Psychophys Exam 1

Describe the function of the central nervous system

--Brain and Spinal Cord

Myelin

-A series of fatty cells which have wrapped around an axon many times -Myelin sheath- offer protection from damage, insulates the neuron, and speeds up the neural messages traveling down the axon.

Sensory Neuron

-AKA Afferent neurons -carry messages from the senses to the spinal cord. -Sensory neurons are the neurons that harness information from the different sensory organs such as the eyes, nose, ears, tongue and skin -Remember AFFERENT neurons ACCESS the spinal cord

Motor Neuron

-AKA efferent neurons -carry messages from the spinal cord to the muscles and glands to initiate action or response to stimuli -EFFERENT neurons EXIT

•Briefly describe autonomic system changes associated with anger, fear, sadness, disgust and happiness

-Anger ---Reddering in skin, blood vessels bulge, and constriction -Fear ---Face color, sweat, clammy palms, higher skin conductance -Sadness ---Tearing and crying -Disgust ---Salivation and drool -Happiness ---Tightness in chest and goosebumps

Microtubules

-Are hollow, fibrous shafts whose main function is to help support and give shape to the cell

Association claims

-Argues that one level of a variable is likely to be associated with a particular level of another variable. -Suggests that 2 variables are related, but does not claim that one causes the other. -Always involves at least 2 variables, and the variables are measured, not manipulated. -Uses words such as "linked to", "tied to", "correlated" "predicted", or "Related to". -4 Basic types of associations among variables: positive associations, negative associations, zero associations, and curvilinear associations.

Causal Claims

-Argues that one of the variables is responsible for the change in the other. -Suggests that one thing causes the other. -Must include at least two variables. -Suggests variables in question covary. Can be positive, negative, or curvilinear. -Use causal language such as "cause, enhance, and curb". Even if softening language is used before a verb like enhance, such as "could, may, seem, suggest, possible, potential", it is still a causal claim. -Must establish: ---the cause variable and the outcome variable are correlated (relationship cannot be zero), ---that the causal variable came first and the outcome variable came later, and ---that no other explanations exist for the relationship

Describe electrochemical communication between neurons

-Axonal conduction ---Axonal conduction is a complicated electrical-chemical process ---In simplest terms, it involves an electrical impulse that travels down the axon like a wave ---In motor neurons and interneurons, the impulse travels from the cell body to the axon terminals ------In sensory neurons, the impulse moves from the dendrite area of the axon to its axon terminals -Resting potential ---At rest, the inside of the cell is more negative, and the outside of the cell is more positive. ----At rest, There is more potassium on the inside and more sodium on the outside. -Two forces act upon these ions ---Concentration gradient--osmotic force ---Electromotive force ------Potassium wants to move out of the cell because of diffusion. ------Sodium wants to move in because it is attracted to the negative charge on the inside (electrostatic force) and because it wants t move to the area of lower concentration (diffusion) -The sodium potassium pump actively maintains the voltage difference because in order to have electrical charges move, there must be a voltage difference.

Dendrites

-Branches or spikes extending out from the cell body that receive chemical messages from other neurons

What is a nerve?

-Bundles of axons coated in myelin that travel together through the body -A whitish fiber or bundle of fibers that transmits impulses of sensation to the brain or spinal cord, and impulses from these to the muscles and organs

According to psychophysiologists, arousal is not a unidimensional construct. Explain

-Can't be determined by measuring a single physiological response -Specific contexts bring about certain patterns of responding -Arousal is a heightened dimension to a stimulus -It is not a unidimensional concept. This means that one cannot truly determine specific arousal simply by measuring one single, physiological response.

Describe the overview of the nervous system

-Central ---Brain and spinal cord -Peripheral ---All other nerves -Autonomic ---Monitors internal world; carries out automatic processes -Somatic ---Monitors external world; carries out voluntary processes -Sympathetic ---Facilitates energy expenditure (fight or flight) -Parasympathetic ---Facilitates energy storage (rest and digest)

Which of the three validities apply to frequency claims? Of the three, which is prioritized first and second?

-Construct, external, and statistical -Remember: Construct Validity refers to how well a researcher measured or manipulated a variable. -Remember: External validity refers to how well the results of a study generalize to, or represent people or contexts besides those in the study itself.

•What are excitatory and inhibitory post-synaptic potentials

-Excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSP) bring the neuron's potential closer to its firing threshold -Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSP) change the charge across the membrane to be further from the firing threshold

What types of stimuli elicit fast habituation?

-Fast/ rapid habituation tends to occur with stimuli that are the same and are presented frequently, over and over again.

How many variables are there in a frequency claim? An association claim? A causal claim?

-Frequency- 1 (varaibles measured, not manipulated) -Association- 2 (variables are measured, not manipulated.) -Causal- 2

orienting response- purpose and physiological profile

-Function ---Directs our attention to novel stimuli and enhances sensory processing to prepare to deal with novel stimulus -Response ---Highly sensitive to stimulus novelty, habituates rapidly after stimulus repetition (this is after the stimulus becomes a common event) -Profile ---Decreased relevant motor activity ---High frequency and low voltage EEG ---Peripheral vasoconstriction and cephalic vasodilation ---Increased skin conductance ---Delay, then increase amplitude and frequency of respiration

Defensive response- purpose and physiological profile

-Function ---Protects us from possible dangers of intense painful or threatening stimuli -Response ---Habituates slowly or rapidly depending on intensity of stimulus and extent to which the repeated stimulus signals danger or induces pain -Profile ---Increased muscle blood flow ---Decreased blood flow to gut ---Increased blood pressure ---Peripheral and cephalic vasoconstriction ---Heart rate acceleration

Describe the different ANS interaction profiles.

-High SNS, Low PNS ---Reciprocal sympathetic activation ----Stress response -High SNS, High PNS ---Coactivation ---Engaged in stress and engage regulatory systems -Low SNS, Low PNS ---Coinhibition -Low SNS, High PNS ---Reciprocal parasympathetic activation

In regards to causal claims, which validities are prioritized?

-Internal valididty- internal validity is only important for causal claims. -The other three validities, construct, statistical, and to a lesser extent, external validity, can be interrogated with causal claims too ---Construct validity- must ask how well the researchers manipulated the variable ---External validity- is the study generalizable ---Statistical validity- we would want to evaluate how well the design of the study allowed the researchers to minimize the probability of making the relevant conclusion mistake- a false alarm. Also can ask how strong the association is between the variables. Lastly, ask whether the difference between the groups was statistically significant to help ensure that the covariance rule is met- helps us be sure that the difference is not just due to chance

Describe what happens during an action potential

-Opening and closing of voltage gated sodium and potassium channels, depolarization, repolarization and hyperpolarization - Action potential travels down the axon. Vesicles burst, releasing neurotransmitters. -Neurotransmitters then bind with receptors on the next neuron. -When the neurotransmitter binds with receptors, there is a chemical change in the membrane. - The voltage gated Na (sodium) channel opens, allowing sodium ions to slowly trickle in. ---This is when the cell is depolarized, causing the inside of the cell to become more positive. -Eventually, the threshold is met at the axon hillock. ----This then triggers the opening of the K (potassium)voltage gates, and repolarization begins. -Potassium rushes out, making the inside more negative. -Hyperpolarization occurs because the Voltage gated K channel remains open after the potential reaches its resting level. -See picture in notes

Describe the pros and cons of psychophysiology

-Pros ---Get around desirability (pressure to respond correctly) ---Provide info outside of conscious awareness ---Identify how mental and physical health are related. -Cons ---Methods are sometimes difficult and expensive ---Controversy on what to infer ---EX: Does a higher heart rate mean anger? Sadness? Or just a significant movement?

Describe the difference between reactivity and responding.

-Reactivity- change from baseline. Difference between control group and comparison group -Responding- just raw scores, doesn't consider baseline

Know factors that contribute to the resting membrane potential

-Resting potential ---At rest, the inside of the cell is more negative, and the outside of the cell is more positive. ---At rest, there is more potassium on the inside and more sodium on the outside. -Sodium is negative and potassium is positive -Two forces act upon these ions ---Concentration gradient--osmotic force --- Electromotive force ------Potassium (K) wants to move out of the cell because of diffusion. ------Sodium (Na)wants to move in because it is attracted to the negative charge on the inside (electrostatic force) and because it wants t move to the area of lower concentration (diffusion) -The sodium potassium pump actively maintains the voltage difference because in order to have electrical charges move, there must be a voltage difference.

What types of stimuli tend to elicit slow habituation?

-Slow habituation tends to occur with stimuli that are unique, complex, intense, and infrequent

Nodes of Ranvier

-Spaces between myelin sheath -serves to facilitate the rapid conduction of nerve impulses -The nodes of Ranvier are small gaps that are approximately 1 micrometer wide -These gaps form on axons between the myelin sheath

Terminal Buttons

-The buds at the branches at the end of the axon that contain neurotransmitters and send them shooting across the synapse

Axon

-a fiber attached to the soma, -its job is to carry messages to other cells, -a long, thin, cylindrical structure that conveys information from the soma of a neuron to its terminal buttons. -Transmits an electro-chemical signal to other neurons, sometimes over a considerable distance

Interneuron

-connect the afferent neurons to the motor neurons, and make up the inside of the spinal cord and much of the brain itself.

Frequency claim

-describe a particular rate or level of something. - Claim how frequent or common something is. -Merely gives a percentage/number. - Focus on only one variable, and the variables are always measured, not manipulated

Vesicles

-found in terminal buttons -Sacs that contain neurotransmitters, which eventually rupture and release the neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters

-in vesicles. -When vesicles burst, neurotransmitters are released and travel through the extracellular space between the 2 neurons and are received at the receptors on the dendrites of a nearby neuron

individual response stereotypy

-indicates the need for sufficient sample sizes because a few subjects can make idiosyncratic responses, making it difficult to detect differences between conditions. -How does stimulus response specificity differ from individual response stereotypy?

physiological activity: Spontaneous

-response to unknown stimulus

Soma

-the cell body that the dendrites are connected to. -This is the part of the cell that contains the nucleus and keeps the entire cell alive and functioning. -Contains the nucleus, which in turn contains the genetic material in the form of chromosomes

Independent variable

-the manipulated variable in an experiment. -What the experimenter changes. -The cause variable.

Dependent variable

-the variable that is measured. -The outcome variable. -The variable that changes as a result of the manipulation of the IV

Causal claims 1. Causal claims start with associations. Explain 2. Know the verb phrases that distinguish association and causal claims (Table 3.3. pg. 65) 3. What types of variables (manipulated and/or measured) are involved in causal claims? 4. Give an example of an anecdotal claim.

1. 2. Association uses words like "linked to, associated, more likely, may predict, is tied to"... -Causal claims use verbs like "causes, affects, makes, promotes, reduces, increases, may lead to" 1Remember: Causal claims can contain tentative language such as could, may, seen etc. 3.Manipulated and measured 4.

Association claims 1. An association claim must have at least how many variables? 2Terms associate, correlate and covary are use synonymously. Explain 3. What types of variables are involved in association claims (manipulated and/or measured)? 4. Describe positive, negative and zero associations. 5. What type of graph is used to represent associations? 6. Both positive and negative associations can be used to make predictions. Explain 7. Zero associations cannot be used to make predictions. Explain

1. At least 2 2. All mean the variables are related, but cant infer causation 3. Measured 4. -Positive- vary in same direction. ---Negative- vary in opposite directions ---Zero- no relationship 5. Scatter plot 6. Follow general pattern, can extend the general pattern to make predictions 7. No relationship between the variables= no pattern= random/ can't predict

Frequency Claim 1. What type of claim involves describing a particular rate or degree of a single variable? 2. What is the best way to distinguish frequency claims from the other two types of claims (association and causal)? 3. In frequency claims, are variables manipulated or measured?

1. Frequency claim 2. Only uses one variable, only states a number/ percentage 3. Measured

Three rules of causation

1. covariance (relationship cannot be zero between the variables. As A changes, B changes) 2. temporal precedence (variable A causes the change in Variable B. A happened before B), 3. internal validity (there are no possible alternative explanations for the change in B; A is the only thing that changed).

A variable must have at least _____ levels

2

Which of the four big validities apply to causal claims?

All 4 apply, but internal is highlighted because it is only important for causal claims

What is a constant

Constant: A constant does not vary. In other words, it stays the same. Made-up headline: "30% of women have been sexually harassed in the workplace." Gender is a constant.

What are the four big validities?

Construct, Internal, External, Statistical

Usually, to support a causal claim, researchers must conduct what type of study?

Experiment

What is the difference between a variable and its levels?

Levels are the manipulation of the variable itself. Levels create the various groups.

Function of Parasympathetic nervous system

Parasympathetic: -Rest and digest •Facilitates energy storage •Decreases heart rate and blood pressure •Activates digestion •Contracts pupils •Vagus nerve (wandering)

Some variables cannot be manipulated, they can only be measured. Explain

Some variables can only be measured—not manipulated. Example: You can't assign participants to be a particular age, as age is a naturally occurring variable. Sometimes it is unethical to manipulate variables. Example: Providing one group of children with nutritious school lunches and another group of children with high calorie, high fat, and high sugar lunches.

When interrogating the statistical validity of association claims, we ask about the strength and statistical significance of the association. Explain

Strength: How strong is the association? Some associations are strong and others are weak. Remember that the stronger the association, the more accurate our predictions will be. Significance: If an association is statistically significant, then the result is probably not due to chance based on that sample. If an association isn't statistically significant, then the result probably is due to chance.

Function of Sympathetic nervous system

Sympathetic: -Fight or flight •Causes release of catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine) from adrenal medulla •Increases heart rate and blood pressure •Slows digestion •Dilates pupils

What are type I and type II errors?

Type I error: (one, none) false positive; a study might mistakenly conclude that there is an association between two variables in their sample when there actually is no association in the population. You want to increase the chances that you will find an association only when there really is an association. Type II error: a "miss"; a study might mistakenly conclude from a sample that there is no association between two variables when there actually is an association in the population. You want to minimize/reduce the chances missing associations that are really there.

What types of questions are typically asked about the statistical validity of frequency claims?

When interrogating frequency claims, percentages are usually accompanied by a margin of error (a statistic based on sample size which indicates where the true value in the population probably lies. For example, if the margin of error is +/- 5 percentage points, then it means that the true percentage of "depressed college students" probably lies between 75-85%.

3 types of claims

causal, association and frequency claims

A conceptual variable is sometimes called a _________

construct???

•Autonomy

foster self-determination, respect participants' rights to choose their own directions... application- informed consent

• Fidelity

fulfilling the responsibility of trust in the relationship between the researcher and the participant (Trust fall= f= fidelity)

3 psychophysiological manipulations

o Classical Biofeedback/Neurofeedback o Rapid Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation o Brain Entrainment

Which ANS profile is associated with the stress response

o High SNS, Low PNS • Reciprocal sympathetic activation

3 newer psychophysiological measures

o Hormonal and Endocrinological measures o Immune function o Functional neuroimaging o PET (Positron Emission Tomography) o fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance) o Optical Imaging o MEG (Magnetoencephalography)

3 classic psychophysiological measures

o Skin Conductance (level and response) o Cardiac measures (heart rate, variability, contractility, both SNS and PNS measures, Blood Pressure, o Oculomotor and pupilometric measures o Electromyographic activity o Respiration o Gastrointestinal activity o Electroencephalographic oscillatory measures o Event-related brain potentials/frequency changes

• Beneficence

obligation of professionals to provide a service that benefits society

• Nonmaleficence

professionals are obligated to do no harm.... Application- debriefing

• Justice

professionals' commitment to fairness

3 types of neurons

sensory, motor and interneuron

parts of the neuron

soma, dendrites, axon, myelin, Nodes of Ranvier, microtubules, vesicles, terminal buttons

3 types of physiological activity

spontaneous, phasic, and tonic

Statistical validity

statistical significance & effect size

External validity

the degree to which we are confident that our sample presents the population of interest i.e. the degree to which we can generalize from our sample to the population of interest & also the degree to which we can generalize our results to different people and settings

Internal Validity

the degree to which you are confident that the independent variable is causing the change in the dependent variable. Internal validity is based on the research design

Construct Validity

the degree to which you measure what you purport to measure & how well you manipulate the independent variable

• Veracity

the professional's obligation to deal honestly with participants

What is a claim

• A claim is the argument someone is trying to make. Psychological scientists make their claims based on empirical research. They uses systematic observations, or data, to test and refine theories and claims

Describe the difference between the adaption period and baseline period.

• Adaptation period- time of measurement before the baseline. Used to let person adapt to the environment before the baseline measure • Baseline- measurement after the adaptation period, usually prior to the manipulation being applied.

Identify at least three things you should not do in the lab.

• Don't remove plugs from outlets by pulling on the cord • Don't use extension cords • Don't use "adapter" plugs • Don't run carts over or step on electrical cables/ connectors • Don't operate equipment without being thoroughly familiar with its operation and possible shock hazards.

What is the difference between measured and manipulated variables?

• Measured= DV • Manipulated= IV

What are the three broad categories for operationalizing a concept?

• Self reports • Behaviors • Physiological responses

What is electricity?

•A form of energy resulting from the existence of charged particles (such as electrons or protons), either statically as an accumulation of charge or dynamically as a current.

What is a neuron?

•A neuron is a specialized cell in the nervous system that receives and sends messages within that system.

What is a variable?

•A variable is something that varies, so it must have at least 2 levels, or values -A constant is something that could potentially vary, but has only one level in the study in question. -Measured variables- variables in which researchers look at/ observe and record -Manipulated variables- a variable in which a researcher controls its levels be assigning participants to the different levels of the variable. ----Some variables cannot not be manipulated ---Some variables can be both manipulated and/ or measured

What is the difference between conceptual and operational definitions?

•Conceptual definition: provides meaning to one construct in abstract or theoretical terms •Operational definition: defines a construct by specifying the procedures used to measure a construct. -Operational definitions should retain the essence of the conceptual definition -Conceptual variables/constructs/conceptual definitions: abstract, theoretical concepts such as "infant temperament" or "anxiety." I think of them as being "up in the clouds," but we need to bring them down to the ground from the lofty theoretical level so that we may measure them. -Operational variables/operational definitions/operationalize: In order to test their hypotheses with empirical data, researchers need to develop operational definitions/operational variables. Operationalizing means turning a conceptual definition into a measured or manipulated variable. Example: conceptual variable = physical aggression and operational variable = the number of times a child pushes, hits, kicks and/or punches another

Conducting a manipulation check is related to which of the four big validities (explain)

•Construct validity. Construct validity is the degree to which you measure what you purport to measure and how well you manipulate the IV. A manipulation check is a measure used to determine whether or not the manipulation of the independent variable has had its intended effect on the participants.

Which validities apply to association claims?

•Construct, external, statistical

What is Ohm's law?

•Current=Voltage/Resistance or I=E/R •C or I=current measured in amperes (A) •V or E=voltage measured in volts •R=resistance measured in Ohms

The next question refers to electromyography (EMG), electroencephalography (EEG), electrocardiography (EKG/ECG). Which types of psychophysiological recordings measure central nervous system activity, somatic nervous system activity and autonomic nervous system activity?

•EEG- Central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) •EKG- Autonomic nervous system (involuntary behaviors) •EMG- Somatic nervous system (voluntary behaviors) •Skin Conductance- Sympathetic Nervous System (fight or flight)

Explain why there may be a "trade -off" between internal validity and external validity.

•External validity is the degree to which the results are generalizable where as internal validity is the degree to which you are confident that the independent variable is causing the change in the dependent variable. In order to have better internal validity, the researcher must control more outside variables. By doing so, the research environment becomes less "natural", hence, less generalizable to the greater population (decreasing external validity). Likewise, if the research maximizes external validity by performing experiments in more natural environments with less control, then they will have more generalizable results, but they would not be able to say as confidently that A caused B because there was less control (decrease internal validity)

Startle response- purpose and physiological profile

•Function ---Interrupt or disengage organism from on-going activity -Response ---Rapid habituation of physiological responses -Profile ---Reflexive eye blink ---Whole body jerk ---Heart rate acceleration

How does stimulus response specificity differ from individual response stereotypy? What relevance do these principles have for your research project?

•In our research projects, we are limited on the amount of physiological measures we can take along with the number of participants we can recruit. To try to make up for this, we should try to have a very strong treatment.

According to Ohm's law, how can we increase electrical flow in a circuit?

•Increase flow by either reducing resistance or increasing voltage potential --Water in jar analogy. To make water flow out of jar faster (increase flow) you can either make the hole bigger (decrease resistance) or add more water to increase pressure/ force (increase voltage potential difference)

Research design is related to which of the four big validities (explain).

•Internal validity. Internal validity is the degree to which you are confident that one variable is casing the change in the other. In order to do this, the researcher must use controls within the experiment and this is done through a careful research design.

What are the three great forces?

•Nuclear -strong, very short (subatomic) distances •Electrostatic- holds all kinds of stuff together in the everyday world •Gravitational- weakest, but impressive over very large distances and with large masses

Which force are psychophysiologists interested in?

•Psychophysiologists are interested in electrostatic force' •Electrostatic force •Due to charged subatomic particles • Proton • Electron • but not Neutron • The Law: • Unlike Charges Attract • Like Charges Repel

Function of Somatic nervous system

•Somatic nervous system is a subpart of the peripheral nervous system. oThe somatic nervous system monitors the external world, carries out voluntary processes.

stimulus response specificity

•Stimulus response specificity indicates the need to record not just one, but several physiological measures, and examine the pattern of responses to the stimuli and the context.

Describe how a neuron is similar to a battery?

•The neuron is an electric battery and works by changes in its voltage. Compared with its surroundings, the inside of a "resting neuron" has a lower concentration of sodium ions and a higher concentration of potassium ions. Because of this imbalance of positively charged ions across the membrane the inside of the resting neuron is negative relative to the outside. This difference in voltage is called the membrane potential. -Voltage is defined as an electropotential difference between two points. In the case of the AA battery, this potential difference is measured between the top (+) and bottom (-) of the battery and is due to an excess of negative charge at the negative pole. In a neuron, this potential difference is measured across the lipid bilayer and the intracellular side is generally more negative.

definition of psychophysiology

•The scientific study of social, psychological, and behavioral phenomenon as related to and revealed through physiological principles and events in functional organisms. •In psychophysiology, the IV is typically a psychological manipulation • Non invasive.

What is the synaptic cleft?

•The space between neurons at a nerve synapse across which a nerve impulse is transmitted by a neurotransmitter -When the electrical signal reaches the presynaptic ending, it is translated into a chemical message that then diffuses across the synaptic cleft to the postsynaptic cell

A causal claim requires at least how many variables?

•To make a causal claim, researchers conduct experiments. -Causal claims involve two or more variables. -A variable has at least two levels.