Quotes

PHAEDRA: I will tell you the course of my resolves. When eros struck me, I thought about how I might best endure the wound. And so I began in this way: to be silent and to hide my affliction. (For one's tongue is not at all trustworthy; it knows how to advise others in a quandary but gets for oneself a multitude of evils.) My second plan was to endure this madness steadfastly, mastering it by self-control. (391-399)But when I was unable to overcome Cypris by these means, it seemed best to me to die, the most effective of all resolutions—as no one will deny. The good and noble things that I do should be witnessed by all but not my bad and shameful actions. I knew that both my sick passion and its fulfillment were dis-reputable, and besides, I have learned well the lesson that being a woman and a wife I was open to disgrace. May she die in damnation, that woman, a pollution to us all, who first defiled her marriage bed with other men. This wickedness began in the houses of the nobility to become a defilement on all the female sex. For whenever shameful acts seem right to the aristocrats, most certainly they will seem good to the lower classes. (400-412)I also hate women who say that they are chaste but in secret dare to commit unholy acts. O Lady Cypris, mistress of the sea, how in the world can such women look into the faces of their husbands? How can they help but tremble in the dark, their accomplice, in fear that the walls of the house will utter a sound? (413-418)My friends, I must die for this simple reason: that I may never be found guilty of bringing shame upon my husband and the children whom I bore. Instead may they live and flourish in the renowned city of Athens, free men, open in speech and their good reputation unsullied by their mother. For man is enslaved, even if he is bold of heart, whenever he is conscious of the sins of a mother or a father. (419-425)They say that to win in life's contest, one needs only this: a good and just character. But the base among mortals are exposed, sooner or later, when Time holds a mirror before them, as before a young girl. Among such as these may I never be discovered. (426-430)

A chorus of women from Troezen expresses concern about Phaedra's mys-terious illness and conjectures about its nature. When Phaedra, weak, pale, and wasted, makes her entrance, accompanied by her faithful Nurse, they realize the seriousness of her predicament. In the following scene, only with great difficulty can the Nurse wrest from her distraught mistress the guilty secret that she is in love with her stepson Hippolytus. An anguished Phaedra, whose ravings had been fraught with ambiguous and sexual innuendo, at last explains to the women of Troezen. She begins with some general thoughts (deeply pondered during her tortured, sleepless nights) about how lives of human beings have been destroyed. People are not ruined because they have no moral sense but because they fail to carry out what they know to be right due to inertia or weak submission to temp-tations and less honorable action. She goes on to explain how her conclusions apply directly to her own behavior and suffering (391-430):

Until now there was no animal more godlike than these and more capable of high intelligence and able to dominate all the rest. Then man was born; either the creator of the universe, originator of a better world, fashioned him from divine seed, or earth, recently formed and separated from the lofty aether, re-tained seeds from its kindred sky and was mixed with rain water by Prometheus, the son of Iapetus, and fashioned by him into the likeness of the gods who control all. While other animals look down to the ground, man was given a lofty visage and ordered to look up to the sky and fully erect lift his face to the stars. Thus earth that had been crude and without shape was transformed and took on the figure of man unknown before

After describing the creation of the universe and animal life out of the elements of Chaos, Ovid tells about the birth of mortals, depicting the superiority and lofty ambition of this highest creature in the order of things (Metamorphoses 1. 76-88); Ovid's "man" (homo) epitomizes the human race.

Chaos, Night, black Erebus, and broad Tartarus were first. But Ge, Aer [the lower atmosphere], and Uranus [Sky] did not exist. In the vast hollows of Erebus first of all black-winged Night, alone, brought forth an egg, from which Eros, the desirable, burst forth like a swift whirlwind, his back glisten-ing with golden wings. He mingled in broad Tartarus with Chaos, winged and dark as night, and hatched our race of birds and first led it to light. There was no race of immortals before Eros caused all things to mingle. From the mingling of couples, Uranus, Oceanus, Ge, and the immortal race of all the blessed gods came into being.

Creation myth from the Comedy, Birds

When the city was taken, one of the Persians made for Croesus to kill him, not knowing who he was; now Croesus saw the man coming, but he did not care, since in the present misfortune it made no difference to him if he were struck down and died. But the boy, this one who was mute, when he saw the Persian attacking, through fear of the terrible evil that was to happen broke into speech and cried: "Soldier, do not kill Croesus." This was the first time that he had uttered a sound, but afterward he could speak for the rest of his life. (85.3-85.4)The Persians then held Sardis and took Croesus himself captive after he had ruled for fourteen years and been besieged for fourteen days, and as the oracle predicted, he brought to an end his own mighty empire. The Persians took Croesus and led him to Cyrus, who had a great pyre erected and ordered Croe-sus bound in fetters to mount it and along with him twice seven children of the Lydians. Cyrus intended either to offer them as the first fruits of the booty to some one of the gods, perhaps in a desire to fulfill a vow, or having learned that Croesus was a god-fearing man placed him on the pyre, wishing to see if any of the gods would save him from being burned alive. At any rate this is what Cyrus did, but to Croesus as he stood on the pyre came the realization (even though he was in such sore distress) that the words of Solon had been spoken under god's inspiration: "No one of the living is happy!" (86.1-86.3)As this occurred to him, he sighed and groaned and broke the lengthy silence by calling out three times the name of Solon. When Cyrus heard this, he bade interpreters ask Croesus who this was whom he invoked, and they came up and asked the question. For a time Croesus did not answer, but eventually through compulsion he said: "The man I should like at all costs to converse with every tyrant." (86.3-86.4)Since his words were unintelligible to them, they asked again and again what he meant; annoyed by their persistence, he told how Solon the Athenian first came to him, and after having beheld all his prosperity made light of it by the nature of his talk, and how everything turned out for him just as Solon had predicted, with words that had no more reference to Croesus himself than to all human beings and especially those who in their own estimation considered themselves to be happy. As Croesus talked, the fire was kindled and began to burn the outer edges of the pyre. (86.4-86.6)When Cyrus heard from his interpreters what Croesus had said, he changed his mind, reflecting that he, too, was a human being who was surrendering another human being while still alive to the fire; besides he feared retribution, and realizing how nothing in human affairs is certain and secure, he ordered the burning fire to be quenched as quickly as possible and Croesus and those with him taken down from the pyre. And they made the attempt but were unable to master the flames. (86.6-87.1)Then, according to the Lydian version of the story, when Croesus learned of Cyrus' change of heart as he saw all the men trying to put out the fire but no longer able to hold it in check, he shouted aloud calling on Apollo, if ever he had received from him any gift that was pleasing, to stand by him and save him from the present evil. In tears he called on the god, and suddenly out of the clear and calm atmosphere storm clouds rushed together, burst forth in violent torrents of rain, and quenched the fire. (87.1-87.2)Thus Cyrus knew that Croesus was beloved by god and a good man. He brought him down from the pyre and asked: "Croesus, what man persuaded you to march against my land and become my enemy instead of my friend?" And he answered: "O king, these things I have done are to your good fortune but my own misfortune. The god of the Hellenes is responsible since he in-cited me to war. For no one is so senseless as to prefer war instead of peace. In time of peace sons bury their fathers, but in war fathers bury their sons. But it was somehow the pleasure of the gods that this be so." These were his words, and Cyrus released him and sat by his side and held him in great respect, and both he and all those around him looked on him with wonder. (87.2-88.1

Croesus' personal and domestic tragedy was compounded by his political downfall. Daily the power of Cyrus the Great and the Persians was growing; and as they extended their empire to the west, Croesus' own kingdom of Lydia eventually was absorbed. In this crisis, Croesus consulted various oracles and came to believe that the one of Apollo at Delphi alone could speak the truth. He sent magnificent offerings to Delphi and inquired of the oracle whether or not he should go to war with the Persians. The Delphic reply is perhaps the most famous oracle of all time, typically ironic in its simple ambiguity: if Croesus attacked the Persians, he would destroy a mighty empire. Croesus, of course, thought he would destroy the empire of the Persians; instead he brought an end to his own. Through Croesus' suffering, the wisdom of Solon was confirmed. Herodotus tells of the fall of Sardis (the capital of Lydia) and the fate of Croesus, its king, and his other son, "a fine boy except that he could not speak"

Great Cronus swallowed his children as each one came from the womb to the knees of their holy mother, with the intent that no other of the illustrious de-scendants of Uranus should hold kingly power among the immortals. For he learned from Ge and starry Uranus that it was fated that he be overcome by his own child. And so he kept vigilant watch and lying in wait he swallowed his children. (459-467)A deep and lasting grief took hold of Rhea and when she was about to bring forth Zeus, father of gods and men, then she entreated her own parents, Ge and starry Uranus, to plan with her how she might bring forth her child in secret and how the avenging fury of her father, Uranus, and of her chil-dren whom great Cronus of the crooked counsel swallowed, might exact ven-geance. And they readily heard their dear daughter and were persuaded, and they counseled her about all that was destined to happen concerning Cronus and his stout-hearted son. And they sent her to the town of Lyctus in the rich land of Crete when she was about to bring forth the youngest of her children, great Zeus. And vast Ge received him from her in wide Crete to nourish and foster. (467-480)Carrying him from Lyctus, Ge came first through the swift black night to Mount Dicte. And taking him in her hands she hid him in the deep cave in the depths of the holy earth on the thickly wooded mountain.17 And she wrapped up a great stone in infant's coverings and gave it to the son of Uranus, who at that time was the great ruler and king of the gods. Then he took it in his hands, poor wretch, and rammed it down his belly. He did not know in his heart that there was left behind, in the stone's place, his son unconquered and secure, who was soon to overcome him and drive him from his power and rule among the immortals. (481-491)

Cronus united with his sister Rhea, who gave birth to Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades, Poseidon, and Zeus. Cronus devoured all these children, except Zeus, as Hesiod relates (Theogony 459-491)

HIPPOLYTUS: O mother earth and vast reaches of the sun, What unspeakable words have I listened to! (601)NURSE: Be quiet, my boy, before someone hears you shouting.HIPPOLYTUS: I have heard such dreadful things that it is impossible for me to be silent.NURSE: Please, by your strong right hand. (605)HIPPOLYTUS: Keep your hands off me! Don't touch my cloak!NURSE: I beseech you, by your knees. Don't ruin me.HIPPOLYTUS: What do you mean? Didn't you claim that there was nothing wrong in what you said?NURSE: What I said was by no means intended for all to hear.HIPPOLYTUS: Good words spread among many become even better. (610)NURSE: My child, do not be untrue to your oath, in any way.HIPPOLYTUS: My tongue swore but my mind is under no oath.NURSE: My boy, what will you do? Ruin those near and dear to you?HIPPOLYTUS: I spit upon them! No evil person is near and dear to me.NURSE: Be forgiving. To err is human, my son. (615)HIPPOLYTUS: O Zeus, why did you bring them into the light of this world—women—an ingrained and deceitful evil for mankind? If you wanted to propa-gate the race, it is not from women that you should have ordained our birth. Instead, men should be able to buy children in your temples, each making a pay-ment of bronze, iron, or gold, appropriate to his means, and live free in homes without females. (616-624) 20

From Hippolytus' angry shouts that come from the palace, poor Phaedra learns that her Nurse (in a loving but misguided attempt to help) has indeed approached Hippolytus. She overhears Hippolytus brutally denouncing the Nurse, calling her a procurer of evils, in betrayal of her master's marriage-bed. Phaedra, believing that she is now ruined, confides to the Chorus that she is resolved to die. We do not have Euripides' stage directions. Some would have Phaedra exit at this point, but the drama is intensified and her subse-quent actions are more comprehensible if she remains, compelled to witness the entire following scene. Hippolytus bursts forth from the palace followed by the Nurse (601-668):

Sing, clear-voiced Muse, about Hephaestus, renowned for his intelligence, who, with bright-eyed Athena, taught splendid arts to human beings on earth. Previ-ously they used to live in mountain caves, like animals, but now, because of Hephaestus, renowned for his skill, they have learned his crafts and live year round with ease and comfort in their own houses.Be kind, Hephaestus, and give me both excellence and prosperity

Hephaestus and the goddess Athena were often linked to-gether as benefactors of wisdom in the arts and crafts and champions of progress and civilization. Their joint worship was particularly significant in Athens. In the Homeric Hymn to Hephaestus (20), they are invoked together as ar-chetypal, divine culture figures like Prometheus.

And so Solon set out to see the world and came to the court of Amasis in Egypt and to Croesus at Sardis. And when he arrived, Croesus received him as a guest in his palace. Three or four days later at the bidding of Croesus, servants took Solon on a tour of his treasuries, pointing out that all of them were large and wealthy. When he had seen and examined them all to suit his convenience, Croesus asked the following question: "My Athenian guest, many stories about you have reached us because of your wisdom and your travels, of how you in your love of knowledge have journeyed to see many lands. And so now the desire has come over me to ask if by this time you have seen anyone who is the happiest." He asked this expecting that he was the happiest of human beings, but Solon did not flatter him at all but following the truth said: "O king, Tellus the Athenian." (30.1-30.3

Herodotus is neither professional theologian nor philosopher, yet by his molding of traditional tales he sums up the spiritual essence of an age of faith and shows how history, mythology, and religion are for him inextricably one. The story of Solon's meeting with Croesus is found in Book 1 of Herodotus (30.1-45.3):

Zeus, king of the gods, first took as his wife Metis, who was very wise indeed among both gods and mortals. But when she was about to give birth to the bright-eyed goddess Athena, then Zeus treacherously deceived her with whee-dling words and swallowed her down into his belly at the wise instigations of Gaea and starry Uranus. These two gave Zeus this advice so that no other of the eternal gods might rule supreme as king in his place. For Metis was destined to bear exceptional children: first, the keen-eyed maiden Athena, Tritogeneia, the equal of her father in might and good counsel, and then she was to give birth to a son of indomitable spirit who would become the king of both gods and mortals. (886-898)

Hesiod (Theogony 886-898) tells how Zeus had swallowed his consort Metis (her name means "wisdom") after he had made her pregnant with Athena; he was afraid that Metis would bear a son who would overthrow him.

Eos went to Zeus, the dark-clouded son of Cronus, to ask that Tithonus be im-mortal and live forever. Zeus nodded his assent and accomplished her wish. Poor goddess, she did not think to ask that her beloved avoid ruinous old age and retain perpetual youth. (220-224) Indeed, as long as he kept his desirable youthful bloom, Tithonus took his pleasure with early-born Eos of the golden throne by the stream of Ocea-nus at the ends of the earth. But when the first gray hairs sprouted from his beautiful head and noble chin, Eos avoided his bed. But she kept him in her house and tended him, giving him food, ambrosia, and lovely gar-ments. When hateful old age oppressed him completely and he could not move orraisehislimbs,the following plan seemed best to her. She laid him in a room and closed the shining doors. From within his voice flows faintly and heno longer has the strength that he formerly had in his supple limbs.

Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite

I begin to sing about Pallas Athena, renowned goddess, with bright eyes, quick mind, and inflexible heart, chaste and mighty virgin, protectress of the city, Tritogeneia. Wise Zeus himself gave birth to her from his holy head, and she was arrayed in her armor of war, all-gleaming in gold, and every one of the immortals was gripped with awe as they watched. She quickly sprang forth from the immortal head in front of aegis-bearing Zeus, brandishing her sharp spear. And great Olympus shook terribly at the might of the bright-eyed goddess, and the earth round about gave a dread groan and the dark waves of the deep seethed. But suddenly the sea became calm, and the glori-ous son of Hyperion halted his swift-footed horses all the while that the maiden Pallas Athena took the divine armor from her immortal shoulders, and Zeus in his wisdom rejoiced. So hail to you, child of aegis-bearing Zeus; yet I shall remember both you and another song too. (17-18

Homeric Hymn to Athena

Iapetus led away the girl Clymene, an Oceanid, and they went together in the same bed; and she bore to him a child, stout-hearted Atlas; she also brought forth Menoetius, of very great renown, and devious and clever Prometheus, and Epimetheus,7 who was faulty in judgment and from the beginning was an evil for mortals who work for their bread. For he was the first to accept from Zeus the virgin woman he had formed. Far-seeing Zeus struck arrogant Menoetius with his smoldering bolts and hurled him down into Erebus because of his presump-tion and excessive pride. Atlas stands and holds the wide heaven with his head and tireless hands through the force of necessity at the edge of the earth, and in the sight of the clear-voiced Hesperides; this fate Zeus in his wisdom allotted him. (507-520)And Zeus bound devious and wily Prometheus with hard and inescapable bonds, after driving a shaft through his middle; and roused up a long-winged eagle against him that used to eat his immortal liver. But all that the long-winged bird would eat during the whole day would be completely restored in equal mea-sure during the night. Heracles, the mighty son of Alcmena of the lovely ankles, killed it and rid the son of Iapetus from this evil plague and released him from his suffering, not against the will of Olympian Zeus who rules from on high, so that the renown of Theban-born Heracles might be still greater than before on the bountiful earth. Thus he respected his famous son with this token of honor. Although he had been enraged, the mighty son of Cronus gave up the anger that he had held previously because Prometheus had matched his wits against him. (521-534)For when the gods and mortals quarreled at Mecone,8 then Prometheus to deceive the mind of Zeus. For the one group in the dispute he placed flesh and the rich and fatty innards on the hide and wrapped them all up in the ox's paunch; for the other group he arranged and set forth with devious art the white bones of the ox, wrapping them up in white fat. (535-541)Then the father of gods and men spoke to him: "Son of Iapetus, most re-nowned of all lords, my fine friend, how partisan has been your division of the portions!" Thus Zeus whose wisdom is immortal spoke in derision. Wily Pro-metheus answered with a gentle smile, as he did not forget his crafty trick. "Most glorious Zeus, greatest of the gods who exist forever, choose whichever of the two the heart in your breast urges." He spoke with crafty intent. (542-549)But Zeus whose wisdom is immortal knew and was not unaware of the trick. And he foresaw in his heart evils for mortals, which would be accomplished. He took up in both his hands the white fat, and his mind was enraged, and anger took hold of his heart as he saw the white bones of the ox arranged with crafty art. For this reason the races of human beings on earth burn the white bones for the immortals on the sacrificial altars. (550-557)Zeus the cloud-gatherer was greatly angered and spoke to him: "Son of Ia-petus, my fine friend, who know thoughts that surpass those of everyone, so you have then not yet forgotten your crafty arts." Thus Zeus whose wisdom is immortal spoke in anger. From this time on he always remembered the deceit and did not give the power of weariless fire out of ash trees to mortals who dwell on the earth. (558-564)But the noble son of Iapetus tricked him by stealing in a hollow fennel stalk the gleam of weariless fire that is seen from afar. High-thundering Zeus was stung to the depths of his being and angered in his heart as he saw among mor-tals the gleam of fire seen from afar. (565-569)

In the Theogony (507-616), Hesiod tells the stories of Prometheus and his conflict with Zeus, with the human race as the pawn in this gigantic clash of divine wills. He begins with the birth of Prometheus and explains how Prometheus tricked Zeus (507-569):

PROMETHEUS: Listen to the troubles that there were among mortals and how I gave them sense and mind, which they did not have before. I shall tell you this, not out of any censure of humankind, but to explain the good intention of my gifts. In the beginning they had eyes to look, but looked in vain, and ears to hear, but did not hear, but like the shapes of dreams they wandered in confusion the whole of their long life. They did not know of brick-built houses that face the sun or carpentry, but dwelt beneath the ground like tiny ants in the depths of sunless caves. They did not have any secure way of distinguishing winter or blossoming spring or fruitful summer, but they did everything without judg-ment, until I showed them the rising and the setting of the stars, difficult to discern. (442-458)And indeed I discovered for them numbers, a lofty kind of wisdom, and let-ters and their combination, an art that fosters memory of all things, the mother of the Muses' arts. I first harnessed animals, enslaving them to the yoke to give relief to mortals in their greatest toils, and I made horses docile under the reins of the chariot, the delight of the highest wealth and luxury. No one before me discovered the seamen's vessels which with wings of sail are beaten by the waves. Such are the contrivances I, poor wretch, have found for mortals, but I myself have no device by which I may escape my present pain. (459-471)CHORUS: You suffer an ill-deserved torment, and confused in mind and heart are all astray; like some bad doctor who has fallen ill, you yourself cannot devise a remedy to effect a cure. (472-475)PROMETHEUS: Listen to the rest, and you will be even more amazed at the kinds of skills and means that I devised; the greatest this: if anyone fell sick, there existed no defense, neither food nor drink nor salve, but through lack of medicines they wasted away until I showed them the mixing of soothing rem-edies by which they free themselves from all diseases. I set forth the many ways of the prophetic art. I was the first to determine which dreams would of neces-sity turn out to be true, and I established for them the difficult interpretation of sounds and omens of the road and distinguished the precise meaning of the flight of birds with crooked talons, which ones are by nature lucky and propi-tious, and what mode of life each had, their mutual likes, dislikes, and associa-tion; the smoothness of the innards and the color of the bile that would meet the pleasure of the gods, and the dappled beauty of the liver's lobe. I burned the limbs enwrapped in fat and the long shank and set mortals on the path to this difficult art of sacrifice, and made clear the fiery signs, obscure before. Such were these gifts of mine. And the benefits hidden deep within the earth, copper, iron, silver, and gold—who could claim that he had found them before me? No one, I know full well, unless he wished to babble on in vain.In a brief utterance learn the whole story: all arts come to mortals from Prometheus. (476-506)

In the course of the play, Prometheus expresses his bitterness because, al-though he with his mother fought on the side of Zeus against the Titans, his only reward is torment. It is typical of the tyrant to forget and turn against his former allies. Prometheus lists the many gifts he has given to humankind for whom he suffers now (

These were the warnings of Venus and she rode away through the air in her chariot yoked with swans. But Adonis' courageous nature stood in the way of her admonitions. By chance his dogs followed the clear tracks of a wild boar and frightened it from its hiding place. As it was ready to come out of the woods, the son of Cinyras hit a glancing blow on its side. With its crooked snout the savage beast immediately dislodged the blood-stained spear and made for the frightened youth as he fled for safety. The boar buried its tusk deep within his groin and brought him down on the yellow sand, dying. (708-716) As Venus was being borne through the air in her light chariot on the wings of swans (she had not yet reached Cyprus), she heard the groans of the dying boy from afar and turned the course of her white birds toward them. When she saw from the air above his lifeless body lying in his own blood, she rushed down, and rent her bosom and her hair and beat her breast with hands not meant to do such violence. She complained against the Fates, crying: "But still everything will not be subject to your decrees; a memorial of my grief for you, Adonis, will abide forever. The scene of your death will be re-created annually with the ritual of my grief performed. But your blood will be transformed into a flower. O Persephone, you were allowed at one time to change the limbs of the maiden Mentha into the fragrant mint—will I be begrudged then the transformation of my hero, the son of Cinyras?" (717-731)With these words she sprinkled fragrant nectar on his blood which, at the touch of the drops, began to swell just like a gleaming bubble in the rain. In no longer than an hour's time a flower sprang from the blood, red as the thick skin of the fruit of the pomegranate that hides the seeds within. Yet the flower is of brief enjoyment for the winds (which give it its name, anemone) blow upon it; with difficulty it clings to life and falls under the blasts and buffeting. (7

It was arranged that the daughter should go to the bed of her father without his knowing her identity, and their incestuous relations continued for some time until Cinyras in dismay found out with whom he had been sleeping. In terror, Myrrha fled from the wrath of her father. As he pursued her, she prayed for de-liverance and was changed into a myrrh tree, which continually drips with her tears. Myrrha had become pregnant by her father, and from the tree was born a beautiful son named Adonis, who grew up to be a most handsome youth and keen hunter. At the sight of him Aphrodite fell desperately in love. She warned Adonis against the dangers of the hunt, telling him to be especially wary of any wild beasts that would not turn and flee but stood firm. Ovid's story continues as follows (Metamorphoses 10. 708-739):

When Zeus had driven the Titans from heaven, vast Gaea brought forth the youngest of her children through the love of Tartarus and the agency of golden Aphrodite. The hands of the mighty god were strong in any undertaking and his feet were weariless. From the shoulders of this frightening dragon a hundred snake heads grew, flickering their dark tongues; fire blazed from the eyes under the brows of all the dreadful heads, and the flames burned as he glared. In all the terrible heads voices emitted all kinds of amazing sounds; for at one time he spoke so that the gods understood, at another his cries were those of a proud bull bellowing in his invincible might; sometimes he produced the pitiless roars of a courageous lion, or again his yelps were like those of puppies, wondrousto hear, or at another time he would hiss; and the great mountains resounded in echo. (820-835)Now on that day of his birth an irremediable deed would have been accom-plished and he would have become the ruler of mortals and immortals, if the father of gods and men had not taken swift notice and thundered loudly and fiercely; the earth resounded terribly on all sides and as well the wide heaven above, the sea, the streams of Ocean, and the depths of Tartarus. Great Olym-pus shook under the immortal feet of the lord as he rose up and earth gave a groan. The burning heat from them both, with the thunder and lightning, scorching winds, and flaming bolts reached down to seize the dark-colored sea. The whole land was aboil and heaven and the deep; and the huge waves surged around and about the shores at the onslaught of the immortals, and a quake began its tremors without ceasing. Hades who rules over the dead below shookas did the Titans, the allies of Cronus, in the bottom of Tartarus, from the end-less din and terrifying struggle. (836-852)When Zeus had lifted up the weapons of his might, thunder and lightning and the blazing bolts, he leaped down from Olympus and struck, and blasted on all sides the marvelous heads of the terrible monster. When he had flogged him with blows, he hurled him down, maimed, and vast earth gave a groan. A flame flared up from the god as he was hit by the bolts in the glens of the dark craggy mountain where he was struck down. A great part of vast earth was burned by the immense conflagration and melted like tin heated by the craft of artisans in open crucibles, or like iron which although the hardest of all is softened by blaz-ing fire and melts in the divine earth through the craft of Hephaestus. Thus the earth melted in the flame of the blazing fire. And Zeus in the rage of his anger hurled him into broad Tartarus. (853-868)From Typhoeus arise the winds that blow the mighty rains; but not Notus, Boreas, and Zephyr3 who brings good weather, for they are sprung from the gods and a great benefit for mortals. But the others from Typhoeus blow over the sea at random; some fall upon the shadowy deep and do great harm to mor-tals, raging with their evil blasts. They blow this way and that and scatter shipand destroy sailors. Those who encounter them on the sea have no defense against their evil. Others blowing over the vast blossoming land destroy the lovely works of mortals born on earth, filling them with dust and harsh confu-sion. (869-880)

One of the most vicious of the monsters who opposed Zeus was the dragon Typhoeus (or Typhaon or Typhon). He sometimes joins others in their conflict with the gods, or he may do battle alone, as in Hesiod's account (Theogony 820-880):

About Poseidon, a great god, I begin to sing, the shaker of the earth and of the barren sea, ruler of the deep and also over Mt. Helicon and the broad town of Aegae.2 A double honor, the gods have allotted to you, O Earthshaker—to be both a tamer of horses and a savior of ships. Hail, dark-haired Poseidon, who surrounds the earth and, O blessed god, be of kind heart and protect those who sail your waters

Ovid provides a typical description in his version of the Flood (see p. 100), providing a vivid character-ization of Poseidon under his Roman name of Neptune. Poseidon's relentless anger against Odysseus for blinding Polyphemus provides a dominant theme in the Odyssey. The Homeric Hymn to Poseidon (22) attempts to appease his anger.

Pygmalion saw these women leading a life of sin and was repelled by the many vices that nature had implanted in the feminine mind. And so he lived alone without a wife for a long time, doing without a woman to share his bed. Meanwhile he fashioned happily a statue of ivory, white as snow, and gave it a beauty surpassing that of any woman born; and he fell in love with what he had made. It looked like a real maiden who you would believe was alive and willing to move, had not modesty prevented her. To such an extent art concealed art; Pygmalion wondered at the body he had fashioned and the flames of passion burned in his breast. He often ran his hands over his creation to test whether it was real flesh and blood or ivory. And he would not go so far as to admit that it was ivory. He gave it kisses and thought that they were returned; he spoke to it and held it and believed that his fingers sank into the limbs that he touched and was afraid that a bruise might appear as he pressed her close. (243-258)Sometimes he enticed her with blandishments, at other times he brought her gifts that please a girl: shells and smooth pebbles, little birds, flowers of a thousand colors, lilies, painted balls, and drops of amber, the tears wept by Phaëthon's sisters who had been changed into trees. He also clothed her limbs with garments, put rings on her fingers, draped long necklaces around her neck, dangled jewelry from her ears, hung adornments on her breast. All was becoming, but she looked no less beautiful naked. He placed her on his bed with covers dyed in Tyrian purple and laid her down, to rest her head on soft pillows of feathers as if she could feel them. (259-269)The most celebrated feast day of Venus in the whole of Cyprus arrived; heifers, their crooked horns adorned with gold, were slaughtered by the blow of the axe on their snowy necks, and incense smoked. When he had made his offering at the altar, Pygmalion stood and timidly prayed: "If you gods are able to grant everything, I desire for my wife. . . ." He did not dare to say "my ivory maiden." Golden Venus herself was present at her festival and understood what his prayers meant. As an omen of her kindly will, a tongue of flame burned bright and flared up in the air. (270-279)

Ovid tells how Aphrodite (Venus in his version) was enraged with the women of Cyprus because they dared to deny her divinity; in her wrath, the goddess caused them to be the first women to prostitute themselves, and as they lost all their sense of shame it was easy to turn them into stone. Ovid goes on to relate the story of Pygmalion and the result of his disgust for these women

Now Galatea, come, don't despise my gifts. Certainly I know what I look like; just recently I saw myself in the reflection of a limpid pool, and I was pleased with the figure that I saw. Look at what a size I am! Jupiter in the sky doesn't have a body bigger than mine—you are always telling me that some-one or other named Jove reigns up there. An abundance of hair hangs over my rugged features and, like a grove of trees, overshadows my shoulders; and don't think my body ugly because it bristles with the thickest and coarsest of hair. A tree without leaves is ugly; ugly is a horse, if a bushy mane doesn't cover its tawny neck; feathers cover birds, and their own wool is an adorn-ment for sheep; for a man a beard and shaggy hair are only fitting. So there is one eye in the middle of my forehead. What of it? Doesn't the great Sun see all these things here on earth from the sky? Yet the Sun has only a single eye. (839-853)"Furthermore, my father Neptune rules over your waters, and he is the one I give you as a father-in-law. Only have pity and listen to the prayers of my sup-plication! I succumb to you alone. I am scornful of Jove, of his sky and his dev-astating thunder; but I am afraid of you; your wrath is more deadly than his thunderbolt. (854-858)"I should better endure this contempt of yours, if you would run away from everybody; but why do you reject me and love Acis? Why do you prefer Acis to my embraces? Yet he may be allowed to please himself and you as well—but I don't want him to be pleasing to you! Just let me have the chance. He will know then that my strength is as huge as the size of my body. I'll tear out his living innards, and I'll scatter his dismembered limbs over the land and the waves of your waters—in this way may he mingle in love with you! For I burn with a fiery passion that, upon being rejected, flames up the more fiercely and I seem to carry Mt. Aetna, with all its volcanic force, buried in my breast. And you, Galatea, remain unmoved." (859-869)After such complaints made all in vain, he rose up (for I saw it all) and was unable to stand still, but wandered the woods and his familiar pastures, like a bull full of fury when his cow has been taken away from him. Then the raging Cyclops saw me and Acis, who were startled by such an unexpected fright. He shouted, "I see you and I'll make this loving union of yours your last." That voice of his was as great as a furious Cyclops ought to have; Aetna trembled at his roar. But I was terrified and dove into the waters nearby. My Symaethian hero, Acis, had turned his back in flight and cried, "Bring help to me, Galatea, help, my parents, and take me, about to die, to your watery kingdom!" (870-881)The Cyclops, in hot pursuit, hurled a section torn out of the mountain. Al-though only a mere edge of that jagged mass struck Acis, it buried him com-pletely; but it was through me that Acis appropriated to himself the watery power of his ancestry—the only solution allowed by the Fates. Red blood began to trickle from out the mass that had buried him, and in a short time the red of the blood began to disappear and it became the color of a stream made turbid by an early rain, and in a while the water cleared. Then the mass that had been thrown upon him split open and, through the cleft, a reed, green and slender, rose up and the hollow opening in the rock resounded with the leaping waves. Suddenly a wonderful thing happened—up to his waist in the midst of the waves there stood a youth, the sprouting horns on his brow wreathed with pliant reeds. Except that he was bigger and his whole face the bluish green of water, this was Acis indeed turned into a river-god. (882-897

Ovid's Galatea tells how the fierce Cyclops would sit on the cliff of a promon-tory jutting out to the sea, where he would lay down his staff (a huge pine-trunk the size of a ship's mast) and take up his pipe of a hundred reeds. Hiding below in the arms of her beloved Acis, Galatea would listen to his song. First, he would extravagantly describe her magnificent beauty, then bitterly lament her adamant rejection of him, and continue with an offer of many rustic gifts. His tragicomic appeal concludes as follows (839-897)

THESEUS: Oh, the human heart, to what lengths will it go? What limit will one set to boldness and audacity? . . . (936-937)Behold this man, who was begotten by me; he has defiled my bed and stands clearly convicted of being the basest of human beings by the woman who is dead. Look at your father directly, face to face; don't be afraid that your gaze will contaminate me, I am already contaminated. Are you the man who consorts with the gods, as though you were superior to everyone else? Are you, the pure virgin, unsullied by sin? I could never be convinced by these boasts of yours and wrongly believe that the gods are fooled by your hypocrisy. Now that you are caught, go ahead and brag, show off with your vegetarian diet, take Orpheus as your lord, celebrate the mysteries, believing in their many and vacuous writings. I warn everyone to shun men such as these. For they prey upon you with their holy words, while they devise their evil plots. (943-957)She is dead. Do you imagine that this fact will save you? By this, most of all, O villain, you are convicted. For what kind of oath, what testimony could be more powerful than she to win your acquittal? Will you maintain that she hated you and that it is only natural for a bastard to be in conflict with those who are legitimate? If so, you argue that she made a bad and foolish bargain, if she destroyed what is most precious, her own life, out of hostility to you; but will you claim that folly is an attribute of women and not found in men? I know that young men are no more stable than women, whenever Cypris plays havoc in their young hearts; yet because they are male, they are not discredited. And so now—ah, but why do I wage this contest of words with you, when this corpse lies here, the clearest witness against you. Get out of this land, go, an exile, as quickly as possible; and stay away from god-built Athens and the borders of any territory ruled by my spear. (958-975)If I am beaten by you, after these terrible things you have made me suffer, Isthmian Sinis will not bear witness to his defeat at my hands but make it my idle boast, and the Scironian rocks by the sea will refute the fact that I am merciless against those who do evil. (976-98

Phaedra goes into the palace to commit suicide. She hangs herself, and just as she is freed from the noose and her corpse is laid out, Theseus returns. Over-come with grief, he notices a tablet, bearing her seal, dangling from Phaedra's hand. He reads it in horror and cries out for all to hear: "Hippolytus has dared to violate my marriage bed by force, desecrating the holy eye of Zeus." He calls out to his father Poseidon, who has granted Theseus three curses, and asks that with one of them the god kill Hippolytus, who, he prays, may not live out this day. Theseus also pronounces banishment upon his son. Hearing Theseus' cries, a bewildered Hippolytus appears. In the lengthy confrontation between father and son, the following excerpt elucidates the long-standing difficulties in their relationship and the crux of their conflict. To Hippolytus' protestations that he has done nothing wrong, Theseus exclaims (936-980):

No human action is without chilling grief. For thus the gods have spun out for wretched mortals the fate of living in distress, while they live without care. Two jars sit on the doorsill of Zeus, filled with gifts that he bestows, one jar of evils, the other of blessing. When Zeus who delights in the thunder takes from both and mixes the bad with the good, a human being at one time encounters evil, at another good. But the one to whom Zeus gives only troubles from the jar of sorrows, this one he makes an object of abuse, to be driven by cruel misery over the divine earth

Priam, great king of Troy, comes alone as a humble suppliant to the Greek hero Achilles to beg for the body of his son Hector, whom Achilles has killed. In the course of their interview, Achilles, who has also suffered much, not least of all because of the death of his beloved Patroclus, divulges his conclusions about human existence:

Reports of the wickedness of the age had reached my ears; wishing to find them false, I slipped down from high Olympus and I, a god, roamed the earth in the form of a man. Long would be the delay to list the number of evils and where they were found; the iniquitous stories themselves fell short of the truth. I had crossed the mountain Maenalus, bristling with the haunts of animals, and Cyllene, and the forests of cold Lycaeus; from these ridges in Arcadia I entered the realm and inhospitable house of the tyrant Lycaon, as the dusk of evening was leading night on. (211-219)"I gave signs that a god had come in their midst; the people began to pray but Lycaon first laughed at their piety and then cried: 'I shall test whether this man is a god or a mortal, clearly and decisively.' He planned to kill me unawares in the night while I was deep in sleep. This was the test of truth that suited him best. But he was not content even with this; with a knife he slit the throat of one of the hostages sent to him by the Molossians and, as the limbs were still warm with life, some he boiled until tender and others he roasted over a fire. As soon as he placed them on the table, I with a flame of vengeance brought the home down upon its gods, worthy of such a household and such a master. (220-231)"Lycaon himself fled in terror, and when he reached the silence of the coun-try he howled as in vain he tried to speak. His mouth acquired a mad ferocity arising from his basic nature, and he turned his accustomed lust for slaughter against the flocks and now took joy in their blood. His clothes were changed to hair; his arms to legs; he became a wolf retaining vestiges of his old form. The silver of the hair and the violent countenance were the same; the eyes glowed in the same way; the image of ferocity was the same.19 (232-239)"One house had fallen but not one house only deserved to perish. Far and wide on the earth the Fury holds power; you would think that an oath had been sworn in the name of crime. Let all quickly suffer the penalties they deserve. Thus my verdict stands." (240-244)Some cried approval of the words of Jove and added goads to his rage, others signified their assent by applause. But the loss of the human race was grievous to them all and they asked what the nature of the world would be like bereft of mortals, who would bring incense to the altars, and if Jupiter was prepared to give the world over to the ravagings of animals. As they asked these questions the king of the gods ordered them not to be alarmed, for all that would follow would be his deep concern; and he promised a race of wondrous origin unlike the one that had preceded. (245-252)

Prometheus had a son, Deucalion, and Epimetheus had a daughter, Pyrrha. Their story, from Ovid's Metamorphoses, involves a great flood sent by Zeus (Jupiter) to punish mortals for their wickedness. In the passage given here, Jupiter tells an assembly of the gods how he, a god, became a man to test the truth of the rumors of human wickedness in the age of iron. There follows an account of Jupiter's anger at the evil of mortals, in particular Lycaon

Tell in song about the moon in her long-winged flight, Muses, skilled in song, sweet-voiced daughters of Zeus, the son of Cronus. The heavenly gleam from her immortal head radiates onto earth. The vast beauty of the cosmos emerges under her shining radiance. The air, unlit before, glistens and the rays from her golden crown offer illumination whenever divine Selene, having bathed her beautiful skin, puts on her far-glistening raiment, and yokes the powerful necks of her shining team, and drives her beautifully maned horses at full speed in the evening; in mid-month brightest are her beams as she waxes and her great orbit is full. From the heavens she is fixed as a sure sign for mortals. (1-13)Once Zeus, the son of Cronus, joined in loving union with her; she became pregnant and bore a daughter, Pandia, who had exceptional loveliness among the immortal gods. (14-16)Hail, kind queen with beautiful hair, white-armed goddess, divine Selene. From you I have begun and I shall go on to sing of mortal demigods whose achievements minstrels, servants of the Muses, celebrate in songs from loving lips. (17-20)

Selene, daughter of Hyperion and Theia, is a goddess of the moon. Like her brother Helius, she drives a chariot, although hers usually has only two horses. The Homeric Hymn to Selene (32) presents a picture.

Actaeon was the first to tinge with grief the happiness of his grandfather, Cadmus. A stag's horns grew on his head, and his hounds feasted on their mas-ter's flesh. Yet, if you look closely, you will find that his guilt was misfortune, not a crime; what crime indeed lies in an innocent mistake? (138-142)There was a mountain on which had fallen the blood of beasts of many kinds. It was midday, when shadows are at their shortest and the Sun is midway in his course. Young Actaeon calmly called his fellow huntsmen as they tracked the game through the depths of the pathless forest: "My friends, our nets and spears are wet with the blood of our prey; we have had luck enough today! Dawn's saffron-wheeled chariot will bring another day tomorrow and then we

Several stories illustrate the hallowed purity of the goddess Artemis. A famous one concerns Actaeon,4 an ardent hunter who lost his way and by accident (or was it fate?) had the misfortune to see Artemis (Diana in Ovid's version) naked (Metamorphoses 3. 138-255

I sing about Artemis of the golden arrows, chaste virgin of the noisy hunt, who delights in her shafts and strikes down the stag, the very own sister of Apollo of the golden sword. She ranges over shady hills and windy heights, rejoicing in the chase as she draws her bow, made all of silver, and shoots her shafts of woe. The peaks of the lofty mountains tremble, the dark woods echo terribly to the shrieks of wild beasts, and both the earth and fish-filled sea are shaken. But she with dauntless heart looks everywhere to wreak destruction on the brood of animals. But when the huntress, who delights in her arrows, has had her fill of pleasure and cheered her heart, she unstrings her curved bow and makes her way to the great house of her dear brother, Phoebus Apollo, in the rich land of Delphi, where she supervises the lovely dances of the Muses and the Graces. After she has hung up her unstrung bow and arrows, she takes first place and, exquisitely attired, leads the dance. And they join in a heavenly choir to sing how Leto of the beautiful ankles bore two children who are by far the best of the im-mortals in sagacious thought and action. (1-20)Hail, children of Zeus and Leto of the lovely hair; yet I shall remember you and another song too

THE HOMERIC HYMN TO ARTEMIS (27) draws the essential features of her character and appearance: beautiful virgin of the hunt, armed with bow and arrows.

I shall sing about Cyprus-born Cytherea, who gives mortals sweet gifts; on her lovely face, smiles are always suffused with the bloom of love.Hail, goddess, mistress of well-built Salamis and sea-girt Cyprus. Give me a desirable song. Yet I shall remember you and another song too

The Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite (10), with its brief glimpse of Aphrodite, reminds us of her cult places, Cyprus and Cythera, and the city of Salamis in Cyprus.

I shall sing about beautiful and revered Aphrodite of the golden crown, who holds as her domain the battlements of all sea-girt Cyprus. The moist force of the West Wind Zephyrus as he blows brought her there amidst the soft foam on the waves of the resounding sea. The gold-bedecked Hours gladly received her and clothed her in divine garments. On her immortal head they placed a finely wrought crown of gold and in her pierced earlobes, flowers of copper and pre-cious gold. About her soft neck and silvery breasts they adorned her with neck-laces of gold, the kind that beautify the Hours themselves whenever they go to the lovely dancing choruses of the gods and to the home of their father. Then after they had bedecked her person with every adornment they led her to the immortals, who greeted her when they saw her and took her in their welcoming hands; and each god prayed that she would be his wedded wife and he would bring her home, as he marveled at the beauty of violet-crowned Cytherea. (1-18)Hail, sweet and winning goddess with your seductive glance; grant that I may win victory in the contest and make my song fitting. Yet I shall remember you and another song too. (19-21)

The Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite focuses on the decking of by the Horae or the Hours

About Earth, I will sing, all-mother, deep-rooted and eldest, who nourishes all that there is in the world: all that go on the divine land, all that sail on the sea and all that fly—these she nourishes from her bounty. From you, reverend lady, mortal humans have abundance in children and in crops, and it is up to you to give them their livelihood or take it away. Rich and fortunate are those whom you honor with your kind support. To them all things are abundant, their fields are laden with produce, their pastures are covered with herds and flocks, and their homes are filled with plenty. These rule with good laws in cities of beauti-ful women and much happiness and wealth attend them. Their sons glory in exuberant joy and their daughters, with carefree hearts, play in blossom-laden choruses and dance on the grass over the soft flowers. These are the fortunate whom you honor, holy goddess, bountiful deity. (1-16)Hail, mother of the gods, wife of starry Uranus. Kindly grant happy suste-nance in return for my song and I will remember both you and another song too. (17-19

The Homeric Hymn to Earth, Mother of All (30), in its invocation of Gaia (Ge), gives us the essentials of her primary archetype:

Now begin to sing, O Muse Calliope, daughter of Zeus, about shining Helius, whom ox-eyed Euryphaëssa bore to the son of Earth and starry Uranus. ForHyperion married glorious Euryphaëssa, his own sister, who bore him beautiful children: rosy-fingered Eos and Selene of the lovely hair and weari-less Helius like the deathless ones, who shines for mortals and immortal gods as he drives his horses. The piercing gaze of his eyes flashes out of his golden helmet. Bright beams radiate brilliantly from his temples and the shining hair of his head frames a gracious countenance seen from afar. The exquisite, finely wrought robe that clothes his body shimmers in the blast of the winds. Mighty stallions are under his control. Then he stays his golden-yoked chariot and horses and stops there at the peak of the heavens, until the time when he again miraculously drives them down through the sky to the Ocean. (1-16)Hail, lord, kindly grant a happy sustenance. From you I have begun and I shall go on to celebrate the race of mortal men, the demigods, whose achievements the Muses have revealed to mortals. (17-19)

The Homeric Hymn to Helius (31) offers a glowing picture. Euryphaëssa (the word means "widely shining"), given as the wife of Hyperion and the mother of Helius, is probably just another name for Theia.

I have found a remedy for my misfortune so that I will bequeath to my sons a life of good reputation, and profit from what has now befallen me. For I will never bring shame upon my Cretan home, nor will I go and face Theseus with disgraceful actions for the sake of one life. . . . (716-721)On this day when I have freed myself from life, I will make Cypris happy, the one who destroys me, and I will be defeated by a bitter eros. But after my death, I will become an evil curse for that other person, so that he may understand that he should not exult haughtily over my misfortunes; by sharing in this malady with me, he will learn how to be temperate. (725-731)

The Nurse is overcome with remorse and guilt for the failure of her scheme, but she cannot assuage the fury of Phaedra, whose only recourse now is to end her own life. She confides her decision to the Chorus, whom she has sworn to secrecy (716-721 and 725-731).

Gaia first brought forth starry Uranus, equal to herself, so that he might sur-round and cover her completely and be a secure home for the blessed gods forever. And she brought forth the lofty mountain ranges, charming haunts of the divine nymphs who inhabit the hills and dales. And she also bore, without the sweet union of love, Pontus, the barren deep, with its raging surf. (126-132) But then Gaia lay with Uranus and bore the deep-eddying Oceanus, and [the Titans, namely] Coeus, and Crius, and Hyperion, and Iapetus, and Theia, and Rhea, and Themis, and Mnemosyne, and golden-crowned Thebe, and lovely Tethys. After them, she brought forth wily Cronus, the youngest and most terrible of her children and he hated his lusty father. (132-138)Moreover, she bore the Cyclopes, insolent at heart, Brontes ("Thunder") and Steropes ("Lightning") and bold Arges ("Bright"), who fashioned and gave to Zeus his bolt of thunder and lightning. They had only one eye, set in the middle of their foreheads but they were like the gods in all other respects. They were given the name Cyclopes ("Orb-eyed") because one single round eye was set in their foreheads.5 Might and power and skill were in their works. (139-146)In turn, Gaia and Uranus were the parents of three other sons, great and unspeakably violent, Cottus, Briareus, and Gyes, arrogant children. A hundred invincible arms and hands sprang out of their shoulders and also from out of their shoulders there grew fifty heads, all supported by their strong limbs. Invin-cible was the powerful strength in these mighty hulks. Of all the children that Gaia and Uranus produced these were the most terrible and they were hated by their father from the very first. (147-1

The Sacred Marriage of Uranus (Sky) andGaia(Ge, Earth) and Their Offspring

Indeed, Zeus in his wisdom seized and carried off fair-haired Ganymede because of his beauty, so that he might be in the company of the gods and pour wine for them in the house of Zeus, a wonder to behold, esteemed by all the immortals, as he draws the red nectar from a golden bowl. But a lasting sorrow gripped the heart of Tros, for he had no idea where the divine whirlwind had taken his dear son. Indeed he mourned for him unceasingly each and every day; and Zeus took pity on the father and gave him, as recompense for his son, brisk-trotting horses, the kind which carry the gods. These he gave him to have as a gift. (202-212)And at the command of Zeus, Hermes, the guide and slayer of Argus, told everything and how Ganymede would be immortal and never grow old, just like the gods. When Tros heard this message from Zeus, he no longer continued his mourning but rejoiced within his heart and joyfully was borne by the horses that were as swift as a storm. (212-217)

The Trojan prince Ganymede shares honors with Hebe as cupbearer of the gods; according to some authors, he replaces her. The Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite (5. 202-217), translated in its entirety in Chapter 9, tells how Zeus carried off Ganymede, the handsome son of Tros

O divine air and sky and swift-winged breezes, springs of rivers and countless laughter of sea waves, earth, mother of everything, and all-seeing circle of the sun, I call on you. See what I, a god, suffer at the hands of the gods.

The first utterance of Prometheus after Strength, Force, and Hephaestus have done their work is glorious, perfectly capturing the great and indomitable spirit of the rebel and the oppressed (88-92):

Thus it is that you, wicked creature, have come to make a deal with me to debauch the sacred bed of my father. I will pour running water into my ears to wash out the pollution of your words. How could I be a sinner, I who feel defiledby just listening to such a vile proposition? Woman, understand this clearly, my piety is your salvation. If I had not been caught off guard and boundby my oath to the gods, I would never keep myself from telling this filthy business to my father. For the time being, as long as Theseus is away from Troezen, I will absent myselffrom the palace and keep my mouth shut. But I will return whenmy father does and watch how you face him, both you and your mistress.Having this taste of your effrontery, I will be knowledge-able. (651-663)May you be damned. I will never have my fill of hatred for women, not even if anyone criticizes me for always declaring it. For they all, like you, are evil in one way or another. Either someone should teach them how to be temperate or allow me to trample them down forever. (664-668)

The husband with a wife who is a nonentity has it easiest. Although not with-out harm, she is kept from folly by her lack of intelligence. "A clever woman, I loathe. May I never have in my house a woman who is more clever than she should be," Hippolytus exclaims, "for Cypris breeds more villainy in the clever ones." Also, a woman should not have access to a servant but instead only wild and dumb animals, so they may not be able to speak to anyone or receive an answer in return. These last admonitions bring Hippolytus back from his wild generalizations to his present trauma, which provoked them. He erroneously thinks that the Nurse has been sent by a wily and evil Phaedra on her abomi-nable mission, and he goes on to denounce her (651-668).

HIPPOLYTUS: For you, my mistress, I bring this garland which I have fashioned of flowers plucked from a virgin meadow untouched by iron implements, where no shepherd has ever presumed to graze his flock—indeed a virgin field which bees frequent in spring. Purity waters it like a river stream for those who have as their lot the knowledge of virtue in everything, not through teaching but by their very nature. These are the ones for whom it is right to pluck these flowers, but those who are evil are forbidden. My dear lady, accept from my holy hand this garland to crown your golden hair. I alone of mortals have this privilege: I am with you and converse with you, for I hear your voice, although I do not see your face. As I have begun life in your grace, may I so keep it to the end.

The prayer with which Euripides introduces us to Hippolytus defines the es-sential nature of the young man and of Artemis; he stands before a statue of the goddess offering her a diadem of flowers (73-87):

As Jupiter journeyed back and forth to Arcadia, he saw the Arcadian girl Cal-listo, and the fires of love were kindled in his bones. She did not care to draw out the unworked wool or to change her hair's style. She would pin her dress with a brooch, keep her hair in place with a white ribbon; with a smooth spear in her hand or a bow, she marched in Diana's troops. No other girl who trod the Arcadian hills was dearer to the goddess—but no one's power can last for long! (409-416)High in the heaven rode the Sun beyond the middle of his course, when Callisto came to a wood that no one throughout the years had touched. Here she took off the quiver from her shoulder and unstrung the pliant bow; she lay upon the grassy ground, her head resting upon the painted quiver. Jupiter saw her, tired and unprotected. "My wife," said he, "will never discover this affair, and if she does—well, the prize is worth her anger." So he disguised himself to look like Diana and said: "Dear girl, my follower, upon which mountain did you hunt?" Callisto sprang up from the turf. "Hail, goddess," said she, "greater in my opinion than Jupiter—and let him hear my words!" (417-429)Jupiter smiled as he heard this, glad that Diana was preferred to himself; he kissed the girl, more warmly than a maiden should. He cut short Callisto's tale of the forest hunt with an embrace, and as he forced his advances showed her who he really was. Callisto fought against him with all a woman's strength—Juno's anger would have been lessened could she have seen her—but who is weaker than a girl, and who can overcome Jupiter? He won; to the heavens he flies and she hates the wood that knows her shame; as she fled from it, she almost forgot to take her quiver and arrows and the bow that she had hung up. (429-440)

The same insistence on purity and chastity and the same vehemence against defilement of any sort appear in the story of Callisto, one of the followers of Ar-temis (or Diana, as Ovid tells it; Metamorphoses 2. 409-507)

Sing, O Muse about Artemis, the virgin who delights in arrows, sister of Apollo, the far-shooter, and nursed together with him. She waters her horses at the river Meles, thick with rushes, and swiftly drives her chariot, made all of gold, through Smyrna, to Claros, rich in vines; here Apollo of the silver bow sits and waits for the goddess who shoots from afar and delights in her arrows. (1-6)So hail to you, Artemis, with my song and at the same time to all the other goddesses as well; yet I begin to sing about you first of all and, after I have made my beginning from you, I shall turn to another hymn

The shorter Homeric Hymn to Artemis (9) dwells upon the closeness of Artemis and Apollo and their cult places in Asia Minor. There was a temple of Artemis where the river Meles flows near Smyrna, and Claros was the site of a temple and oracle of Apollo.

HIPPOLYTUS: Father, your strength and the intensity of your rage are terrifying. Yet, although your arguments seem just, if one examines the case you present closely, it is not just at all. I am not good at making a speech before many—I am better at talking to a few people of my own age. This is how things go—just as those who are inept among a group of the wise speak more persuasively before a crowd. Be this as it may, since misfortune has befallen me, I must not hold my tongue. (983-991)First of all, I will begin by answering your first accusation by which you sought to destroy me without a word to say in response. You see the sky and this here earth. There is no one under the sun more righteous than I am, even if you say this is not so. First, I know how to pay reverence to the gods and to pick friends who try to do no wrong and whose sense of decency prevents them from de-manding wrong or doing wrong to others. I do not belittle or betray these com-panions, father, but am the same to them, whether they are with me or not. I am innocent of the one charge, of which you now think you have convicted me. To this very moment, my body is chaste. I have never had sex but only heard about it, or seen depictions of it which I do not like to look at because I am a virgin, pure in heart and soul. (991-1006)Suppose you are not convinced about my chastity. So be it. You must then show in what way I was corrupted. Was her body more beautiful than that of any other woman? Or did I hope to become an heir in your palace, by taking her to bed? If so, I was a fool, completely out of my mind. Will you argue that to be a king is a sweet temptation for a man in his right senses? Not in the least, because all those who love the power of a king have been corrupted. No,I would like to win first place in the Greek Games but in the city to be second and always to enjoy good fortune with the best people for friends; this allows for achievement, and the absence of danger affords more pleasure than kingship. (1007-1020)You have all my arguments, except for one thing. If I had a truthful witness like myself to testify to what kind of man I am, and if I were pleading my case while Phaedra were still alive to see and hear me, you would know the guilty ones by a careful scrutiny of the evidence. As it is, now I swear to you by Zeus, god of oaths and by vast earth that I never touched your wife, never wanted to, nor ever even had the thought. May I die without a name or reputation, without a city or a home, wandering the earth as an exile, and after my death, may nei-ther sea nor land accept my corpse, if I have done any wrong. (1021-1031)Why and through what fear she took her own life, I do not know, since it is not right for me to speak further. She acted virtuously, when she could not be virtuous. I am virtuous but I have not used my virtue well

Theseus imagines that Hippolytus will argue that Phaedra hated him and that conflict between the two of them was inevitable: he was a bastard, she was a stepmother, and as the wife of Theseus she bore him two legitimate sons, rivals to Hippolytus and heirs to the throne. How much has rejection sullied the rela-tionship between Theseus and Hippolytus? In fact, Hippolytus' fanatical devo-tion to Artemis and his renunciation of Aphrodite reflect a resentment against his father expressed in his devotion to his real mother, who, as an Amazon, would normally have nothing to do with Aphrodite and heterosexual love, had she not been seduced by Theseus. Later, Hippolytus exclaims (1082-1083): "O my unhappy mother, O my bitter birth, may no one dear to me ever be born a bastard!" At thi

The boundless sea echoed terribly, earth resounded with the great roar, wide heaven trembled and groaned, and high Olympus was shaken from its base by the onslaught of the immortals; the quakes came thick and fast and, with the dread din of the endless chase and mighty weapons, reached down to gloomy Tartarus. (678-683)Thus they hurled their deadly weapons against one another. The cries of both sides as they shouted reached up to starry heaven, for they came together with a great clamor. Then Zeus did not hold back his might any longer, but now im-mediately his heart was filled with strength and he showed clearly all his force. He came direct from heaven and Olympus hurling perpetual lightning, and the bolts with flashes and thunder flew in succession from his stout hand with a dense whirling of holy flame. Earth, the giver of life, roared, everywhere aflame, and on all sides the vast woods crackled loudly with the fire. The whole of the land boiled, and as well the streams of Ocean, and the barren sea. The hot blast engulfed the earth-born Titans and the endless blaze reached the divine aether; the flashing gleam of the thunder and lightning blinded the eyes even of the mighty. Unspeakable heat possessed Chaos. (684-700)The sight seen by the eyes and the sound heard by the ears were as if earth and wide heaven above collided; for the din as the gods met one another in strife was as great as the crash that would have arisen if earth were dashed down by heaven falling on her from above. The winds mingled the confusion of tremor, dust, thunder, and the flashing bolts of lightning (the shafts of great Zeus), and carried the noise and the shouts into the midst of both sides. The terrifying clamor of fearful strife arose, and the might of their deeds was shown forth. They attacked one another and fought relentlessly in mighty encounters until the battle was decided. (700-712)The Hecatonchires (Cottus, Briareus, and Gyes), insatiate of battle, were among the foremost to rouse the bitter strife; they hurled three hundred rocks, one right after another, from their staunch hands and covered the Titans with a cloud of missiles and sent them down far beneath the broad ways of the earth

This battle, known as the Titanomachy, was of epic proportions, Zeus fighting from Mt. Olympus, Cronus from Mt. Othrys. The strug-gle is said to have lasted ten years.2 An excerpt from Hesiod conveys the magnitude and ferocity of the conflict (Theogony 678-721

Exquisitely enthroned, immortal Aphrodite,weaver of charms, child of Zeus,I beg you, reverend lady,do not crush my heartwith sickness and distress.But come to me here,if ever once before you heardmy cry from afar and listenedand, leaving your father's house,yoked your chariot of gold. (1.7-8)Beautiful birds drew you swiftlyfrom heaven over the black earththrough the air betweenwith the rapid flutter of their downy wings.Swiftly they came and you,O blessed goddess,smiling in your immortal beauty askedwhat I wished to happen mostin my frenzied heart. (9-18)"Who is it this time you desirePersuasion entice to your love?Who, O Sappho, has wronged you?

Too often our sensibili-ties are numbed by the later artificial and conventional stereotypes to which the gods are reduced, once all genuine belief is gone. There can be no question about the reality of Aphrodite in the following lines

In the form of Enipeus did the Earthshaker lie by her at the mouth of the eddying river. About them rose a crested wave, mountainous in size, which hid both god and mortal woman

Tyro, daughter of Salmoneus, was loved by Poseidon, who disguised himself as the Thessalian river Enipeus (Homer, Odyssey 11. 245):

Homer and Hesiod have ascribed to the gods all that is shameful and reproach-ful among mortals: stealing, adultery, and deception. [frag. 11]But mortals think that gods are born and have clothes and a voice and a body just like them. [frag. 14]The Ethiopians say that their gods are flat-nosed and black and the Thracians that theirs are fair and ruddy. [frag. 16]But if cattle and horses and lions had hands and could create with their hands and achieve works like those of human beings, horses would render their conceptions of the gods like horses, and cattle like cattle, and each would depict bodies for them just like their own. [frag. 15]One god, greatest among gods and mortals, not at all like them, either in body or in mind. [frag. 23]

Xenophanes, a poet and philosopher of the pre-Socratic period, was vehe-ment in his attack on the conventional anthropomorphic depictions of the gods. He argued against the folly of conceiving deities as human beings and insisted that there is one supreme nonanthropomorphic god:

Immediately he contrived an evil thing for mortals in recompense for the fire. The renowned lame god, Hephaestus, fashioned out of earth the likeness of a modest maiden according to the will of the son of Cronus. Bright-eyed Athena clothed and arrayed her in silvery garments and with her hands arranged on her head an embroidered veil, wondrous to behold. And Pallas Athena put around her head lovely garlands of budding flowers and greenery. And she placed on her head a golden crown that the renowned lame god himself made, fashioning it with his hands as a favor to his father, Zeus. On it he wrought much intricate detail, wondrous to behold, of the countless animals which the land and the sea nourish; many he fixed on it, amazing creations, like living creatures with voices; and its radiant loveliness shone forth in profusion. (570-584)When he had fashioned the beautiful evil in recompense for the blessing of fire, he led her out where the other gods and mortals were, exulting in the rai-ment provided by the gleaming-eyed daughter of a mighty father. Amazement took hold of the immortal gods and mortals as they saw the sheer trick, from which human beings could not escape. For from her is the race of the female sex, the ruinous tribes of women, a great affliction, who live with mortal men, helpmates not in ruinous poverty but in excessive wealth, just as when in over-hanging hives bees feed the drones, conspirators in evil works; the bees each day, the whole time to the setting of the sun, are busy and deposit the white honey combs, but the drones remain within the covered hives and scrape together the toil of others into their own belly. Thus in the same way high-thundering Zeus made women, conspirators in painful works, for mortal men. (585-602)He also contrived a second evil as recompense for the blessing of fire; whoever flees marriage and the troublesome deeds of women and does not wish to marry comes to ruinous old age destitute of anyone to care for him. He does not lack a livelihood while he is living but, when he has died, distant relatives divide up the inheritance. And again even for the one to whom the fate of acquiring a good and compatible wife in marriage falls as his lot, evil continually contends with good throughout his life. Whoever begets mischievous children lives with a continuous sorrow in his breast; in heart and soul the evil is incurable. Thus it is not possible to go beyond the will of Zeus nor to deceive him. For not even the goodly Prometheus, son of Iapetus, got out from under his heavy wrath and a great bondage held him fast, even though he was very clever. (602-616

the dread consequence of Zeus' anger at Prometheus for his theft of fire (Theogony 570-616