Reading/Evaluating Arguments
False Cause
"Because I opened the umbrella when I tripped on the sidewalk, the umbrella must have caused me to trip."
Non Sequitur ("It Does Not Follow")
"Because my doctor is young, I'm sure she'll be a good doctor."
Either-Or Fallacy
"Because of the violence, TV must be either allowed or banned."
Circular Reasoning/Begging the Question
"Female police officers should not be sent to crime scenes because apprehending criminals is a man's job."
Step 7: Decide if the Argument Is Credible
An argument has credibility if it is believable (convincing). Validity and credibility are closely related since an argument that is not valid will not be credible.
Step 5: Determine the Argument's Completeness
An argument is complete if the author presents adequate support and overcomes opposing points. Sometimes they leave out information that would weaken their argument. Their argument would be stronger if they presented it and countered it.
Step 6: Determine if the Argument Is Valid
An argument is valid (has validity) if it is logical. "Is the argument logical (well-reasoned)?"
Step 1: Identify the Author's Assumptions
An author's assumptions consist of things the author takes for granted without presenting any proof (in other words, what the author believes or accepts as true and bases the argument on). If the author's assumptions are illogical or incorrect, the entire argument will be flawed. Readers may be misled unless they identify the author's assumptions.
Comparing the Arguments
Compare the types of evidence used. Which argument did you find more convincing? Why? What further information would be useful in assessing the issue?
For Each Argument
Identify the claim. Outline the reasons to support the claim. What types of evidence are used? Evaluate the adequacy and sufficiency of the evidence. What emotional appeals are used? Does the author recognize or refute counter arguments?
Recognizing and Refuting Opposing Viewpoints
Question the accuracy, relevancy or sufficiency of the opponent's evidence. Does the author address opposing viewpoints clearly and fairly? Does the author refute the opposing viewpoint with logic and relevant evidence?
Step 3: Determine the Relevance of the Support
Relevance means the support is directly related to the argument. Unless the author is an expert, his or her opinion or personal experience may not be particularly relevant.
Step 4: Determine the Author's Objectivity
The author's argument has objectivity when the support consists of facts and other clear evidence. "Does the author present facts and clear evidence as support?"
Line of Reasoning
The line of reasoning is a clear, logical, sequential path leading the audience through the reasons toward the conclusion. It is organized based on the argument's purpose.
Step 2: Identify the Types of Support
Types of support refers to the kind of evidence the author uses to back up the argument. Support can include research findings, case studies, personal experience or observation, examples, facts, comparisons, expert testimony and opinions.
Analyzing an Argument
What issue is presented? What is the author's argument? What are some author's assumptions? What type of support (facts, experts' opinions, research, observations, personal experiences, etc.) do the author/s present? How relevant (directly related to the issue) is the support? Is the argument objective and complete? Is the argument valid(logical) and credible (believable)?
(Unfair Emotional Appeal) Association
a car being named a Cougar to remind you of a sleek animal, a cigarette advertisement featuring a scenic waterfall
Reason
a general statement that supports a claim
(Unfair Emotional Appeal) Appeal to "Common Folk"
an ad showing a product being used in an average household, a politician suggesting he is like everyone else
Implied or Stated Value System
are they consistent with your personal value system?
(Unfair Emotional Appeal) False Authority
athletes endorsing underwear, movie stars selling shampoo
(Unfair Emotional Appeal) Ad Hominem
attack on the person rather than his/her viewpoint
Deductive argument
begins with a major premise and moves toward a more specific statement or minor premise
Statistics
can be misused, manipulated or misinterpreted
Argument
claim that is supported by reasons or evidence
(Unfair Emotional Appeal) "Join the Crowd" Appeal or Bandwagon
come early so you won't have to stand in line - because everyone knows you can make a deal with Dave and save.
Errors in Logical Reasoning
commonly called logical fallacies, invalidate the argument or render argument flawed
Hasty Generalization
conclusion derived from insufficient evidence Ex: "Because one apple is sour, all of them in the bowl must be sour."
Evidence
consists of facts, statistics, experiences, comparisons, and examples that show why the claim is valid
Evaluate (set of claims)
determine its value or persuasiveness
Cause-Effect Relationships
evidence that the relationship exists should be present
Emotional appeals
ideas that are targeted toward needs or values that readers are likely to care about
Evaluate Types of Evidence
is it sufficient to support the claim?
Relevancy and Sufficiency of Evidence
is there enough of the right kind to support the claim?
Personal Experience
may be biased, so do not accept it
Refutation
opposing viewpoints
Issue
problem or controversy about which people disagree
Inductive argument
reaches a general conclusion from observed specifics
Support
reasons and evidence that the claim is reasonable and should be accepted
Comparisons and Analogies
reliability depends on how closely they correspond to the situation
Definition of Terms
should be carefully defined and used consistently
Examples
should not be used by themselves
Claim of fact
statement that can be proven or verified by observation or research
Claim of value
states that one thing or idea is better or more desirable than another
Claim of policy
suggests what should or ought to be done to solve a problem
Claim
the position on the issue; point of the argument
(Unfair Emotional Appeal) Emotionally Charged or Biased Language
using unfair language based on experiences
To evaluate an argument,
you need to analyze it
To be able to do a good job evaluating arguments,
you need to know what an argument is and how an argument is put together