagnetic Organ: retina Stimulus: light
Taste
Receptor: taste cells Receptor type: chemoreceptors Organ: taste bud Stimulus: food chemicals
Urban renewal
Redevelopment of urban areas
Displacement
Redirecting aggressive or sexual impulses from a forbidden action or object onto a less dangerous one
Factitious Disorder
Referred to as "Munchhausen Syndrome." It's imposed on self, a person has not just fabricated an illness but has gone the further step of either falsifying evidence or symptoms of the illness or inflicting harm to him- or herself to induce injury or illness
Attitude
Referring to a person's feelings and beliefs about other people or events around them, and their tendency to react behaviorally based on those underlying evaluations
Monogamy
Refers to a form of marriage in which 2 individuals are married only to each other
Polygyny
Refers to a man married to more than one woman
Exogamy
Refers to a requirement to marry outside a particular group, with it being the norm in almost all cultures to prohibit sexual relationships between certain relatives
Stereotype threat
Refers to a self-fulfilling fear that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype
Meditation
Refers to a variety of techniques, many of which have been practiced for thousands of years, and which usually involve the training of attention
Polyandry
Refers to a woman married to more than one man
Proprioception
Refers to awareness of self, body position, and is also known as your kinesthetic sense. An example is the muscle spindle, a mechanoreceptor.
Implicit or procedural memory
Refers to conditioned associations and knowledge of how to do something
Suburbanization
Refers to population growth in the fringes of urban areas
Anarchy
Refers to societies without a public government; common implication of "lawlessness"
Social mobility
Refers to the ability to move up or down within the social stratification system
Relative deprivation
Refers to the conscious experience of individuals or groups that do not have the resources needed for the social experiences and services that are seen as appropriate to their social position
Mortality
Refers to the death rate in a population, and this also includes both general and specific measures
Population-lag effect
Refers to the fact that changes in total fertility rates are often not reflected in the birth rate for several generations
Urbanization
Refers to the growth of urban areas as the result of global change
Neural plasticity
Refers to the malleability of the brain's pathways and synapses based on behavior, the environment, and neural processes
Morbidity
Refers to the nature and extent of disease in a population
Cultural capital
Refers to the non-financial social assets that promote social mobility
Social capital
Refers to the potential for social networks to allow for upward social mobility
Endogamy
Refers to the practice of marrying within a particular group
Generalization
Refers to the process by which stimuli other than the original conditioned stimulus elicit the conditioned response
Acquisition
Refers to the process of learning the conditioned response
Gentrification
Refers to the renovation of urban areas in a process of urban renewal
Social reproduction
Refers to the structures and activities in place in a society that serve to transmit and reinforce social inequality form one general to the next
Prejudice
Refers to the thoughts, attitudes, and feelings someone holds about a group that are not based on actual experience
Social stratification
Refers to the way that people are categorized in society; people can be categorized by race, education, wealth, and income (among other things)
Institutional discrimination
Refers to unjust and discriminatory practices employed by large organizations that have been codified into operating procedures, processes, or institutional objectives
What are the 5 stages of motor development?
Reflexive movement, rudimentary movement, fundamental movement, specialized movement, and application of movement
Leptin
Regulate energy, inhibit hunger
Continuous
Reinforcer given after every single response Response rate: slow Extinction rate: fast Best way to teach new behavior, but has the fastest rate of extinction
Fixed interval
Reinforcer given after set amount of time Response rate: medium Extinction rate: medium Long pause in responding following reinforcement, followed by accelerating rate
Fixed ratio
Reinforcer given after set number of responses Response rate: fast Extinction rate: medium Post-reinforcement pause may be an analogue to procrastination
Variable interval
Reinforcer given after variable amount of time Response rate: fast Extinction rate: slow Tends to produce a low to moderate steady rate of responding
Variable ratio
Reinforcer given after variable number of responses Response rate: fast Extinction rate: slow Slowest rate of extinction: behavior persists longer deviate lack of reinforcer
Prospective memory
Remembering to do things in the future
Compulsions
Repeated physical or mental behaviors (like counting) that are performed in response to an obsession or in accordance with a set of strict rules, in order to reduce distress or prevent something dreaded from occurring
Obsessions
Repeated, intrusive, uncontrollable thoughts or impulses that cause distress or anxiety
Rehearsal
Repeating something over and over again until, for example, you're able to write something down. Repeated rehearsal, like the Pledge of Allegiance, can encode into long-term memory
Good experimental designs require what?
Reproducibility
Teacher expectancy theory
Research has shown that teachers tend to quickly form expectations of individual students, and once they have formed these expectations, they tend to act toward the student with these expectations in mind. If the student accepts the teacher's expectations as reasonable, the student will begin to perform in accordance with them as well
Cognitive psychology
Researchers began to focus on the brain, cognitions (thoughts), and their effects on how people navigate the world
Transgenesis
Researchers can use transgenesis, the introduction of an exogenous or outside gene, or knockout genes to alter genotype while controlling for environment
Longitudinal studies
Researchers may be interested in how individuals develop over time along some research variable
Phenomenological studies
Researchers studying themselves. Phenomenological studies are interested in describing phenomena, using the introspective method to explore research questions. Phenomenological studies offer the advantage of detail and in-depth understanding, but the data is subjective, potentially affecting validity. It is also difficult to generalize data and the small sample size reduce external validity.
Mechanoreceptors
Respond to mechanical disturbances. Like Pacinian corpuscles, auditory hair cells, and vestibular hair cells
Mechanoreceptors
Respond to mechanical disturbances. Three examples of mechanoreceptors are Pacinian corpuscles, auditory hair cells, and vestibular hair cells
Chemoreceptors
Respond to particular chemicals, like olfactory receptors and gustatory receptors
Chemoreceptors
Respond to particular chemicals. Two examples are olfactory receptors and gustatory receptors.
Parasympathetic
Rest and digest, stores energy Location of preganglionic soma: craniosacral = brainstem "cranial" and sacral spinal cord Preganglionic axon: long Ganglia: far from cord, close to target Postganglionic axon: short (ACh)
Regression
Reverting to an earlier, less sophisticated behavior
Iron Law of Oligarchy
Revolutionary organizations inevitably become less revolutionary as their organizational structures develop and become entrenched
Sanctions
Rewards and punishments for behaviors that are in accord with or against norms
Concrete Operational Stage
Rightly from age 7 to 11. Children learn to think logically about concrete events. This helps them learn the principle of conservation: the idea that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape. They also grasp mathematical concepts during this time.
Glutamate
Rods and cones release the neurotransmitter glutamate onto the bipolar cells, inhibiting them from firing
What are 3 examples of situations where behaviors are likely to influence attitudes
Role playing, public declarations, and justification of effort
Formal Operational Stage
Roughly from age 12 through adulthood. People learn abstract reasoning (hypothesizing) and moral reasoning
Preoperational Stage (Piaget)
Roughly from ages 2 to 7. During this time, children learn that things can be represented through symbols such as words and images. This accompanied their learning during pretend play and development of language, but they still lack logical reasoning. They also are egocentric, meaning they do not understand that others have different perspectives.
Lack of statistical power
Sample groups have higher variability; sample size is too small
Public declaration
Saying something publicly can become believing it in the absence of bribery, coercion, or some other blatant external motive
Resource model of attention
Says that we have a limited pool of resources on which to draw when performing tasks, both modality-specific resources and general resources
Fundamentalism
Second response to modernist societies in which there is strong attachment to traditional religious beliefs and practices and a strict adherence to basic religious doctrines resulting from a literalist interpretation of these texts
Instrumental functions
Secondary groups serve instrumental functions, meeting pragmatic needs
Exocrine glands
Secrete their products into the external environment by way of ducts, which empty into the gastrointestinal lumen or the external world
Securely attached infants
Securely attached infants in the presence of their mother will play and explore; when the mother leaves the room, the infant is distressed, and when the mother returns, the infant will seek contact with her and is easily consoled
Self-schemas
Self-concept is how an individual defines him- or herself based on beliefs that person has about him- or herself, known as self-schemas
What are the three powerful influences on an individual's development of self-concept?
Self-efficacy, locus of control, and self-esteem
Kohlberg Stage 2 of 6
Self-interest orientation: Individuals focus on the behavior that will be in their best interest, with limited interest in the needs of others, "What's in it for me?"
Semicircular canals
Semicircular canals with the utricle and saccule are important to the sense of balance
Postganglionic neuron
Sends an axon to an effector (smooth muscle or gland)
Exteroceptors
Sensory receptors that detect stimuli from the outside world
Interceptors
Sensory receptors that respond to internal stimuli
Visuospatial sketchpad
Serves a similar purpose for visuospatial information through the use of mental images
Amygdala
Serves as the conductor of the orchestra of our emotional experiences
Dementia
Severe loss of cognitive ability beyond what would be expected from normal aging
Latency stage
Sexual interests subside and are replaced by interests in other areas such as school, friends, and sports
Acronym
Short words or phrases that represent longer strings of information
Acute stress disorder
Similar to PTSD, but its symptoms last between 3 days and 1 month. Some instances of PTSD begin as Acute Stress Disorder
Cyclothymic disorder
Similar to the bipolar disorders, but the moods are less extreme, with symptoms not meeting the criteria for either a manic or a major depressive episode
What else impacts attraction in people?
Similarity
Freud's Iceberg Analogy
Small part of superego and ego are at the preconscious level and small part of super who and ego are at the conscious level. The id is entirely in the unconscious level.
Normative behavior
Social behaviors that follow the spoken or unspoken rules and expectations for the behavior of its members and meet the ideal social standard
Macro or micro level theory
Social constructionism
Social constructionists
Social constructionists focus on social constructs that change across cultures and within a single culture over time. Social constructionism claims that social attributes such as rape, gender, sexuality, and class are constructs of society, and that the same is true of our concepts of occupational status, power, and mental health/illness.
Kohlberg Stage 5 of 6
Social contract orientation: Individuals see laws as social contracts to be changed when they do not promote general welfare, "The greatest good for the greatest number of people"
According to social cognitive theory, what factors can influence a person's attitude to change?
Social factors, observational learning, and environmental factors can also influence a person's attitude change.
Social institutions
Social institutions are complexes of roles, norms, and values organized into a relatively stable form that contribute to social order by governing the behavior of people
Hypnotism
Social interaction in which a hypnotist has a subject focus attention on what is being said, relax and feel tired, "let go," and accept suggestions easily through the use of vivid imagination
How is social order possible?
Social order is possible because individuals realize that their best interests are often served through cooperation and compromises with others
Stigma
Society often devalues deviant members by assigning demeaning labels, called stigma. Entire groups may be labeled based on physical or behavioral qualities.
Group pressure or peer pressure
Solomon Asch wanted to test the effects of group pressure on individuals' behavior, so he designed a series of simple experiments where subjects would be asked to participate in a study on visual perception. When subjects were placed in a room with several other people that they thought were also participating in the study, but were actually confederates (part of the experiment), the results were quite different.
Somatic Symptom Disorders
Somatic Symptom Disorders are characterized by symptoms that cannot be explained by a medical condition or substance use, and are not attributable to another psychological disorder, but that nonetheless cause emotional distress Specific psychological disorders: -Somatic Symptom Disorder -Illness Anxiety Disorder -Conversion Disorder -Factitious Disorder (imposed on self or another)
Mindguarding
Some members of the group prevent dissenting opinions from permeating the group by filtering out information and facts that go against the beliefs of the group
Autocrine
Some signaling molecules notify the activity of the cell which secreted them
Positive reinforcement
Some sort of desirable stimulus that occurs immediately following a behavior
Negative reinforcement
Some sort of undesirable stimulus that is removed immediately following a behavior
Primary reinforcers
Somehow innately satisfying or desirable. These are reinforcers that we do not need to learn to see as reinforcers because they are integral to our survival.
Ultimate cause of a person's illness
Someone working from the perspective of the medical model might look for the ultimate cause of a person's illness
Proximate cause
Someone working from the social model would be attuned to a more proximate cause-something about the patient's life circumstances that out him/her at greater risk of exposure
Latent learning
Something is learned but not expressed as an observable behavior until it is required
Alan Baddeley's model
Sought to better define short-term memory, which he renamed working memory. Working memory consists of 4 components- a phonological loop, a visuospatial sketchpad, an episodic buffer, and a central executive.
Abraham Maslow: Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Sought to explain human behavior by creating a hierarchy of needs. 5 different needs on a pyramid. On the bottom of the pyramid is Physiological needs: need to maintain internal homeostasis, like obtaining food, water, and oxygen, eliminate waste, regulate internal temperature, rest, engage in activity, reproduce. Next going up is Safety needs: need to feel safe and protected, establish routine and familiarity, feel like the world is organized and predictable. Next is Love and Belongingness: need to receive and give love, affection, and trust; need to be a part of a group or community, avoid loneliness. Next is Esteem needs: need to achieve self-esteem and independence; need to receive esteem and respect from others. On the top of the pyramid is Self-actualization: need to realize one's full potential and find meaning beyond one's self.
Auditory cortex
Sound stimuli are processed in the auditory cortex, located in the temporal lobe of the brain
Source characteristics
Source characteristics of the person or venue delivering the message, such as expertise, knowledge, and trustworthiness, are also of importance. People are much more likely to be persuaded by a major study than pages in a local tabloid.
Auditory hair cells
Specialized cell found in the cochlea of the inner ear. It detects vibrations caused by sound waves.
Glial cells
Specialized, non-neuronal cells that typically provide structural and metabolic support to neurons
Non-material culture
Specific to social thoughts and ideas, such as values
Physical attractiveness stereotype
Specific type of halo effect; people tend to rate attractive individuals more favorably for personality traits and characteristics than they do those who are less attractive
Animal phobias
Spiders, snakes, dogs
Egalitarian family
Spouses are treated as equals and may be involved in more negotiation when making decisions
Self-verification
States that individuals want to be understood in terms of their deeply held core beliefs
Psychoanalytic theory
States that personality is shaped by a person's unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories. Psychoanalytic theory was developed by Sigmund Freud. He stated that two instinctual drives motivate human behavior.
Malthusianism
States that the possible rate of population increase exceeds the possible rate of resource increase