psychology test 2

What was Harlow's key idea? How was he able to find support for this?

contact comfort - a baby will chose comfort, protection and love over food. His experiment was on a monkey and it found that the monkey would go to the soft warm mother over the metal food dispensing mother.

What is personality?

he consistent and distinctive thoughts, feelings, and behaviors in which an individual engages.

Pavlov's experiment

identify (1) the neutral stimulus before conditioning, (2) the unconditioned stimulus, (3) the unconditioned response, (4) the conditioned stimulus after conditioning, and (5) the conditioned response.

What is priming?

1992). During priming exposure to a stimulus affects the response to a later stimulus. Stimuli can vary and may include words, pictures, and other stimuli to elicit a response or increase recognition. For instance, some people really enjoy picnics. They love going into nature, spreading a blanket on the ground, and eating a delicious meal. Now, unscramble the following letters to make a word. AETPLAETPL What word did you come up with? Chances are good that it was "plate." Had you read, "Some people really enjoy growing flowers. They love going outside to their garden, fertilizing their plants, and watering their flowers," you probably would have come up with the word "petal" instead of plate.

What is emerging adulthood? What criteria matter most and matter least to emerging adults in their subjective sense of having attained adulthood? What are the five features of emerging adulthood identified by Jeffrey Jensen Arnett? What are the three main areas of identity exploration in emerging adulthood? How are the explorations in adolescence different from those in emerging adulthood?

A new transitional period of development, extending from the late teens to the mid- to late twenties. Young people have left adolescence but have not yet assumed adult responsibilities. Emphasis on self-sufficiency Individualistic qualities of character matter most. Accepting responsibility for oneself Making decisions Becoming financially independent also ranks consistently near the top. Demographic milestones matter least. Education Settling into a career Marriage Parenthood identity development- Main areas: Love Work Worldviews Begins in adolescence but takes place mainly in emerging adulthood Transient and tentative explorations of adolescence are followed by more serious and focused explorations in emerging adulthood.

What two things does the psychodynamic theory of personality emphasize?

An explanation of personality, based on the ideas of Sigmund Freud, that emphasizes unconscious forces and early childhood experiences

Identify and describe the four parenting styles

Authoritarian parenting style "Because-I-said-so" parents Permissive parenting style "Indulgent" parents Authoritative parenting style "Here's why" parents Uninvolved "Neglectful" parents --- the best one is authoritative parenting.

What is reciprocal determinism and self-efficacy?

Bandura's reciprocal determinism Three factors—your behavior, your environment, and your cognitions—continually influence each other. Self-efficacy: one's beliefs about one's capabilities.

Why do we forget? According to Ebbinghaus's "forgetting curve," what happens to the rate of memory loss over time? What are savings? Distinguish between proactive and retroactive interference. Be able to identify examples.

Due to storage decay, an average person will lose 50% of the memorized information after 20 minutes and 70% of the information after 24 hours. Your memory for new information decays quickly and then eventually levels out. savings: Proactive interference (PI) occurs when past learning interferes with new learning, while retroactive interference (RI) is the attenuation of memory for previous learning as a result of new knowledge.

What is chunking?

Chunking is useful when trying to remember information like dates and phone numbers. Instead of trying to remember 5205550467, you remember the number as 520-555-0467.

Distinguish between continuous and partial reinforcement. How do each of these reinforcement schedules affect the rates of acquisition and extinction?

Continuous Reinforcement: A type of learning which reinforces a desired behavior every time it occurs. Partial Reinforcement: A type of learning which occasionally reinforces a desired behavior after it happens, such as praising a student every other time a question is answered correctly. --continuous reinforcement schedule is the quickest way to teach someone a behavior, and it is especially effective in training a new behavior. ---These schedules are described as either fixed or variable, and as either interval or ratio.

Compare and contrast explicit and implicit memory. What are the other names for them? What are the two types of explicit memory, and how are they distinguished? What are the types of implicit memory, and what sort of things are part of procedural memory?

Explicit memories (declarative memory) are those we consciously try to remember, recall, and report. For example, if you are studying for your chemistry exam, the material you are learning will be part of your explicit memory. Implicit memories (procedural memory) are long-term memories that are not part of our consciousness. Although implicit memories are learned outside of our awareness and cannot be consciously recalled. two types of explicit memory:episodic memory and semantic memory. Episodic memory is information about events we have personally experienced. Semantic memory is knowledge about words, concepts, and language-based knowledge and facts. types of implicit memory: procedural, priming, and emotional conditioning. Implicit procedural memory stores information about the way to do something, and it is the memory for skilled actions, such as brushing your teeth, riding a bicycle, or driving a car.

What is the five-factor model of personality? Identify and describe each of the Big Five traits. (Hint: Use the acronym OCEAN to help you remember what the Big Five traits are.) Be able to identify examples of these.

In the Five Factor Model, each person has each factor, but they occur along a spectrum. Openness to experience is characterized by imagination, feelings, actions, and ideas. People who score high on this factor tend to be curious and have a wide range of interests. Conscientiousness is characterized by competence, self-discipline, thoughtfulness, and achievement-striving (goal-directed behavior). People who score high on this factor are hardworking and dependable.

What are cohort effects, why are they a problem? For which type of research design are they a concern?

Individuals born in the same time period are influenced by a particular set of historical and cultural conditions. Results based on one cohort may not apply to other cohorts Validity threat to cross-sectional research findings

What is level of processing, and what do shallow and superficial mean in this context? What examples of shallow vs. deep processing did we use in our experiment we did in class? When does this theory say you'll remember better?

Levels of processing: The idea that the way information is encoded affects how well it is remembered. The deeper the level of processing, the easier the information is to recall. A shallow level of encoding occurs when we process information, like words, structurally, by the way they appear, or phonemically, by the way they sound. An example of structural encoding would be to remember the color of a word, and an example of phonemic encoding would be to think about what the word rhymes with.

Compare and contrast cross-sectional research design with longitudinal research design. Explain how you would set up a developmental study differently using each of these two approaches. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of each.

Longitudinal studies and cross-sectional studies are two different types of research design. In a cross-sectional study you collect data from a population at a specific point in time; in a longitudinal study you repeatedly collect data from the same sample over an extended period of time

How does emerging adulthood vary across cultures?

Mainly industrialized and postindustrialized countries Require a high level of education and training to enter technologically-advanced careers Marriage and parenthood are typically postponed. Even within industrialized countries Less working class than middle class May not apply to traditional subcultures

Distinguish between maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal. Which of these is shallow vs. deep processing?

Maintenance rehearsal (also known as rote memorization) involves repeating information (out loud or in your head). Elaborative rehearsal is more elaborate and involves additional memory aids like mnemonic devices. Maintenance rehearsal is shallow while elaborative is deep processing.

Identify and describe the three steps of memory in the information processing model.

Memory is the set of processes used to encode, store, and retrieve information over different periods of time encoding--We get information into our brains through a process called encoding, which is the input of information into the memory system. storage--Once the information has been encoded, we have to somehow retain it. Our brains take the encoded information and place it in storage. Storage is the creation of a permanent record of information. retrieval--The act of getting information out of memory storage and back into conscious awareness is known as retrieval. This would be similar to finding and opening a paper you had previously saved on your computer's hard drive.

Identify the three major issues in psychology. What is each of these things about?

Nature and Nurture. Continuity and Stages. Stability and Change.

What is a limitation to Piaget's theory of cognitive development? Explain how Baillargeon used the violation-of-expectations method to show that babies understand object permanence at much earlier ages than Piaget thought.

Piaget's theory has some shortcomings, including overestimating the ability of adolescence and underestimating infant's capacity. Piaget also neglected cultural and social interaction factors in the development of children's cognition and thinking ability. ???

Differentiate primary from secondary reinforcers (Hint: The best example of a primary reinforcer is food; the best example of a secondary reinforcer is money.)

Primary reinforcers are reinforcers that meet a biological need such as food and shelter. While Secondary reinforces gain value by association with primary reinforcers.

Distinguish between recall and recognition. Be able to identify examples.

Recall is what we most often think about when we talk about memory retrieval: it means you can access information without cues. For example, you would use recall for an essay test. Recognition happens when you identify information that you have previously learned after encountering it again. It involves a process of comparison. When you take a multiple-choice test, you are relying on recognition to help you choose the correct answer. Here is another example. Let's say you graduated from high school 10 years ago, and you have returned to your hometown for your 10-year reunion. You may not be able to recall all of your classmates, but you recognize many of them based on their yearbook photos.

Explain what Piaget meant by the following concepts: schema, assimilation, and accommodation. Be able to identify examples.

Schema—a concept or mental representation that guides the way a person makes sense of new information. Assimilation—making sense of new information by sorting it into existing schemas Accommodation—making sense of new information, revising existing schemas, or creating new schemas

Identify and describe Piaget's four stages of cognitive development.

Sensorimotor - Birth-2 years Sensory experiences and motor actions Key developmental task—achieving object permanence Emerges around a child's first birthday Preoperational - Ages 2-7 Language, Pretend play, May not think logically, Difficulty performing mental operations. Egocentrism: The inability to understand a situation from a point of view other than your own Concrete Operational- Ages 7-11 Think logically about and can perform mental operations (e.g., reversibility) on concrete things Formal Operational - Age 11-adulthood Think logically about abstract things Political ideologies, religious beliefs, philosophical points of view. Propositional thought The ability to evaluate the logic of propositions (verbal statements) without referring to real-world circumstances. Piaget argued not everyone reaches this stage.

What is higher order conditioning?

Several layers of classical conditioning, money makes you happy because candy makes you happy and you can buy candy with money

Compare and contrast short-term memory with long-term memory. What is the "magic number" and what does it refer to? What is working memory, and how is it different from short-term memory?

Short-term memory (STM) is a temporary storage system that processes incoming sensory memory. Think of it as the information you have displayed on your computer screen, such as a document, spreadsheet, or website. Then, information in STM goes to long-term memory (you save it to your hard drive), or it is discarded (you delete a document or close a web browser). Long-term memory (LTM) is the continuous storage of information. Unlike short-term memory, long-term memory storage capacity is believed to be unlimited. --magic number is 7 plus or minus 2 which refers to the capacity of short term memory. ---Short-term is for information storage only, while working memory is for information storage and manipulation.

What are defense mechanisms? Be able to identify specific examples of defense mechanisms

Techniques used by the ego to manage conflict between the id and the superego.

Identify and describe the three components of the mind according to Freud.

The Id - Animalistic urges and biological impulses Seeks immediate gratification Operates on the pleasure principle The Ego - Mediator between id and superego Seeks to satisfy id impulses in socially acceptable ways Makes compromises Operates on the reality principle Delay gratification The Superego - Opposes the id Similar to conscience Makes us feel guilty when we do "wrong" Operates on the morality principle

Contrast classical conditioning with operant conditioning.

The main difference between classical and operant conditioning is that classical conditioning associates involuntary behavior with a stimulus while operant conditioning associates voluntary action with a consequence.

What is the misinformation effect? What kind of interference is this an example of?

The misinformation effect occurs when a person's recall of episodic memories becomes less accurate because of post-event information. The misinformation effect is an example of retroactive interference which occurs when information presented later interferes with the ability to retain previously encoded information.

What is the serial position effect? What are the names for the specific effects at either end, and what do they refer to?

The serial position effect is the psychological tendency to remember the first and last items in a list better than those in the middle. ???

What is attachment?

The strong emotional bond a young child forms with their primary caregiver

What does the trait theory of personality emphasize? What are traits?

Trait theorists believe personality can be understood via the approach that all people have certain traits, or characteristic ways of behaving. Do you tend to be sociable or shy? Passive or aggressive? Optimistic or pessimistic?

What are the six ways in class we discussed for how to study better? Be specific and explain and/or give an example of how you would use each to enhance your studying. What are two ways sleep helps memories?

Use elaborative rehearsal and deep processing. Use mnemonics (tricks to help you remember things). Distribute your learning. Spacing effect (AKA advantage of distributed practice over massed practice) Cramming does not work as well as consistent, repeated studying. Practice retrieval. Repeated testing more effective than the same amount of time reviewing the same information. Reduces negative impact of test anxiety (Smith et al., 2016) Examples: Try to answer the questions on the study guide without looking at your answers Using flashcards. overlearn sleep

What did Vygotsky emphasize as the primary force behind cognitive development? What do scaffolding and the zone of proximal development mean? Be able to identify examples of these concepts.

Vygotsky emphasised the role of the social environment in the cognitive development of the child. scaffolding is the help/support that takes place in the zone of proximal development. As the child begins to learn and master the skill, the support provided by the teacher decreases until eventually the child can begin to do the task on their own.The Zone of Proximal Development is defined as the space between what a learner can do without assistance and what a learner can do with adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers.

What is encoding specificity? How does this apply in the case of context-dependent learning and state-dependent learning?

We get information into our brains through a process called encoding, which is the input of information into the memory system. Whereas context-dependent learning refers to a match in the external situation between learning and remembering, state-dependent learning refers to superior retrieval of memories when the individual is in the same physiological or psychological state as during encoding.

What is shaping?

When a complex response is broken down into smaller components and taught sequentially. -Instead of performing the entire task, they set up these steps and reinforce each step. First, he cleans up one toy. Second, he cleans up five toys. Third, he chooses whether to pick up ten toys or put his books and clothes away. Fourth, he cleans up everything except two toys. Finally, he cleans his entire room.

Explain how classical conditioning is used in advertising.

a food ad will use mouth-watering food to tempt consumers. When they see such an ad, their mouth will start to water and will lead them to feel hungry. This will prompt them to go out and buy that product to satisfy their hunger.

What is the association illusion?

a visual illusion produced by the interaction of parts of a design For example, a child who perceives tree branches at night as if they are goblins may be said to be having an illusion.

Be able to apply the classical conditioning concepts of acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination.

acquisition- the initial period of learning is known as acquisition, when an organism learns to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus. Extinction is the decrease in the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer presented with the conditioned stimulus. spontaneous recovery: the return of a previously extinguished conditioned response following a rest period generalization- The more similar a stimulus is to the condition stimulus, the more likely the organism is to give the conditioned response. For instance, if the electric mixer sounds very similar to the electric can opener, Tiger may come running after hearing its sound. But if you do not feed her following the electric mixer sound, and you continue to feed her consistently after the electric can opener sound, she will quickly learn to discriminate between the two sounds Discrimination- When an organism learns to respond differently to various stimuli that are similar, it is called stimulus discrimination

What is temperament? Identify and describe the three categories of temperament

basic emotional responsiveness that characterizes a person throughout their lifespan. Goodness-of-fit: the match between parenting style and a child's temperament Good fit → healthy development Poor fit → parent-child conflict and developmental difficulties

For Watson's Little Albert experiment, identify (1) the neutral stimuli before conditioning, (2) the unconditioned stimulus, (3) the unconditioned response, (4) the conditioned stimulus after conditioning, and (5) the conditioned response How is this relevant to generalization and discrimination?

neutral stimuli- The rat was initially a neutral stimulus that did not scare the child. unconditioned stimulus- the loud noise unconditioned response-child crying when frightened by a loud noise conditioned stimulus- The rat, originally a neutral stimulus, had become a conditioned stimulus, and was eliciting an emotional response conditioned response- fear, which he exhibited by crying whenever he saw a white rat --this is generalization because he was scared of the things that looked like the white rat like the bunny and the white beard. He was able to discriminate from some of the items.

Be familiar with each of the following concepts: Self-actualization; positive regard; conditions of worth; real self and ideal self; congruence and incongruence.

self-actualization- is the achievement of our fullest potential. positive regard- unconditional love from parents which leads to child having a caring attitude toward themselves. conditions of worth- external factors could affect how we value, or measure, our self- worth based on our ability to meet certain conditions we believe are essential. real self and ideal self- The ideal self is the person that you would like to be; the real self is the person you actually are. congruence and incongruence- We experience congruence when our thoughts about our real self and ideal self are very similar—in other words, when our self-concept is accurate. Conversely, when there is a great discrepancy between our ideal and actual selves, we experience a state Rogers called incongruence, which can lead to maladjustment.

Identify examples of positive and negative reinforcement and punishment

spanking a child when he throws a tantrum is an example of positive punishment. Something is added to the mix (spanking) to discourage a bad behavior (throwing a tantrum). On the other hand, removing restrictions from a child when she follows the rules is an example of negative reinforcement.

What is sensory memory? What distinguishes echoic from iconic memory?

storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes. It is very brief storage—up to a couple of seconds. Iconic memory is similar to echoic memory but for the sense of sight instead of sound. They are very similar, but the main difference is in their duration. Echoic memory stores auditory stimuli for several seconds, and iconic memory stores visual stimuli for a few hundred milliseconds

Describe what the behavior of babies in the strange situation looks like for those who have secure, insecure-avoidant, and insecure-resistant attachment. How do adult attachment styles affect relationships?

the babies were brought to a room with their mothers and researchers recorded what they did when their mothers went in another room and then when a stranger comes in the room and do on. For a secure attachment the baby would be exploring freely with mother around and being distressed when left with a stranger. can be comforted by mother Insecure-Avoidant Attachment acted indifferent to mother and stranger and does nor explore. Insecure-Resistant Attachment stay close to mother and does not explore. they are distressed when parents leave and can not be comforted by mother after she leaves. Disorganized Attachment cries while crawling toward mother but does not look at her when distressed. screams at door when mother leaves and crawls away when she comes back. ---Secure Attachment: More likely to develop mature, lasting relationships Insecure-Avoidant Attachment: Less able to trust others and find it difficult to develop close, intimate relationships Insecure-Resistant Attachment: Want closeness, but worry partner will not return affection

What is unconscious and psychic determinism? What are Freudian slips?

the belief that all thoughts and behaviors, even those that seem accidental, arbitrary, or mistaken, are determined by psychological forces. Freudian slips: verbal or behavioral mistakes that reveal unconscious thoughts or wishes

What are the two general requirements for acquisition to occur?

the neutral stimulus and naturally occurring stimulus must be paired together multiple times in most cases.