Research Methods AS Psychology

Ethical Issues - Informed consent.

Participants must agree to take part and have their data used. As well as knowing as much as possible about the study.

Ethical Issues - Debriefing.

Participants must be fully informed after the study of what it was about. This is particularly important if participants have been deceived or there is a lack of informed consent.

Ethical Issues - Right to withdraw.

Allowing participants to stop taking part in the study if they wish.

Ethical Issues - Protection from harm.

Researchers must protect and not inflict any form of mental of physical harm. e.g. physical pain, embarrassment, offence etc.

Internal and external validity. To check:

A distinction can be made between internal and external validity. These types of validity are relevant to evaluating the validity of a research study / procedure. Internal validity refers to whether the effects observed in a study are due to the manipulation of the independent variable and not some other factor. In-other-words there is a causal relationship between the independent and dependent variable. Internal validity can be improved by controlling extraneous variables, using standardized instructions, counter balancing, and eliminating demand characteristics and investigator effects. External validity refers to the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other settings (ecological validity), other people (population validity) and over time (historical validity). External validity can be improved by setting experiments in a more natural setting and using random sampling to select participants.

Ethical issues - BPS ethical guidelines.

A set of guidelines set out by the BPS which a psychological study must follow. (Protection from harm, informed consent, avoid deception, debriefing, right to withdraw, confidentiality, privacy, and what use is made of the research).

Assessing and improving reliability of observers.

An observational research study using more than one observer needs to be assessed for reliability. If different observers provide significantly different observations of the same behaviour, then the data provided by those observers is unreliable. Observer reliability can therefore be assessed by correlating the data provided by the observers. Where observer scores do not significantly correlate then reliability can be improved by: Training observers in the observation techniques being used and making sure everyone agrees with them. Ensuring behaviour categories are correctly and objectively operationalised. This means that the behaviour being observed can only be that behaviour. For example, "aggressive behaviour" is subjective and not operationalised, but "pushing" is objective and operationalised.

Assessing the validity of a test. To improve:

Assessing and improving validity of psychology tests Psychological tests can be assessed for validity in variety of ways including face validity, content validity, concurrent validity and predictive validity: 1. Face validity is a subjective assessment of whether or not a test appears to measure the behaviour it claims to. It is subjective and therefore not a particularly strong method with which to assess validity. 2. Content validity is an objective assessment of the items in a test to establish whether or not they all relate to and measure the behaviour in question. 3. Concurrent validity is a comparison between two tests of a particular behaviour. One test has already been established as a valid measure of the behaviour, and the other test is the new one. If the results from both old and new tests significantly correlate then the new test is valid. 4. Predictive validity refers to how well a test predicts future behaviour. An example of this is a diagnostic test for a mental health problem such as depression. If the test is a valid measure of depression and accurately diagnoses depression, then there will be a significant positive correlation between the test scores and the outcome for the patient.

Case study method. (non-experimental methods)

Case studies are in-depth investigations of a single person, group, event or community. Typically, data are gathered from a variety of sources and by using several different methods (e.g. observations & interviews). The research may also continue for an extended period of time, so processes and developments can be studied as they happen. Strengths - + Provides detailed (rich qualitative) information. + Provides insight for further research. + Permitting investigation of otherwise impractical (or unethical) situations. Limitations - -Can't generalize the results to the wider population. - Researchers' own subjective feeling may influence the case study (researcher bias). - Difficult or unethical to replicate. - Time consuming.

Content Analysis

Content analysis is a research tool used to indirectly observe the presence of certain words, images or concepts within the media (e.g. advertisements, books films etc.). For example, content analysis could be used to study sex-role stereotyping. Researchers quantify (i.e. count) and analyze (i.e. examine) the presence, meanings and relationships of words and concepts, then make inferences about the messages within the media, the writer(s), the audience, and even the culture and time of which these are a part. To conduct a content analysis on any such media, the media is coded or broken down, into manageable categories on a variety of levels - word, word sense, phrase, sentence, or theme - and then examined.

Observation Methods - Controlled observation. (non-experimental methods)

Controlled observations (usually a structured observation) are likely to be carried out in a psychology laboratory. The researcher decides where the observation will take place, at what time, with which participants, in what circumstances and uses a standardised procedure. Participants are randomly allocated to each independent variable group. Rather than writing a detailed description of all behaviour observed, it is often easier to code behaviour according to a previously agreed scale using a behaviour schedule (i.e. conducting a structured observation). Strengths - +Controlled observations can be easily replicated by other researchers by using the same observation schedule. This means it is easy to test for reliability. +The data obtained from structured observations is easier and quicker to analyze as it is quantitative (i.e. numerical) - making this a less time consuming method compared to naturalistic observations. Limitations - - Controlled observations can lack validity due to the Hawthorne effect/demand characteristics. When participants know they are being watched they may act differently.

Correlations: (non-experimental methods)

Correlation is a statistical technique used to quantify the strength of relationship between two variables. Used a lot in psychology investigations, for example Murstein (1972) carried out a correlation analysis of ratings of attractiveness in partners ('computer dance' study). Strengths - +Correlation allows the researcher to investigate naturally occurring variables that maybe unethical or impractical to test experimentally. For example, it would be unethical to conduct an experiment on whether smoking causes lung cancer. + Correlation allows the researcher to clearly and easily see if there is a relationship between variables. This can then be displayed in a graphical form. Limitations - - Correlation is not and cannot be taken to imply causation. Even if there is a very strong association between two variables we cannot assume that one causes the other. - Lack of correlation may not mean there is no relationship, it could be non-linear.

Self report - Questionnaires. (non-experimental methods)

Designing a questionnaire survey = - When designing a questionnaire, there are several ways you can approach the study: - Use closed questions (fixed choice of answers), to generate data for easy analysis. - Use open questions (space to write any answer) for more detailed individual answers. - Keep questions and instructions clear and easy to understand. - Ask purposeful questions to help find information needed for the study. - Pre-code closed questions for quick analysis of the answers. - Carry out a pilot study first, a test run, making changes if needed. - Use attitude scales to test strength of feeling.

Experimental design - Independent Measures:

Different participants are used in each condition of the independent variable. This means that each condition of the experiment includes a different group of participants. This should be done by random allocation, which ensures that each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to one group or the other. Independent measures involves using two separate groups of participants; one in each condition Strengths - +Avoids order effects (such as practice or fatigue) as people participate in one condition only. If a person is involved in several conditions they may become bored, tired and fed up by the time they come to the second condition, or becoming wise to the requirements of the experiment! Limitations - - More people are needed than with the repeated measures design (i.e. more time consuming). - Differences between participants in the groups may affect results, for example; variations in age, sex or social background. These differences are known as participant variables (i.e. a type of extraneous variable).

Sampling Methods - Random Sampling

Everyone in the entire target population has an equal chance of being selected. This is similar to the national lottery. If the "population" is everyone who has bought a lottery ticket, then each person has an equal chance of winning the lottery (assuming they all have one ticket each). Random samples require a way of naming or numbering the target population and then using some type of raffle method to choose those to make up the sample. Random samples are the best method of selecting your sample from the population of interest. +The advantages are that your sample should represent the target population and eliminate sampling bias, - but the disadvantage is that it is very difficult to achieve (i.e. time, effort and money).

Analysis of Correlations. (non-experimental methods)

For a correlational study, the data can be plotted as points on a scatter graph. A line of best fit is then drawn through the points to show the trend of the data. If both variables increase together, this is a positive correlation. If one variable increases as other decreases this is a negative correlation. If no line of best fit can be drawn, there is no correlation. Correlation can be quantified by using a correlation coefficient - a mathematical measure of the degree of relatedness between sets of data. Once calculated, a correlation coefficient will have a value from -1 to +1. +1 = perfect positive correlation all points on straight line, as x increases y increases. A value close to one indicates a strong positive correlation. 0 = no correlation points show differing degrees of correlation. -1 = perfect negative correlation all points on straight line, as x increases y decreases. A value close to -1 indicates a strong negative relationship.

Operationalized hypothesis.

In another example, the hypothesis "Young participants will have significantly better memories than older participants" is not operationalized. How do we define "young", "old" or "memory"? "Participants aged between 16 - 30 will recall significantly more nouns from a list if twenty than participants aged between 55 - 70" is operationalized.

Self report - Questionnaires. (non-experimental methods)

Interviews are face-to-face conversations, these can be unstructured, apparently informal chats, or they can be formal, structured interviews with pre-determined questions. For example, clinical tests used in psychiatry. Structured Interview This is also known as a formal interview (like a job interview). The questions are asked in a set / standardized order and the interviewer will not deviate from the interview schedule or probe beyond the answers received (so they are not flexible). These are based on structured, closed-ended questions. Unstructured Interview These are sometimes referred to as 'discovery interviews' & are more like a 'guided conservation' than a strict structured interview. They are sometimes called informal interviews. An interview schedule might not be used, and even if one is used, they will contain open-ended questions that can be asked in any order. Some questions might be added / missed as the Interview progresses.

Experimental Method - Field experiment.

Natural environment are done in an everyday environment of the participants in which the independent variable is still manipulated researchers but in real-life setting. An example is Holfing's hospital study. Strengths - + Behaviour is a field experiment is more likely to reflect real life because of its natural setting, i.e. higher ecological validity that lab experiment. + There is less likelihood of demand characteristics affecting the results, as participants may know they are being studied. This occurs when the study is covert. Limitations - There is less control over extraneous variables that might bias the results. This makes it difficult for the researcher to replicate the study in the exact same way. - Can be time-consuming and costly.

Directional or non directional hypothesis.

One tailed (directional) or two tailed (non-directional) Hypothesis? A one-tailed directional hypothesis predicts the nature of the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable. • E.g.: Adults will correctly recall more words than children. A two-tailed non-directional hypothesis predicts that the independent variable will have an effect on the dependent variable, but the direction of the effect is not specified. • E.g.: There will be a difference in how many numbers are correctly recalled by children and adults.

Experimental Method - Natural experiment.

Natural experiments are conducted in everyday (i.e. real life) environments but here the experimenter has no control over the independent variable as it occurs naturally in real life. An example is Hodges and Tizard's attachment research. Strengths - + Behaviour in a natural experiment is more likely to reflect real life because of it's natural setting, i.e. high ecological validity. +There is less likelihood of demand characteristics affecting the results, as participants may not know they are being studied. + It can be used in situations where it would be ethically unacceptable to manipulate the independent variable e.g. researching stress. Limitations - They may be more expensive and time consuming than other experiments. - There is no control over extraneous variables that might bias the results.

Observation Methods - Naturalistic observation. (non-experimental methods)

Naturalistic observation (i.e. unstructured observation) involves studying the spontaneous behaviour of participants in natural surroundings. The researcher simply records what they see in whatever way they can. Strengths - +By being able to observe the flow of behaviour in its own setting studies have greater ecological validity. + Like case studies naturalistic observation is often used to generate new ideas. Because it gives the researcher the opportunity to study the total situation it often suggests avenues of enquiry not thought of before. Limitations - - These observations are often conducted on a micro (small) scale and may lack a representative sample (biased in relation to age, gender, social class or ethnicity). This may result in the findings lacking the ability to be generalized to wider society. - Natural observations are less reliable as other variables cannot be controlled. This makes it difficult for another researcher to repeat the study in exactly the same way. - With observations we do not have manipulations of variables (or control over extraneous variables) which means cause and effect relationships cannot be established.

Pilot study

Preliminary study conducted in order to evaluate feasibility, time, cost adverse events and effect size in an attempt to predict and appropriate sample size and improve study design prior to its performance.

Assessing and improving reliability of psychology tests.

Psychological tests, such as self report questionnaires, need to be reliable. They can be assessed for reliability using the split-half or test-retest methods, and if unreliable the questions can be improved until reliability is established. - The split-half method involves randomly choosing half the questions on the test and comparing the results with the other half. If there is a significant positive correlation between the two halves then the questions are reliable. Using the split-half method means the same participant can be used without having to wait for them to 'forget' the questions between the two halves of the test, and it is therefore a quick and easy way to establish reliability. However it can only be effective with large questionnaires in which all questions measure the behaviour being researched. - The test-retest method involves administering an entire test to a participant, waiting for them to 'forget' the questions (which could take several months), and then re-administering the test. If the results from both presentations of the test significantly positively correlate then it is a reliable test. The disadvantages of the test-retest method are that it takes a long time for results to be obtained, and if too long an interval has been used then the participant may have changed in themselves which may mean a test is declared unreliable when it is in fact reliable. The advantage is that every question is checked for reliability.

Qualitative Research

Qualitative research gathers information that is not in numerical form. For example, diary accounts, open-ended questionnaires, unstructured interviews and unstructured observations. Qualitative data is typically descriptive data and as such is harder to analyse than quantitative data. Qualitative research is useful for studies at the individual level, and to find out, in depth, the ways in which people think or feel (e.g. case studies).

Quantitative Research

Quantitative research gathers data in numerical form which can be put into categories, or in rank order, or measured in units of measurement. This type of data can be used to construct graphs and tables of raw data. Experiments typically yield quantitative data, as they are concerned with measuring things. However, other research methods, such as observations and questionnaires can produce both quantitative and qualitative information. For example, a rating scale or closed questions on a questionnaire would generate quantitative data as these produce either numerical data or data that can be put into categories (e.g. "yes", "no" answers). Whereas open-ended questions would generate qualitative information as they are a descriptive response.

What is reliability?

Reliability refers to the extent to which the measurement of a particular behaviour is consistent. In order to be able to class a test or research method as reliable, it must yield consistent results each time it is used. Of course, the exact same results will not be obtained each time as participants and situations vary, but a strong positive correlation between the results of the same test will indicate reliability.

Measures of dispersion

Standard deviation - measure with mean to find central tendency. + most sensitive measure of dispersion - uses every score -Takes longest to calculate. Semi interquartile range - normally used with median as measure of central tendency. +less distorted than extreme range. - it only uses 50% of data. Range - simplest method - subtract lowest from highest. + Easy to calculate - Only uses 2 scores of data.

Advantages and disadvantages of Structured interviews -

Strengths + Structured interviews are easy to replicate as a fixed set of closed questions are used, which are easy to quantify - this means it is easy to test for reliability. + Structured interviews are fairly quick to conduct which means that many interviews can take place within a short amount of time. This means a large sample can be obtained resulting in the findings being representative and having the ability to be generalized to a large population. Limitations - Structure interviews are not flexible. This means new questions cannot be asked impromptu (i.e. during the interview) as an interview schedule must be followed. - The answers from structured interviews lack detail as only closed questions are asked which generates quantitative data. This means a research will won't know why a person behaves in a certain way.

Advantages and disadvantages of Unstructured interviews-

Strengths + Unstructured interviews are more flexible as questions can be adapted and changed depending on the respondents' answers. The interview can deviate from the interview schedule. +Unstructured interviews generate qualitative data through the use of open questions. This allows the respondent to talk in some depth, choosing their own words. This helps the researcher develop a real sense of a person's understanding of a situation. + They also have increased validity because it gives the interviewer the opportunity to probe for a deeper understanding, ask for clarification & allow the interviewee to steer the direction of the interview etc. Limitations - It can be time consuming to conduct an unstructured interview and analyze the qualitative data (using methods such as thematic analysis). - Employing and training interviewers is expensive, and not as cheap as collecting data via questionnaires. For example, certain skills may be needed by the interviewer. These include the ability to establish rapport & knowing when to probe.

Advantages and disadvantages of using 'open' ended questionnaires -

Strengths +Rich qualitative data is obtained as open questions allow the respondent to elaborate on their answer. This means the research can find out why a person holds a certain attitude. Limitations -Time consuming to collect the data and analyze. It takes longer for the respondent to complete open questions. This is a problem as a smaller sample size may be obtained. It also takes longer for the researcher to analyze qualitative data as they have to read the answers and try to put them into categories by coding, which is often subjective and difficult. - Not suitable for less educated respondents as open questions require superior writing skills and a better ability to express one's feelings verbally.

Advantages and disadvantages of using 'closed' ended questionnaires -

Strengths - + They can economical. This means they can provide large amounts of research data for relatively low costs. + The data can be quickly obtained as closed questions are easy to answer (usually just ticking a box). This means a large sample size can be obtained which should be representative of the population, which a researcher can then generalize from. + The questions are standardised. All respondents are asked exactly the same questions in the same order. This means a questionnaire can be replicated easily to check for reliability. Therefore, a second researcher can use the questionnaire to check that the results are consistent. Limitations - They lack detail. Because the responses are fixed there is less scope for respondents to supply answers which reflect their true feelings on a topic.

Experimental design - Matched Pairs.

Testing separate groups of people - each member of one group is same age, sex, or social background as a member of the other group. Strengths - +Reduces participant (i.e. extraneous) variables because the researcher has tried to pair up the participants so that each condition has people with similar abilities and characteristics. + Avoids order effects, and so counterbalancing is not necessary. Limitations - - Very time-consuming trying to find closely matched pairs. - Impossible to match people exactly, unless identical twins!

Aims.

The aim of an investigation is its general purpose.It is a straightforward expression of what the researcher is trying to find out from conducting an investigation. The aim typically involves the word "investigate" or "investigation".

Alternate hypothesis

The alternative hypothesis states that there is a relationship between the two variables being studied (one variable has an effect on the other). It states that the results are not due to chance and that they are significant in terms of supporting the theory being investigated. For example - The experimental hypothesis states that students will recall significantly more information on a Monday morning than on a Friday afternoon.

Hypothesis

The hypothesis is a precise, testable statement or prediction about the expected outcome of an investigation. This usually involves proposing a possible relationship between two variables: the independent variable (what the researcher changes) and the dependant variable (what the research measures). In research, there is a convention that the hypothesis is written in two forms, the null hypothesis, and the alternative hypothesis (called the experimental hypothesis when the method of investigation is an experiment).

Null Hypothesis

The null hypothesis states that there is no relationship between the two variables being studied (one variable does not affect the other). It states results are due to chance and are not significant in terms of supporting the idea being investigated. For example - The null hypothesis states that these will be no significant difference in the amount recalled on a Monday morning compared to a Friday afternoon. Any difference will be due to chance or confounding factors.

Ethical Issues - Confidentiality.

The right for participants to be kept anonymous. Don't use date the participant does not want to use.

Experimental design - Repeated Measures

The same participants take part in each condition of the independent variable. This means that each condition of the experiment includes the same group of participants. Strengths - + Fewer people are needed as they take part in all conditions (i.e. saves time) + Avoids the problem of participant variables. Limitations - - here may be order effects. Order effects refer to the order of the conditions having an effect on the participants' behavior. Performance in the second condition may be better because the participants know what to do (i.e. practice effect). Or their performance might be worse in the second condition because they are tired (i.e. fatigue effect).

Extraneous Variable -

These are all variables, which are not the independent variable, but could affect the results (e.g. dependent variable) of the experiment.

Experimental Method - Laboratory/controlled experiment.

This type of experiment is conducted in a well controlled, Artificial environment with tight controls over variables. An example is Milgram's experiment on obedience. Strengths - + It is easier to replicate (i.e. copy) a lab experiment. This is because a standardised procedure is used. + They allow for precise control of extraneous and independent variables. This allows for a cause and effect relationship to be formed. Limitations - - The artificiality of the setting may produce unnatural behaviour that does no reflect real-life, i.e. low ecological validity. This means it would not be possible to generalize the findings to a real life setting. -Demand characteristics or experimenter effects may bias the results and become confounding variables.

Sampling Methods - Opportunity Sampling.

Uses people from target population available at the time and willing to take part. It is based on convenience. An opportunity sample is obtained by asking members of the population of interest if they would take part in your research. An example would be selecting a sample of students from those coming out of the library. +This is a quick way and easy of choosing participants (advantage), - but may not provide a representative sample, and could be biased (disadvantage).

What is validity?

Validity refers to whether a study measures or examines what it claims to measure or examine.

Independent variable -

Variable the experimenter manipulates (i.e. changes) - assumed to have a direct effect on the dependent variable.

Dependent Variable -

Variable the experimenter measures, after making changes to the IV that are assumed to affect the DV.

Confounding variable -

Variables that have affected the results (dependent variable), apart from the Independent variable.

Sampling Methods - Volunteer sampling

Volunteer samples are ones in which the participants have put themselves forward as research candidates. Researchers obtain volunteer samples by advertising on posters or in newspapers. + The main advantage of a volunteer sample is that participants will all be happy and willing to participate, and they will not feel coerced in any way. - The main disadvantage of an opportunity sample is that it will be biased towards a certain type of person as only people with a personal interest in the research topic will volunteer. The sample will not therefore be truly representative of the target population.

Recording of observational data -

With all observation studies an important decision the researcher has to make is how to classify and record the data. Usually this will involve a method of sampling. The three main sampling methods are: - Event sampling. The observer decides in advance what types of behaviour (events) she is interested in and records all occurrences. All other types of behaviour are ignored. - Time sampling. The observer decides in advance that observation will take place only during specified time periods (e.g. 10 minutes every hour, 1 hour per day) and records the occurrence of the specified behaviour during that period only. - Instantaneous (target time) sampling. The observer decides in advance the pre-selected moments when observation will take place and records what is happening at that instant. Everything happening before or after is ignored.

Designing observations. (non-experimental methods)

You will need to be systematic, observations may be either structured or unstructured. Structured observation (often controlled) : Uses tables of pre-determined categories of behaviour and systematic sampling. Ways of sampling in structured observational studies: Time sampling: Observations may be made at regular time intervals and coded. Event sampling: Keep a tally chart of each time a type of behaviour occurs. Point sampling: Focus on one individual at a time for set period of time. Unstructured observations (often naturalistic) : Record everything that happens. It may be difficult to avoid bias by focusing on what you want or expect to see happening, in theory all observations are noted as anything could prove to be important. May use a diary method to record events, feelings, or moods. Video recording: This is useful as behaviour may be analysed in more detail later.