Reading/Evaluating Arguments

False Cause

"Because I opened the umbrella when I tripped on the sidewalk, the umbrella must have caused me to trip."

Non Sequitur ("It Does Not Follow")

"Because my doctor is young, I'm sure she'll be a good doctor."

Either-Or Fallacy

"Because of the violence, TV must be either allowed or banned."

Circular Reasoning/Begging the Question

"Female police officers should not be sent to crime scenes because apprehending criminals is a man's job."

Step 7: Decide if the Argument Is Credible

An argument has credibility if it is believable (convincing). Validity and credibility are closely related since an argument that is not valid will not be credible.

Step 5: Determine the Argument's Completeness

An argument is complete if the author presents adequate support and overcomes opposing points. Sometimes they leave out information that would weaken their argument. Their argument would be stronger if they presented it and countered it.

Step 6: Determine if the Argument Is Valid

An argument is valid (has validity) if it is logical. "Is the argument logical (well-reasoned)?"

Step 1: Identify the Author's Assumptions

An author's assumptions consist of things the author takes for granted without presenting any proof (in other words, what the author believes or accepts as true and bases the argument on). If the author's assumptions are illogical or incorrect, the entire argument will be flawed. Readers may be misled unless they identify the author's assumptions.

Comparing the Arguments

Compare the types of evidence used. Which argument did you find more convincing? Why? What further information would be useful in assessing the issue?

For Each Argument

Identify the claim. Outline the reasons to support the claim. What types of evidence are used? Evaluate the adequacy and sufficiency of the evidence. What emotional appeals are used? Does the author recognize or refute counter arguments?

Recognizing and Refuting Opposing Viewpoints

Question the accuracy, relevancy or sufficiency of the opponent's evidence. Does the author address opposing viewpoints clearly and fairly? Does the author refute the opposing viewpoint with logic and relevant evidence?

Step 3: Determine the Relevance of the Support

Relevance means the support is directly related to the argument. Unless the author is an expert, his or her opinion or personal experience may not be particularly relevant.

Step 4: Determine the Author's Objectivity

The author's argument has objectivity when the support consists of facts and other clear evidence. "Does the author present facts and clear evidence as support?"

Line of Reasoning

The line of reasoning is a clear, logical, sequential path leading the audience through the reasons toward the conclusion. It is organized based on the argument's purpose.

Step 2: Identify the Types of Support

Types of support refers to the kind of evidence the author uses to back up the argument. Support can include research findings, case studies, personal experience or observation, examples, facts, comparisons, expert testimony and opinions.

Analyzing an Argument

What issue is presented? What is the author's argument? What are some author's assumptions? What type of support (facts, experts' opinions, research, observations, personal experiences, etc.) do the author/s present? How relevant (directly related to the issue) is the support? Is the argument objective and complete? Is the argument valid(logical) and credible (believable)?

(Unfair Emotional Appeal) Association

a car being named a Cougar to remind you of a sleek animal, a cigarette advertisement featuring a scenic waterfall

Reason

a general statement that supports a claim

(Unfair Emotional Appeal) Appeal to "Common Folk"

an ad showing a product being used in an average household, a politician suggesting he is like everyone else

Implied or Stated Value System

are they consistent with your personal value system?

(Unfair Emotional Appeal) False Authority

athletes endorsing underwear, movie stars selling shampoo

(Unfair Emotional Appeal) Ad Hominem

attack on the person rather than his/her viewpoint

Deductive argument

begins with a major premise and moves toward a more specific statement or minor premise

Statistics

can be misused, manipulated or misinterpreted

Argument

claim that is supported by reasons or evidence

(Unfair Emotional Appeal) "Join the Crowd" Appeal or Bandwagon

come early so you won't have to stand in line - because everyone knows you can make a deal with Dave and save.

Errors in Logical Reasoning

commonly called logical fallacies, invalidate the argument or render argument flawed

Hasty Generalization

conclusion derived from insufficient evidence Ex: "Because one apple is sour, all of them in the bowl must be sour."

Evidence

consists of facts, statistics, experiences, comparisons, and examples that show why the claim is valid

Evaluate (set of claims)

determine its value or persuasiveness

Cause-Effect Relationships

evidence that the relationship exists should be present

Emotional appeals

ideas that are targeted toward needs or values that readers are likely to care about

Evaluate Types of Evidence

is it sufficient to support the claim?

Relevancy and Sufficiency of Evidence

is there enough of the right kind to support the claim?

Personal Experience

may be biased, so do not accept it

Refutation

opposing viewpoints

Issue

problem or controversy about which people disagree

Inductive argument

reaches a general conclusion from observed specifics

Support

reasons and evidence that the claim is reasonable and should be accepted

Comparisons and Analogies

reliability depends on how closely they correspond to the situation

Definition of Terms

should be carefully defined and used consistently

Examples

should not be used by themselves

Claim of fact

statement that can be proven or verified by observation or research

Claim of value

states that one thing or idea is better or more desirable than another

Claim of policy

suggests what should or ought to be done to solve a problem

Claim

the position on the issue; point of the argument

(Unfair Emotional Appeal) Emotionally Charged or Biased Language

using unfair language based on experiences

To evaluate an argument,

you need to analyze it

To be able to do a good job evaluating arguments,

you need to know what an argument is and how an argument is put together