Psychology: Unit 1 History and Research (Review Guide)

Titchener

Associated with Structuralism, Used introspective reports to build a view of the mind's structure

natural selection

From among chance variations, nature selects the traits that best enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment.

Scientific method

standardized way of making observations, gathering data, forming theories, testing predictions, and interpreting results

Charles Darwin

suggested that the evolution of living organisms is guided by natural selection

nature-nurture issue

the controversy over the relative contributions of biology and experience.

independent variable

the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

dependent variable

the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulation of another variable.

illusory correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists.

humanistic psychology

the perspective that emphasizes the growth potential of healthy people and the individual's potential for healthy growth.

experimental group

the quality of being exposed to treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

control group

the quality of not being exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

psychology

the science of behavior and mental processes

perceiving order in random events

the search for patterns in an attempt to make sense of the world around us

wording effect

the subtle impact of questioning in surveys and using terms that hide bias and gain the most information

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. Impacted by Human intuition

levels of analysis

the three differing complementary views (biological, psychological, and social-cultural) for analyzing any given phenomenon.

critical thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

William James

was primarily concerned with the "functions" of the mind, associated with Functionalism

Margaret Floy Washburn

The first woman to receive a Ph.D. in psychology later wrote an influential book, "The Animal Mind", second APA female president

clinical psychology

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders.

correlation

a measure of the extent to which two factors are related, how the factors may vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

experiment(ation)

a research method in which the researcher can manipulate one or more factors/variables to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process.

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

functionalism

a school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function-how they enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish.

operational definition

a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.

correlational coefficient

a statistical measure of correlation. It helps us figure out how closely two things vary together.

survey

a technique for revealing the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

hypothesis

a testable prediction, often one that is implied by a theory.

overconfidence

a well-established bias in which a person's subjective confidence in his or her judgments is reliably greater than the objective accuracy of those judgments, especially when confidence is relatively high.

population

all the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. (Note:,this does NOT refer to a country's whole population.)

structuralism

an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the structural elements of the human mind

intuition

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reseasoning.

theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological and social-cultural levels of analysis.

case study

an observation technique in which one person (or group) is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

causation

changes in one variable they measured directly caused changes in the other.

Behavior genetics

concerned with assessing the relative contributions of heredity and environmental experience to differing levels of human intelligence

Neuroscience perspective

concerned with how the physical properties of the brain influence behavior and mental states?

Social -Cultural perspective

examines how group membership influences individual attitudes and behaviors

experimenter bias

expectations by the experimenter that might influence the results of an experiment or its interpretation

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

Psychodynamic perspective

explains behavior in terms of unconscious drives and conflicts

Behavioral perspective

focuses on observable behaviors and how they are learned or conditioned

informed consent

giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

Cognitive perspective

highlights the manner in which people encode, process, store, and retrieve information

Sigmund Freud

his theories, known as psychoanalysis, added another new dimension to psychology: the idea that much of our behavior is governed by unconscious conflicts, motives and desires. His theories gave rise to the psychodynamic approach.

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

Mary Whiton Caulkins

pioneering memory researcher who worked with William James and was denied her Ph.D. degree, first APA female president

replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.

positive psychology

scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovery and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive.

double-blind procedure

An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

Wilhelm Wundt

Defined psychology as "science of mental life", established 1st psychological laboratory

Evolutionary perspective

Studying the impact of natural selection on the development of behaviors and mental processes, how have traits adapted to survive

debrief

postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

B.F. Skinner

prominent American behaviorist

John B. Watson

proponent of Behaviorism, psychology " scientific study of observable behavior"

basic research

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base.