Research Methods

You are an experimenter researching whether the ability to concentrate on a task deteriorates when people feel crowded. Design a study to examine this hypothesis. You need to a) identify the independent variabl(s), decide how many levels of the independent variable(s) you would like to use, and identify the levels b) identify the dependent variable c) create operational definitions for your independent and dependent variables.

1. Independent variable: how many people are in the area of the subject completing the task, 5 levels, level 1: no people, level 2: 3 people, level 3: 8 people, level 4: 15 people, level 5: 25 people. 2. The dependent variable is the task the person is completing, a reading with questions 3. - Level 1 (No People): The subject is alone in the room or workspace while completing the task. - Level 2 (3 People): The subject shares the room or workspace with exactly three other people while completing the task. - Level 3 (8 People): The subject shares the room or workspace with exactly eight other people while completing the task. - Level 4 (15 People): The subject shares the room or workspace with exactly fifteen other people while completing the task. - Level 5 (25 People): The subject shares the room or workspace with exactly twenty-five other people while completing the task. - reading with questions: the subject will read a passage and have a set of comprehension questions relating to the passage they just read.

For each of the following scenarios, find at least one extraneous variable that has not been adequately controlled (i.e., that is creating a confound) and EXPLAIN why/how it might impact the research findings - A researcher is interested in the ability of schizophrenic patients to judge different time durations. It is hypothesized that loud noise will adversely affect their judgments. Subjects are tested two ways. In the "quiet" condition, some subjects are tested in a small soundproof room that is used for hearing tests. Those in the "noisy" condition are tested in a nurse's office where a stereo is playing music at a constant (and loud) volume. Because of scheduling problems, locked-ward (i.e., slightly more dangerous) patients are available for testing only on Monday, whereas open-ward (i.e., slightly less dangerous) patients are available for testing only on Thursday. Furthermore, hearing tests are scheduled for

1. The patient severity is the first extraneous variable. The severity of their schizophrenia could be a factor due to how they handle stress and loud noises. It will not be clear if the differences found in the two environments are due to the noise level or the different severity of the patients. The results would not be valid, and the experiment wouldn't be reliable. 2. The day of the week, people might be more generous or stressed on a Monday, which could affect their helping behavior. If more people give money on Fridays when Ted is dressed shabbily, it may be due to the day of the week rather than Ted's appearance. The time of day, people's helping behavior might vary based on the time of day. In the evening, people might be more or less willing to engage with strangers or make donations compared to other times of the day.

Describe an example of a study that illustrates experimenter bias. How might such bias be controlled?

A teacher is testing a new method of teaching and how it impacts student performance in the classroom. The study involves two groups of students: one group taught using the new method , and the other taught using the traditional method. The researchers, who are advocates of the new teaching method, are responsible for assessing the students' performance. - A solution to control expirmenter bias in this expirment would be using a double blind procedure, using random teachers and random groups or students who do not know wether they are using the new method or the regular method

In terms of its ability to rule out alternative explanations for a behavior change, the ____ design is the weakest of the single-subject designs

A-B

Distinguish between external validity in general and ecological validity in particular.

External validity is broader, it refers to generalizing the research to other populations, environments, and times. Ecological validity is very specific to how a study resembles real world, everyday situations.

The term ____ effect has traditionally been used to describe what happens when participants do not behave normally, simply because they know they are part of an experiment

Hawthorne

In a chi-square test, how do expected frequencies relate to the null hypothesis?

If the frequency of one event is drastically different from the frequencies of another in a chi-square you would reject the null hypothesis meaning there is a difference between groups or events.

Describe the essential features of a withdrawal design, and distinguish between these designs: A-B-A, A-B-A-B, A-B-C-B

If the treatment makes the behavior go away, but then the treatment is dissolved, and the behavior returns to its baseline level then it is clear the treatment is affecting the behavior and not an outside factor. The A-B-A design is the simplest version of the with draw, A refers to the baseline behavior before any treatment, b refers to the treatment, and the second A refers to the withdraw of treatment. The A-B-A-B is more prefered over the A-B-A because it reintroduces the treatment it also has the ethical advantage of finsihing the study with the treatment in place. The design would be A (baseline) B (treatment) A(withdraw) B(treatment). The A-B-C-B method is similar to the A-B-A-B method, however instead of the withdraw there is a second treatment added.

How does random selection differ from random assignment, and what is the purpose of the latter?

Random selection is used to choose a sample from a bigger population as a way to make sure that every member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample. Random assignment is a technique used in expirmental research to assign participants to different treatment or expirment groups ransomly. The purpose is to create equal groups minimizing the influence of extraneous variables and ensuring that differences in outcomes are more likley to due the manipulation of the independent variable. Random selection is used to draw a representative sample from a population in non-experimental studies, but random assignment is used in experimental research to create equal groups and control for confounding variables, allowing researchers to establish causality.

Describe at least one reason for small N designs

Studies that just use one or a few individuals continue to make important contributions to our knowledge of behavior.

For each study below, indicate whether you think the independent variable should be a between- or a within-subjects variable and explain your decision. a) A developmental psychologist predicts cultural differences in moral development. b) A sensory psychologist predicts that it is easier to distinguish slightly different shades of grays under daylight than under fluorescent light.

a) between-subjects variable, The independent variable is cultural background specific to each participant and cannot be manipulated within the same individual. Therefore, it makes sense to use a between-subjects design where different participants from each culture are exposed to one condition, there own cultural background. Then, the dependent variable, moral development, is measured and compared between the two groups. b) within-subjects variable, Lighting types can be manipulated within the same participants. To compare each participant's ability to distinguish shades of grey in different lighting within subjects is the most appropriate. Each participant would be tested in both lighting conditions and the dependent variable would be measured and compared within the same individuals to assess the impact of the independent variable.

Which of the following studies would be most likely to use a wait-list control group? a.a study evaluating the effectiveness of a new therapy for depression b.a study comparing environments that differ in terms of how crowded they are c.a study testing the effects of different dosage levels of a new drug d.a study evaluating the how waiting for the doctor produces frustration

a. a study evaluating the effectiveness of a new therapy for depression

Creating equivalent groups is a design problem for a.between-subjects designs b.within-subjects designs c.both alternatives d.none of the above

a. between-subjects designs

Which of the following is true about Woodworth's so-called "Columbia bible?" a. made a clear distinction between experimental and correlational research b.it was the first to distinguish between subject and manipulated independent variables c.it was the first to distinguish between internal and external validity d.it created the scales of measurement (nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio)

a. it made a clear distinction between experimental and correlational research

Social validity is said to occur when a.a procedure shown to be effective is recognized as such by the community and widely used b.a study has been replicated with a second cultural group c.a study with one type of person is also shown to be effective with other types of people in the social environment d.results shown to be effective in the lab also work in the social environment

a.a procedure shown to be effective is recognized as such by the community and widely used

All single-subject designs include a.a time during which a baseline level of behavior is measured b.a control group c.at least two baselines (one at the start, one at the end) d.a withdrawal stage

a.a time during which a baseline level of behavior is measured

Over a series of trials, participants experiencing one order of conditions might have an advantage over participants experiencing another order. These effects are called a.carry-over effects b.progressive effects c.transfer effects d.experimenter bias effects

a.carry-over effects

Multiple baseline designs are preferred over withdrawal designs when a.the behavior being altered is self-destructive b.more than one subject is being tested c.the behavior to be changed must be changed gradually d.one treatment is being compared directly with another

a.the behavior being altered is self-destructive

As a technique for creating equivalent groups, when is matching preferred over random assignment? a.when some extraneous variable is known to correlate with the dependent variable b.whenever a potential confound exists, but you aren't aware of its presence c.whenever a within-subjects design is preferred over a between-subjects design d.when a large number of subjects are available and can be used

a.when some extraneous variable is known to correlate with the dependent variable

Some studies last long enough for a significant number of people to drop out; this problem is called

attrition

For which of these empirical questions would a control group most clearly be needed? a.Will an attractive female defendant be treated more leniently by a jury than an attractive male defendant? b.If institutionalized elderly are given responsibility for meal planning, will it improve their psychological health? c.If participants are trying to solve problems, will they perform better in the morning or the evening? d.Do laboratory-bred rats learn mazes faster than wild rats?

b. If institutionalized elderly are given responsibility for meal planning, will it improve their psychological health?

In a cross-sectional comparison of intelligence in people aged 20, 40, and 60, differences might be due to aging but they might also be due to the different rearing conditions experienced by participants. This latter interpretation illustrates a(n) _______ effect a.attrition b.cohort c.placebo d.order

b. cohort

Small N designs have been criticized for a.being unconcerned with applications b.being unable to test for interactions c.using too many different dependent variables d.overuse of statistical analysis

b.being unable to test for interactions

How should a multilevel, independent groups design be analyzed if there are three groups (A, B, C) in the study? a.find the two groups farthest apart and compare them with a t test b.complete a one-way ANOVA c.complete a 3-factor ANOVA d.use 3 t tests (A & B, A & C, B & C)

b.complete a one-way ANOVA

A cross lagged panel technique is sometimes used to help solve the __________ problem a.third variable b.directionality c.negative correlation d.regression to the mean

b.directionality

In a within-subjects design, the differences between experimental conditions could be due to all of the following except a.random error b.individual differences c.the effect of the independent variable d.some confounding factor

b.individual differences

What does it mean to say that a study fails the "individual-subject validity" test? a.it means that the individuals in the study do not behave as predicted by the hypothesis b.it means that the overall conclusion is not reflected in the behavior of individual participants c.it means that sample size is too small d.it means that leakage occurred, i.e. too many of the individual participants in the study knew the true hypothesis ahead of time

b.it means that the overall conclusion is not reflected in the behavior of individual participants

After averaging 20 points per game for her college basketball team over the first 15 games, Amanda scores 37 points one night. Because of _______, she will almost certainly score _______ points in the next game. a .a history effect; more b.regression to the mean; fewer c.a fatigue effect; fewer d.regression to the mean; more

b.regression to the mean; fewer

With ___________ participants complete different tasks, whereas with ___________ participants are told how to do certain tasks. a.instructional variables; task variables b.task variables; instructional variables c.task variables; situational variables d.situational variables; task variables

b.task variables; instructional variables

The first step in any applied behavior analysis of to establish a ____ level of responding

baseline

There are two different groups in a study, and participants are randomly assigned to one group or the other. What's the design?

between subjects design

In order to insure that equal numbers of participants are randomly assigned to each condition of a study, is sometimes used

block randomization

In a taste test comparing popcorn brands A, B, C, and D, the experimenter decides to use a Latin square for counterbalancing. Assuming that ten participants will be tested in each of the sequences used, how many people will be needed to complete the study? a.10 b.4 c.40 d.80

c. 40

Which of the following correlations would be least effective for making predications? a.+1.00 b.-.76 c.-.09 d..16

c.-.09

The use of control groups has been criticized on ethical grounds because a.those in control groups seldom have the opportunity to give informed consent b.control group participants aren't debriefed c.control group participants could be missing an effective therapy d.those in control groups, because they are still waiting for therapy, are more likely to have their privacy violated

c.control group participants could be missing an effective therapy

A researcher investigates exercise practices and emotional stability and finds a correlation of +.80 between a measure of exercise frequency and a measure of emotional stability (low score = unstable; high score = stable). Which of the following is true? a.emotional instability can cause people to drop their exercise program b.if somebody is unstable emotionally, exercise is the cure for the problem c.people who exercise a lot tend to be emotionally stable d.you can safely predict that the relationship will be a strong one for 80% of the population

c.people who exercise a lot tend to be emotionally stable

Sometimes performance differences could be attributed to an independent variable or to some basic difference in the composition of the two groups involved. When this occurs, there is said to be a threat due to a.attrition b.regression c.selection d.maturation

c.selection

Which of the following is true about subject (participant) pools? a.an hour of participation is considered to be the equivalent of a 10-page paper b.to insure participation in research, and therefore a continuation of progress, the APA encourages schools to demand full participation from psychology students c.students must be given a reasonable alternative to research participation d.because of the new APA ethics code, they are no longer used Feedback

c.students must be given a reasonable alternative to research participation

A ____ refers to a detailed description and analysis of a single individual, such as Little Hans

case study

The _______design is based on the operant procedure called shaping

changing criterion

Uncontrolled extraneous variables are referred to as

confounds

Studies of aggression have sometimes been criticized for developing questionable operational definitions of aggression (e.g., horn honking). This is primarily a criticism of _________ validity.

construct

For any experiment investigating the effect of X on Y, a.X is the dependent variable b.both X and Y are the dependent variables c.Y is the independent variable d.none of these answers are correct

d. none of these answers are correct

In a between-subjects design, the differences between conditions could be due to all of the following except a.random error b.some confounding factor c.the effect of the independent variable d.a carry-over effect

d.a carry-over effect

Which of the following is true about case study research? a.it might be the only way to study some rare individual b.the data from the subjects of case studies can be limited by memory failures c.experimenter bias can affect what the researcher records about the case d.all of these answers

d.all of these answers

Demand characteristics refer to a.demands placed on experimenters by non-cooperative participants b.features of the study that raise evaluation apprehension in subjects c.pressures placed on participants by experimenters who want a study to come out a certain way d.aspects of the experimental procedure that give away the study's hypotheses

d.aspects of the experimental procedure that give away the study's hypotheses

Small N research designs a.are a recent development, originating with Skinner's work b.have never been popular with the majority of research psychologists c.began in the 1930s when Fisher developed ANOVA d.characterized most of the early research in psychology

d.characterized most of the early research in psychology

A regression line for a correlation of -1.00 would a.be parallel to the X-axis b.be parallel to the Y-axis c.higher for low values on the X-axis than for high values on the X-axis d.higher for high values on the X-axis than for low values on the X-axis

d.higher for high values on the X-axis than for low values on the X-axis

A regression equation is used for a.solving the directionality problem b.calculating the size of the correlation c.solving the third variable problem d.making predictions about a second variable, given the value of the first variable

d.making predictions about a second variable, given the value of the first variable

A well-known example of a study that produced a nonlinear effect was the memory study by Ebbinghaus that produced his forgetting curve. Which of the following is true about his study? a.it was a single-factor, two level, repeated-measures design b.it was a multilevel, matched groups design c.the independent variable was a "savings" score d.the independent variable was the amount of time between studying and recalling

d.the independent variable was the amount of time between studying and recalling

Longitudinal design is to cross-sectional design as ______ is to _______. a.between-subjects; within-subjects b.cohort effect; carry-over effect c.subject variable; manipulated variable d.within-subjects; between-subjects

d.within-subjects; between-subjects

Studies with two levels of a repeated-measures independent variable would be statistically analyzed by using a t test for

dependent groups

In a bivariate correlation between two variables, A and B, A could be causing B or B could be causing A. This is known as the ______ problem

directionality

Experimenter bias can be reduced by using a(n) _____ procedure in which neither the experimenter nor the subject knows which condition is being tested.

double blind

A single factor experiment that uses a subject variable is referred to as an ______ design

ex post facto

One of the defining features of any experiment is the careful attempt to control _____variables

extraneous

In _______ a large number of variables are measured and correlated with each other. It is then determined whether groups of these variables cluster together to form "factors"

factor analysis

True or False: a confidence interval represents the most likely location of the true population mean

false

What is the proper t test for a nonequivalent groups design?

independent samples t-test

If a study is free from confounding factors, it is said to have _____ validity

internal

In a study of the effects of motivation on maze-running speed, 50 rats are tested in a 20-foot alley maze (i.e., no turns, just a straight run from one end to the other). Some rats perform the task after going 5 hours without food, others after going 10 hours without food, and others after going 15 hours without food. Rats are placed in the different conditions in such a way as to insure that the average weights of the rats in all conditions are equal. What's the design?

matched design

If a study lasts for an appreciable period of time, participants might learn new things or grow wiser in some way, thereby producing a threat to internal validity known as

maturation

A researcher wishes to examine the effects of a reinforcement program on a child's behavior, as it occurs in three different environments.______ should be used to evaluation the program

multiple baseline

In a ______study, there are several predictor variables and one criterion variable

multiple regression

In a ____ high scores on one variable are associated with low scores on a second variable

negative correlation

In a cross-cultural study of helping behavior, researchers ask local residents for directions to the train station. The study takes place in London, Paris, Berlin, and Rome. What's the design?

non-equivalent groups/ ex post facto

If a study has just one independent variable, adding more than two levels provides the opportunity to discover _____ effects

non-linear

The effects of third variables can be evaluated by using a statistical procedure that involves calculating ______ correlations

partial

In studies evaluating the influence of a drug, those in the experimental group are often compared with those in a(n) _______ control group

placebo

What does a confidence interval represent?

range of values expected to include a population value with a certain degree of confidence

The sequence ABCDDCBA is indicative of _____ counterbalancing

reverse

In a type of graph called a _____the axes represent two variables being correlated.

scatterplot

Ellen signs up for a study in which she completes the Stroop test. Then she is asked to do the task again, but this time the words are turned upside down. What's the design?

single factor two level repeated measures design

Age, gender, and socioeconomic class are all examples of ____ variables

subject

What is the difference between a z-test and a 1-sample t-test?

the difference between a z-test and a 1-sample t-test lies in the knowledge of the population standard deviation. Z-test knows about pop. st. deviation

As correlational studies cannot control extraneous variables, these factors can provide alternative explanations for the obtained correlation; these factors are sometimes called ______ variables

third

When the behavior of a participant in the experimental group affects what happens to a participant in the control group, the study is using a _____ control group

yoked