Research Methods

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Gain knowledge about human and animal behavior. It is an abstract concept, and an investigative approach to knowledge, distinguished from "general" (everyday) knowledge

RECORDING BEHAVIOR

What should be recorded? Optimal ideas, concepts, theory, and hypotheses determine what should be recorded.

spurious

When a relationship between two variables can be explained by a third variable

· Minimal Risk =

When a research study involves procedures or activities that are similar to those experienced by participants in their everyday life, the study is described as having "minimal risk." Your research projects will involve minimal risk (only).

· A HYPOTHESIS

a statement or question that functions as a tentative explanation for a phenomenon

A hypothesis

a tentative explanation for a phenomenon; testable hypotheses have clearly defined concepts (operational definitions), are not circular, and refer to concepts that can be observed.

nonprobability sampling techniques

accidental sampling and purposive sampling, there is no guarantee that every element in the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample.

· Scientific instruments

accurate and precise; physical and psychological measurement should be valid and reliable.

indirect observations

archival information, examination of evidence

· Operational Definitions

are crucial in conducting any research. Concepts are things and/or events loosely discussed in terms of their relationships to one another. Operational definitions explain the concepts in terms of the specific operations they will perform or portray (utility).

Dependent variables

are measures of behavior used to assess the effects of independent variables

the news media popular press

include a wealth of variables associated with what is "found" in the media.

running records

include data that are generally updated on a regular or semi-regular basis

measures of effect size

indicate the strength of the relationship between the independent and dependent variables, but are not affected by sample size.

Construct validity

represents the extent to which a measure assesses the theoretical construct it is designed to assess; construct validity is determined by assessing convergent validity and discriminant validity

TheF-test is a statistic that

represents the ratio of between-group variation to within-group variation in the data. (Parallel with the t-test.)

Field Experiments

researchers manipulate one or more independent variables in a natural setting to determine the effect on behavior.

High interobserver reliability increases

researchers' confidence that observations about behavior are valid - that they have MEANING, and are related to the hypothetical goals and theory

· Description =

the procedures by which relationships are defined, cataloged, classified, and categorized (some would say operationalized)

· Selection bias occurs when

the procedures used to select a sample result in the overrepresentation or underrepresentation of some segment(s) of the population.

Observational data are summarized through

the process of data reduction

Physical Traces

walking speed (direct observation) is highly correlated with the accuracy of a country's clocks (unobtrusive measure - examination of physical evidence). The more accurate the clocks, the faster people generally walk!

· General versus Empirical Approaches:

we normally use general and every day cognitive processes to investigate and deal with knowledge. This is the intuitive approach, perfectly acceptable, and very adaptive (the feeling that...). The Empirical emphasizes acquiring knowledge through direct observation and experimentation.

Expectancy effects can occur

when observers are aware of hypotheses for the outcome of the study or the outcome of previous studies.

· Internal Validity =

when the "controllable" confounds are identified and dealt with, when the study or assessment is functioning at a "truth" level in relation to the hypothesis (es)

· Confounding =

when two or more potentially effective (measurable) variables covary and no separation is made

3 Steps for a Content Analysis:

· 1. Identify archival data source 2. Sample data from the records 3. Code contents of the records

RESEARCH WITH ANIMALS

· Animals are used in research to gain knowledge that will benefit humans, for example, by helping to cure diseases. cost/benefit ratio

Rationale - Archival data

· Test hypotheses as part of multivariate research approaches (and often are) · · To establish external validity of experimental (especially lab) experiments and studies (compare results) · · Assess the effects of natural treatments (home field advantage, treatment outcome assessed by a review of re-admission/relapse figures). .Archival data are often used (and mis-used) in all social sciences (especially demography, political science, and sociology).

· What is Methodology 3 parts

· What is Methodology

Path analysis

· statistical technique used to help researchers understand potential causes of correlational relationships.

Mediators

· variables that help to explain the relationship between two variables-

Observation without intervention

The goals of naturalistic observation are to describe behavior as it normally occurs and to examine relationships among variables. There is no manipulation or intervention.

· Are the correlations significant?

The magnitude of a correlation coefficient ranges from -1.0 (a perfect negative relationship) to +1.0 (a perfect positive relationship); a correlation coefficient of 0.00 indicates no relationship.

Assessing effects of natural treatments

(car accidents, injuries, and enactment of seatbelt laws)

Placebo control groups are used to control for

the problem of demand characteristics, and double-blind experiments control both demand characteristics and experimenter effects.

what is Logic

(deductive {general-to-specific/theory-to-data}, inductive {specific-to-general/data-to-theory}, mixed, active, passive, reciprocal)

Analysis of Trend

(female representation in the workforce, students admitted to graduate programs)

Analysis of communication

(language use changes, fake versus real threats and suicide notes, presidential candidates and various audiences)

what is Epistemology

(relationship between knower and what is known; subjective versus objective {dualism})

what is Axiology

(relationship of values to the knower, what is known, and the nature of the inquiry)

whats ontology

(the realism versus relativism debate - Is reality global, or unique to each individual?)

· Instruments and Measurement

What "tools" are being used and how are measurements being made (operationally) are also vital to the scientific method.

STEPS FOR ETHICAL DECISION MAKING

1. Get the facts. What is involved regarding procedure, participants, methodology, etc. (incl. cost/benefit ratio related to research design.)? 2. Identify the important and related ethical issues. Consult the APA and other guidelines (incl. testing bias and fairness issues), groups and organizations, and be aware of state, local, and federal regulations (do not simply rely on word-of-mouth). 3. Formally analyze the cost/benefit ratio related to all parties. What is the overall gain compared to the overall loss? Is anyone being hurt and is it worth it compared with those who may be benefiting. 4. Be aware of alternative procedure and methodology (incl. protocol). Normally, there is at least one alternative methodology available. 5. Decide on the final steps to take. Have all of the questions been asked? Have all of the alternatives been explored?

OBSERVATION WITH INTERVENTION 3 methods

1. participant observation 2. structured observation 3. the field experiment

· An experiment has internal validity when it fulfills the three conditions required for causal inference:

1.Covariation 2. Time-order relationship 3. Elimination of plausible causes

What is variability

A measure of dispersion around the mean, equal to the sum of squared deviations from the mean divided by one less than the number of cases. The variance is measured in units that are the square of those of the variable itself

what is standard deviation

A measure of dispersion around the mean.

· THE RISK/BENEFIT RATIO =

A subjective evaluation of the risks and benefits of a research project is used to determine whether the research should be conducted. The RESEARCHER makes the subjective evaluation. The IRB "weighs" the argument - then makes their decision.

Which of the following statements best describes the relationship between correlation and causation? A) Correlation does not imply causation. B) Correlation directly implies causation. C) Correlation and causation are synonymous. D) Correlation is unrelated to causation.

A) Correlation does not imply causation.

When a researcher claims that an independent variable has a statistically significant effect when the null hypothesis is really true, a_________ has occurred. A) Type I error B) Type II error C) experimenter effect D) demand characteristic

A) Type I error

Animal review boards (IACUCs) are responsible for ensuring the welfare and humane treatment of animals used in research. Which of the following is not one of the issues that animal review boards decide? A) adequacy of the budget for carrying out the proposed research B) adequacy of the procedures for controlling pain C) adequacy of the experimental design for gaining important new information D) adequacy of the training of personnel who will be doing the testing and care of the animals

A) adequacy of the budget for carrying out the proposed research

Data found in records and documents that recount the activities of individuals, institutions, governments, and other groups are called A) archival data. B) index data. C) social data. D) codified data.

A) archival data.

When should researchers consult with the proper authorities about the appropriate procedures for institutional review of their research project? A) before beginning the research project B) before testing the last participant in the research project C) before analyzing the data from the research project D) before submitting the research for publication

A) before beginning the research project

A(n) ____________ is a statement about the cause of an event or behavior. A) causal inference B) experiment C) controlled cause D) correlation

A) causal inference

The essential ingredient of scientific observation is A) control. B) precise instrumentation. C) description D) creating change.

A) control.

In order to obtain data for a research project, a student asks classmates to complete a survey before class starts. The resulting sample of respondents can best be characterized as a A) convenience sample. B) random sample. C) stratified random sample. D) probability sample.

A) convenience sample.

In which of the following survey research designs is the focus on describing the characteristics of a population or the differences between two or more populations at a certain point in time? A) cross-sectional design B) successive independent samples design C) longitudinal design D) accidental samples design

A) cross-sectional design

Whenever deception is used, the researcher has the responsibility to A) debrief the participant. B) inform the participant of the deception before the experiment begins. C) withhold information from the participant concerning the reasons for having used deception. D) avoid telling the participant about the deception before, during, and after the experiment.

A) debrief the participant.

A sample is considered biased when the characteristics of the sample A) differ systematically from those of the target population. B) differ randomly from those of the target population. C) differ haphazardly from those of the target population. D) correspond well to those of the target population.

A) differ systematically from those of the target population.

Which of the following is typically not one of the types of risk that may be present in psychological research? A) economic B) psychological C) social D) physical

A) economic

Archival data are useful for testing whether findings in a laboratory can be used to describe what occurs in natural settings. This is referred to as A) external validity of the findings. B) internal validity of the findings. C) spurious relationship between the findings. D) natural treatments in the findings.

A) external validity of the findings.

The tentative explanations scientists use to explain events that must be testable are called A) hypotheses. B) postulates. C) heuristics. D) axioms.

A) hypotheses.

Before beginning a research project, researchers should search the psychological literature about their topic A) in order to develop research hypotheses. B) to stop the research if the study or a similar one has already been done. C) to demonstrate that no one has had a similar idea. D) all of the above.

A) in order to develop research hypotheses.

An investigator who provides a written description of the situation surrounding a child's temper tantrum, as well as characteristics of the event itself, is implementing the technique of a A) narrative record. B) field experiment. C) participant observation. D) checklist.

A) narrative record.

The distinction between observation with intervention and observation without intervention is similar to the distinction between A) natural use traces and controlled use traces. B) physical traces and archival records. C) quantitative and qualitative data analysis. D) correlations and spurious relationships.

A) natural use traces and controlled use traces.

One of the major advantages of using data found in records and documents is that these data are most likely to be A) nonreactive. B) unbiased. C) valid. D) reliable.

A) nonreactive.

One approach to the use of inferential statistics to decide whether an independent variable has a reliable effect on the dependent variable begins by assuming that the independent variable had no effect. This approach is called A) null hypothesis testing. B) alpha hypothesis testing. C) statistical error testing. D) significance level testing.

A) null hypothesis testing.

A sampling frame, the actual list of the elements in a population, can be considered a(n) ________________ of the population. A) operational definition B) dependent variable C) biased sample D) manipulation

A) operational definition

Researchers who use narrative records seek to provide a verbal summary of observations and to develop a theory that explains behavior in the narrative records. This approach to data analysis represents A) qualitative data analysis with comprehensive recording of behavior. B) qualitative data analysis with selective recording of behavior. C) quantitative data analysis with comprehensive recording of behavior. D) quantitative data analysis with selective recording of behavior.

A) qualitative data analysis with comprehensive recording of behavior.

Which of the following problems in survey research is peculiar to longitudinal survey research designs? A) reactive measurement B) response bias C) respondent mortality (attrition) D) selection bias

A) reactive measurement

The influence that an observer has on the behavior under observation is called A) reactivity. B) observer bias. C) demand characteristics. D) expectancy effect.

A) reactivity

Which of the following is a major threat to the validity of results obtained from a longitudinal survey design? A) respondent mortality B) interviewer bias C) selection bias D) nonprobability sampling

A) respondent mortality

Which problem occurs when respondents react to measurement by reporting what they think they should say, rather than what they actually believe? A) socially desirable responding B) an incorrect causal inference based on correlational data C) a large margin of error D) a biased sample

A) socially desirable responding

One aspect of the social and cultural context in which scientists work is that A) society's acceptance of research findings can influence how research findings are applied. B) research findings are implemented in society without people's awareness. C) scientists have full control over how society's resources are used to advance science. D) society has little to say about the topics investigated by scientists.

A) society's acceptance of research findings can influence how research findings are applied.

What characteristic distinguishes scientific hypotheses from casual, everyday hypotheses? A) testability B) intuitive appeal C) circularity D) certainty

A) testability

Which of the following is not a justification for using deception in research? A) when the researcher stands to gain in reputation for conducting the research B) when the research study is very important C) when no other methods for answering the research question are available D) when the deception would not influence participants' willingness to participate

A) when the researcher stands to gain in reputation for conducting the research

Which of the following types of variables is most likely to be an independent variable in a natural groups design? A) individual differences (subject) variables B) task variable C) nuisance variables D) environmental variables

A) individual differences (subject) variables

ANOVA Between-subjects design

ANOVA determines if the mean differs across the various levels of the factor present. It divides the groups by its participants. each variable must have scores on two variables to run this (mean differences between independent groups)

Cause and Effect Laws

Are there casual laws and principles that we can pin down and identify or are laws too difficult to distinguish

Which of the following statements about the historical context of psychology is true? A) The topics and theoretical perspectives have changed very little over the past 100 years of psychological research. B) By investigating a wide array of topics over time, psychologists have demonstrated the complexity of human behavior. C) Only a few key scientists have contributed important findings to the science of psychology. D) The theoretical perspective of behaviorism has dominated the science of psychology since its inception.

B) By investigating a wide array of topics over time, psychologists have demonstrated the complexity of human behavior.

Which of the following statements could you make if you knew that the correlation between the time high school students spend watching TV and their scores on a school achievement test was -.64? A) The more time students spend watching TV, the higher their scores on a school achievement test will be. B) The more time students spend watching TV, the lower their scores on a school achievement test will be. C) The amount of time students spend watching TV and their scores on a school achievement test are entirely unrelated to each other. D) Spending more time watching TV causes students to do more poorly on a school achievement test.

B) The more time students spend watching TV, the lower their scores on a school achievement test will be.

Which of the following statements represents the policy regarding the termination of an animal's life according to the APA Ethical Standards for the care and use of animals? A) An animal's life may never be terminated before the time when death by natural causes would occur. B) When it is appropriate that an animal's life be terminated, it is done rapidly, with an effort to minimize pain, and in accordance with accepted procedures. C) An animal's life may be terminated in whatever way best facilitates the successful completion of the research. D) When it is appropriate that an animal's life be terminated, the procedures to be used may be those deemed necessary by the individual researcher.

B) When it is appropriate that an animal's life be terminated, it is done rapidly, with an effort to minimize pain, and in accordance with accepted procedures.

The results of an externally valid study are ones that A) apply to a narrow range of subjects, conditions, and settings. B) apply to a wide range of subjects, conditions, and settings. C) are likely to replicate if the study is repeated. D) are likely to be difficult to interpret unambiguously.

B) apply to a wide range of subjects, conditions, and settings.

The goal of random assignment to experimental conditions is to A) select different levels of a natural groups variable. B) balance individual differences variables across conditions. C) make sure the dependent variable does not differ across conditions. D) hold conditions constant across conditions.

B) balance individual differences variables across conditions.

A researcher left small slips of paper in books available to children to determine which books were chosen and opened by the children. By examining whether the slips of paper had fallen out of the book, the researcher used a ________ measure. A) natural use trace B) controlled use trace C) selective deposit D) selective survival

B) controlled use trace

Surveys play an important role in a type of research that is intended to assess the covariation of naturally occurring variables. This general type of research is called A) experimental research. B) correlational research. C) analytical research. D) qualitative research.

B) correlational research.

Which of the following characteristics of a laboratory experiment's results increases when findings from archival data are similar to the results found in the lab? A) internal validity B) external validity C) reactivity D) social desirability

B) external validity

An overriding principle of the APA Ethical Standards for the care and use of animals in research is that the care of the animals by psychologists be as A) inexpensive as possible. B) humane as possible. C) efficient as possible. D) convenient as possible.

B) humane as possible.

The first step in conducting a content analysis is to A) make inferences based on content coding of archival records. B) identify an archival source that allows the researcher to answer the questions of the study. C) select samples to analyze from the archival source. D) code data from an archival record into categories.

B) identify an archival source that allows the researcher to answer the questions of the study.

In the independent groups design the only factor that should differentiate the separate groups at the start of the experiment is the A) dependent variable. B) independent variable. C) characteristics of the participants. D) conditions under which all subjects are tested.

B) independent variable

Which of the following is the factor researchers manipulate so it is the only factor allowed to vary systematically in an experiment? A) dependent variable B) independent variable C) internal validity D) external validity

B) independent variable

When a study is free of confoundings it is said to have A) external validity. B) internal validity. C) integrity. D) reproducibility.

B) internal validity.

The matched groups design ensures that the groups in the experiment are equivalent A) on all subject variables. B) only on the matching task variable. C) on subject variables but not on context variables. D) on context variables but not on nuisance variables.

B) only on the matching task variable.

When observers classify events according to mutually exclusive categories, interobserver reliability is usually assessed using a A) Spearman correlation coefficient. B) percentage agreement measure. C) Pearson correlation coefficient. D) percent reliability measure.

B) percentage agreement measure.

A study that examines the accuracy of public clocks in different countries as a measure of people's concern for time is using the unobtrusive measure known as A) archival records B) physical traces. C) content analysis. D) running records.

B) physical traces.

A researcher classified the types of messages found in greeting cards to characterize relationships in our modern culture. This type of measure is referred to as a(n) A) biased measure. B) product trace. C) use trace. D) running record.

B) product trace.

Which of the following characterizes the majority of the research conducted in psychology? A) quantitative research using the idiographic approach B) quantitative research using the nomothetic approach C) qualitative research using the idiographic approach D) qualitative research using the nomothetic approach

B) quantitative research using the nomothetic approach

Researchers who conduct observational studies typically use a combination of time sampling and situation sampling to achieve A) nominal scales of measurement. B) representative samples of behavior. C) maximum interobserver reliability. D) internally valid samples of behavior.

B) representative samples of behavior.

Responses from a sample can be generalized to the population of interest when which of the following characteristics of the sample is present? A) efficiency B) representativeness C) responsivity D) uniqueness

B) representativeness

When not everyone answers a mail survey it is reasonable to assume that those who do respond are different in important ways from those who do not respond. The term used to describe this problem in survey research is A) inadequate response rate. B) response bias. C) selection bias. D) differential response rate.

B) response bias.

Respondent mortality in survey research corresponds most closely to which of the following problems in the use of archival records? A) selective deposit B) selective survival C) natural use D) spurious relationship

B) selective survival

Test-retest reliability refers to A) the average of all correlations among items on a measure. B) the correlation between scores on two administrations of a measure. C) the high correlation between scores on two measures designed to assess the same construct. D) the low correlation between scores on two measures designed to assess different constructs.

B) the correlation between scores on two administrations of a measure.

According to the APA Ethical Standards, who is ultimately responsible for the ethical conduct of research done in psychology? A) the Institutional Review Board (IRB) B) the individual researcher doing the research C) the sponsoring institution (e.g., the university) D) the assistants who actually test the participants

B) the individual researcher doing the research

In addition to providing benefits to the researcher, debriefing provides potential benefits to A) society. B) the research participants. C) the Institutional Review Board. D) the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee.

B) the research participants.

Under what conditions is it always unethical to deceive research participants? A) when withholding information that might lead participants to act according to the instructions provided by the experimenter B) when deceiving participants to get them to participate in research in which they would not normally take part or in research that involves serious risk C) when deceiving participants places them at minimal risk by participating in the research D) when concealing the true nature of the experiment might lead participants to behave as they normally would

B) when deceiving participants to get them to participate in research in which they would not normally take part or in research that involves serious risk

Which of the following characteristics of observers would most likely be associated with high interobserver reliability? A) observers are unclear about what is to be observed B) observers are well trained C) observers are tired or bored D) observers differ in outcome expectancy

B) observers are well trained

A correlation exists when __________ A) two hypotheses are shown to support the same theory. B) two measures of the same people, events, or things vary together. C) one study uses applied research and a second study uses basic research. D) a measurement is both reliable and valid.

B) two measures of the same people, events, or things vary together.

Suppose a population is 60% women and 40% men. A representative sample of 200 people from this population would consist of A) 100 women and 100 men. B) 80 women and 120 men. C) 120 women and 80 men. D) 150 women and 50 men.

C) 120 women and 80 men.

Which of the following statements describes an important reason for using the multimethod approach to examine a research question? A) Researchers collect more data using this approach. B) The multimethod approach reveals that all measures are good measures of behavior. C) Researchers should not rely on a single, imperfect measure of behavior. D) The multimethod approach demonstrates that the same findings are observed with unobtrusive measures such as archival records as in laboratory studies.

C) Researchers should not rely on a single, imperfect measure of behavior.

Which of the following conclusions is possible when a study contains a confounding? A) The effect of the independent variable can be unambiguously interpreted. B) The effect of the confounding variable can be unambiguously interpreted. C) The effect of neither the independent variable nor of the confounding variable can be unambiguously interpreted. D) The effects of both the independent variable and the confounding variable can be unambiguously interpreted.

C) The effect of neither the independent variable nor of the confounding variable can be unambiguously interpreted.

The matched groups design is used when separate groups are needed for the levels of the independent variable, when a good matching task is available, and when A) extreme groups need to be tested. B) an adjustment needs to be made for nonequivalent groups. C) a relatively small number of participants is available. D) a relatively large number of participants is available.

C) a relatively small number of participants is available.

When using a natural groups design, researchers must A) use an appropriate matching task. B) not compute an effect size. C) avoid making a causal inference about the effect of the variable. D) use block randomization to the conditions of the individual differences variable.

C) avoid making a causal inference about the effect of the variable.

Research indicates there is a negative correlation between scores on an achievement test and number of hours spent watching television. Based on this correlation we can A) predict someone's score on an achievement test if we know how much television is watched. B) predict how much television someone watches if we know the achievement test score. C) both (a) and (b) D) none of the above

C) both (a) and (b)

Which of the following procedures would be an example of using coding in the process of data reduction? A) obtaining an arithmetic mean for a time measure B) finding proportions of respondents in various groups C) classifying observational records using specific criteria D) measuring interobserver reliability

C) classifying observational records using specific criteria

The person who assists the experimenter by carrying out a role essential to implementing an experimental treatment is called a(n) A) accomplice B) helper. C) confederate. D) experimenter.

C) confederate.

The cues and other information participants may use to guide their behavior in an experiment are called A) experimenter effects. B) unobtrusive cues. C) demand characteristics. D) suggestive cues.

C) demand characteristics.

Measures of behavior used by researchers to assess the effect of an experimental manipulation are called A) reliable variables. B) independent variables. C) dependent variables. D) empiricals.

C) dependent variables.

As an approach to knowledge, the scientific method relies on A) intuitive procedures. B) deductive procedures. C) empirical procedures. D) subjective procedures.

C) empirical procedures.

In general, unobtrusive research techniques have _______ ethical problems compared to research methods that rely on direct observation, survey, and experimentation. A) more B) about the same C) fewer D) no

C) fewer

Making an ethical decision involves A) simply applying a clear and definitive set of guidelines for ethical research. B) deciding that an ethical decision is good if it makes you happy. C) identifying what ethical guidelines are relevant in a situation and what is at stake for all parties involved. D) maintaining the anonymity of the researchers who are conducting the research.

C) identifying what ethical guidelines are relevant in a situation and what is at stake for all parties involved.

A researcher tests whether students learn better with an active learning teaching method or with a traditional teaching method. In this example, the teaching method is a(n) A) dependent variable. B) control variable. C) independent variable. D) intervening variable.

C) independent variable.

According to the APA Ethical Standards, psychologists must inform participants of the nature of the research and that participants are free to participate or to decline to participate or to withdraw from the research. These requirements (among others) are necessary to ensure the participants' A) anonymity. B) risk level. C) informed consent. D) debriefing.

C) informed consent.

The parallel between the legal system and psychological science A) is inappropriate because different kinds of judgments are made. B) is that both legal and scientific decisions can be made with certainty. C) is that the quality and extent of evidence in each determines the decisions that are made.

C) is that the quality and extent of evidence in each determines the decisions that are made.

Which of the following survey methods is best suited for the study of personal or embarrassing topics? A) personal interview B) telephone interview C) mail survey D) convenience sample

C) mail survey

A naturally occurring event that has significant impact on society or individuals is referred to as a A) physical event. B) archival event. C) natural treatment. D) controlled treatment.

C) natural treatment.

When researchers use the successive independent samples design and mistakenly draw samples from different populations at the various times of the survey, the researchers are likely to face the problem of A) archival samples. B) stratified samples. C) noncomparable samples. D) response bias samples.

C) noncomparable samples.

A major threat to the validity of results obtained from a successive independent samples design is A) respondent mortality. B) nonrandom sampling. C) noncomparable successive samples. D) interviewer bias.

C) noncomparable successive samples.

Researchers who examine bumper stickers on cars to test hypotheses about people's attitudes are using a ________ measure. A) spurious B) controlled use C) physical product D) archival

C) physical product

A correlational study is uniquely useful for meeting which of the following goals of the scientific method? A) description B) creating change C) prediction D) understanding

C) prediction

The problem of selection bias in survey techniques, in which the researcher's procedures determine who is likely to be included in a sample, is similar to the problem of ________ in archival records. A) selection threat B) sampling distinctions C) selective deposit D) running records

C) selective deposit

An investigator who tries to show that the frequency of traffic accidents increases when it is warmer needs to consider whether there are more cars on the road when it is warmer. The number of cars variable needs checking to ensure that the relationship between traffic accidents and temperature is not a(n) A) contaminated relationship. B) mediated relationship. C) spurious relationship. D) redundant relationship.

C) spurious relationship.

Which of the following observational methods represents a middle ground between passive nonintervention and the systematic control and manipulation of variables in laboratory methods? A) naturalistic observation B) participant observation C) structured observation D) a field experiment

C) structured observation

Which of the following is not one of the major dimensions that researchers need to consider when deciding what information is private? A) the sensitivity of the information that the researcher is seeking B) the setting in which the researcher is seeking the information C) the amount of information that the researcher is seeking D) the manner in which the information will be disseminated to others

C) the amount of information that the researcher is seeking

When two confidence intervals for two means obtained in an experiment overlap, the researcher can conclude that A) the results for the effect of the independent variable will likely be replicated. B) the independent variable did not have an effect. C) the results for the effect of the independent variable are inconclusive. D) the independent variable did have an effect.

C) the results for the effect of the independent variable are inconclusive.

Which is the primary goal of research that psychologists strive to achieve when they conduct controlled experiments? A) description B) prediction C) understanding D) covariation

C) understanding

A researcher seeks to discover whether students on a college campus are "health conscious" by examining the types of beverage containers in recycling bins. This is an example of a(n) A) archival record. B) controlled use trace. C) natural use trace. D) product trace.

C) natural use trace.

the most common measure of internal consistency

Coefficient alpha, The "goal" of the statistic is to be near .80

When using a direct quote from a source, it is appropriate to A) cite the source with the quote. B) use quotation marks around the quoted material. C) cite the source at the end of the paragraph. D) (a) and (b)

D) (a) and (b)

Which of the following statements concerning the use of animals in research is true? A) Animals may never be subjected to pain or discomfort in research. B) Animals may be subjected to pain or discomfort whenever an alternative procedure is not available. C) Animals may be subjected to pain or discomfort whenever the researcher's goals justify such procedures. D) Animals may be subjected to pain or discomfort only when no alternative procedure is available and when the goals of the research are judged to justify such procedures.

D) Animals may be subjected to pain or discomfort only when no alternative procedure is available and when the goals of the research are judged to justify such procedures.

An assessment of risk must consider A) risks associated with everyday life. B) characteristics of the participants. C) participants' possible misconceptions about the research. D) all of the above

D) all of the above

One aspect of the moral context of scientific activity concerns the fact that A) science is flawed because it is a human activity. B) pressures to produce research reports may lead to scientific misconduct. C) scientists who employ humans and animals as subjects frequently face ethical dilemmas. D) all of the above.

D) all of the above.

The ethical standards of the APA's ethics code A) include clear rules for how research should be conducted in specific situations. B) provide principles for conducting research that are never contradictory. C) provide specific rules for how to solve ethical dilemmas. D) are general ethical principles that researchers apply to their own research situations.

D) are general ethical principles that researchers apply to their own research situations.

An important feature of coding data in archival records is that the observer (i.e., the coder) should A) know the study hypotheses. B) be familiar with surrounding context of the data being coded. C) know the source of the data or messages that are being coded. D) be blind to important aspects of the study.

D) be blind to important aspects of the study.

Psychologists use _______ to identify the causes of a phenomenon. A) correlations B) applied research C) qualitative research D) controlled experiments

D) controlled experiments

When people know they are participants in a research study they often try to figure out what the researcher expects them to do. The cues participants use to help guide their behavior in a research situation are called A) unobtrusive effects. B) reactive cues. C) experimenter effects. D) demand characteristics.

D) demand characteristics.

A possible questionnaire item that reads, "Do you agree or disagree with laws concerning abortion and capital punishment," could be criticized because it is a A) leading question. B) filter question. C) funnel question. D) double-barreled question.

D) double-barreled question.

Using the nomothetic approach, psychologists seek to A) describe one individual's behavior. B) create change in an individual's life. C) identify a research question. D) establish general laws of behavior that apply to a diverse population.

D) establish general laws of behavior that apply to a diverse population.

Which of the following is not one of the conditions that must be met in order to state confidently that the independent variable caused differences between groups in the dependent variable? A) establishing a covariation between the independent and dependent variables B) establishing a time-order relationship such that the change in the independent variable preceded the change in the dependent variable C) eliminating plausible alternative explanations for the differences in the dependent variable D) establishing that the independent variable is the only factor that could ever cause a change in the dependent variable

D) establishing that the independent variable is the only factor that could ever cause a change in the dependent variable

Which of the following is not a goal of debriefing? A) remove any harmful effects or misconceptions about the research B) explain the need for any deception C) learn how participants interpreted the study's procedures D) get participants to participate in a study they might not normally do

D) get participants to participate in a study they might not normally do

Which of the following factors does not influence the reliability of a measure of students' understanding of course material? A) the way in which the measure is administered (e.g., whether the instructions are clear and the testing situation is free of distractions) B) how much the individuals differ in their understanding of the material C) number of items used to measure students' understanding of the material D) how much discriminant validity the measure of understanding has from other measures, such as intelligence

D) how much discriminant validity the measure of understanding has from other measures, such as intelligence

Which of the following terms describes the characteristic of an experiment that ensures an unambiguous interpretation for the outcome of the experiment? A) reliability B) external validity C) sensitivity D) internal validity

D) internal validity

One of the advantages of the measure of effect size is that it A) indicates statistical significance. B) requires no calculations. C) relies on clinical judgment to determine significance. D) is independent of sample size.

D) is independent of sample size.

Which of the following is not a characteristic of the naturalistic observation method? A) observation in a natural setting B) systematic observation of behavior C) major goal being description of behavior D) manipulation of events by an experimenter

D) manipulation of events by an experimenter

Which of the following provides a quantitative summary of the results of more than one experiment on an important research problem? A) quasi-analysis B) multi-analysis C) summa-analysis D) meta-analysis

D) meta-analysis

Researchers must take special safeguards to protect human participants when A) behavior is observed in the public domain. B) informed consent is not required. C) anonymous questionnaires are used. D) more than minimal risk is present.

D) more than minimal risk is present.

When scientists report their findings they strive to describe A) only the aspects of what they have observed that differ from what they expected to observe. B) only their personal interpretations. C) what they have observed along with their personal interpretations. D) only what they have observed.

D) only what they have observed.

Constructing a psychological theory based on the simplest of several available explanations for a phenomenon illustrates the use of the scientific principle of A) confirmation. B) precision. C) rigorous testing. D) parsimony.

D) parsimony.

Researchers can avoid the potential of social injury or risk for the participants in their research project if the researchers A) avoid using deception in their research. B) ensure the internal validity of their study. C) obtain informed consent from each participant. D) protect the confidentiality of participants' responses.

D) protect the confidentiality of participants' responses.

The best way to demonstrate that an effect of an independent variable is reliable is through A) statistical significance testing. B) computing an effect size. C) random assignment to conditions. D) replication.

D) replication.

Ethnocentrism occurs when A) researchers falsify their research findings to benefit a particular group. B) psychological research occurs in a historical context. C) reports of psychological research are reported incorrectly in the media. D) researchers attempt to understand a different culture from their own culture's framework.

D) researchers attempt to understand a different culture from their own culture's framework.

When a researcher is studying an individual difference variable, the levels of the independent variable are A) manipulated. B) held constant. C) balanced. D) selected.

D) selected.

When a researcher studies an individual differences variable, the levels of the independent variable are A) manipulated. B) averaged. C) dependent. D) selected.

D) selected.

A survey using the Internet to contact people about attitudes toward mental health services would most likely be criticized for A) response bias. B) interviewer bias. C) social desirability bias. D) selection bias.

D) selection bias.

Researchers who use archival records can face a potential problem when portions of the record are missing or incomplete. This potential problem can arise from either selective deposit or A) archival attrition. B) archival distortion. C) selective bias. D) selective survival.

D) selective survival.

An important step when interpreting findings using a physical trace measure is to seek converging evidence for the finding. This reflects concern for the _____ of the finding. A) reliability B) rationale C) causal inference D) validity

D) validity

Which of the following scales of measurement is a researcher using when he or she measures whether or not an individual makes eye contact with another person? A) ratio scale B) interval scale C) ordinal scale D) nominal scale

D) nominal scale

CONSISTENCY AMONG RATERS:

Interobserver reliability refers to the extent to which independent observers agree in their observations.

· IV

Is that which is controlled or manipulated

DV

Is that which is measured. Asking dependent upon what is a trick

· What are 6 Issues in Scientific Inquiry:

Methodology, logic, epistemology, axiology, ontology, cause and effect laws

· Determination of Risk =

Potential risks in psychological research include risk of physical injury, social injury, and mental or emotional stress. Risks must be evaluated in terms of potential participants' everyday activities, their physical and mental health, and capabilities. Do the benefits OUTWEIGH ALL of the risks?

· Reliability and Validity:

Properties that measurements, instruments, definitions, results, etc. MUST have in order to carry any logical, implied, and "meaningful" weight

· SCIENTIFIC INTEGRITY -

Psychologists are obligated to conduct research of the highest integrity.

what is r squared

R-squared is the effect size, it represents the strength of the relationships between variables. It is used to express the correlation between variables and whether the correlation is significant. The r- squared is the coefficient of determination, value of the multiple correlation coefficient

Random Assignment

Random assignment to conditions is used to form comparable groups by balancing or averaging subject characteristics across the conditions of the independent variable manipulation.

· Obtaining Informed Consent =

Researchers and participants enter into a social contract, often using an informed consent procedure. Researchers are ethically obligated to describe the research procedures clearly, identify any potential risks that might influence individuals' willingness to participate, and answer any questions participants have about the research.

· Deception=

Researchers must carefully weigh the costs of deception against the potential benefits of the research when considering the use of deception. See risk/benefit ratio.

Situation Sampling

Situation sampling involves studying behavior in different circumstances, locations, and conditions and often with different participants example: assess the aggressive behavior of first grade boys in a variety of settings - school, home, stores, bus, etc

· Goals of the Scientific Method

The scientific method is intended to meet three goals: description, prediction, and understanding/creating change.

Participant Observation

Undisguised participant observation is often used to understand the culture and behavior of groups of individuals. Participants KNOW they are being observed Disguised participant observation is often used when researchers believe individuals would change their behavior if they knew it was being recorded.

· Dealing with Risk =

Whether "at risk" or "at minimal risk," research participants must be protected. More safeguards are needed as risks become greater.

an experiment has external validity when...

[ When findings from an experiment can be applied to other individuals, settings, and conditions

Interobserver reliability is assessed by

calculating percentage 8 agreement or correlations, depending on how the behaviors were measured and recorded.

Nominal

categories (brown/blue eyed; women/men

An ethogram is a....

complete catalog of behavior (Grooming behavior in chimps, rearing behavior in mice).

the groups (known as factors) of data involved in observational data

components, dimensions, clusters, and latent or composite variables (in some cases).

· Reliability

consistency

A matched group design may be used to

create comparable groups when there are too few subjects available for random assignment to work effectively. Often used with "specialized" participants (infants, the elderly, athletes, etc.).

analysis of variance can be used to

decide whether an independent variable has had a statistically significant effect, researchers examine the descriptive statistics to interpret the meaning of the experiment outcome.

· Prediction =

description of a relationship, usually directional

Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is an inferential statistics test used to

determine whether an independent variable has had a statistically significant effect on a dependent variable. (Does giving one group various levels of strategy and another group no strategy result in differences in the number of words recalled?)

Null-hypothesis testing is used to

determine whether mean differences among groups in an experiment are greater than the differences that are expected simply because of error variation

Naturalistic observation helps to...

establish the external validity of research findings by verifying relationships found in the lab in naturalistic settings.

Narrative (written, spoken) records

form of written descriptions of behavior, audiotapes, and videotapes are comprehensive records of observed behavior. The goal is to study, organize, and/or classify records depending on need (and context).

· External Validity =

generalizability of the research results SCIENTIFIC THEORY CONSTRUCTION AND TESTING

adaption

habituation-overstimulation, desensitization-graduated overstimulation

· Causal Inference =

he ability to make inferences by eliminating possible alternative explanations

measurement

hidden recording devices a "cache" in the wild

· Understanding/Creating Change =

identification of the causes or causal factors OR, an understanding of the relations at a deeper level than prediction

analysis of variance is based on

identifying sources of error variation and systematic variation in the data.

· Correlation research

in a survey does not involve variables, rational research is also a term used

product types

involve the assessment of the products owned or produced by a person/group/culture (skinheads and thrash metal, sports fans and memorabilia, caffeine consumption and beverage production).

use/non-use types

involve the use or non-use of something - a gain or loss in terms of natural or controlled use or non- use (cigarette butts, marks in textbooks).

A confederate...

is a research assistant who behaves in specified was to create an experimental condition.

· Scientific reporting

is unbiased and objective; clear communication of concepts occurs when operational definitions are used.

Ratio =

like interval, but with a true zero (time; want multiplicative properties for ratio purposes, temperature and time - depending on context)

Interval =

like ordinal, but with equal distance ("assumed" Likert Scales, 6"/12"/18"/24" - not including "0 inches")

· A THEORY

logically organized set of propositions that defines events, describes event relationships, and explains event occurrences. Theories guide research and research guides theories. Theories organize empirical knowledge. Theories vary in their scope and their level of explanation.

Field notes are records

made by trained observers that describe particular events and behaviors of interest rather than comprehensive accounts of behavior.

SURVEY METHODS Three methods for obtaining survey data

mail surveys, personal interviews, and telephone interviews.

The mean is A

measure of central tendency. The arithmetic average, the sum divided by the number of cases.

What are skewness

measure of the asymmetry of a distribution. The normal distribution is symmetric and has a skewness value of 0. positive skewness has a long right tail. negative skewness has a long-left tail. a skewness value more than twice its standard error is taken to indicate a departure from symmetry

what is kurtosis

measure of the extent to which there are outliers. normal distribution, the value of the kurtosis statistic is zero. Positive kurtosis indicates that the data exhibit more extreme outliers than a normal distribution. Negative kurtosis indicates that the data exhibit less extreme outliers than a normal distribution.

Meta-analysis uses

measures of effect size to summarize the results of many experiments investigating the same independent variable or dependent variable.

Indepdenent group t-test

measures the difference between the population means of 2 independent groups such as control and variable group

Quantitative measures of behavior use one of the four levels of measurement scales

nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.

unobtrusive

nonreactive

observer bias occurs when...

observers' expectations (expectancy effects) about behavior lead to systematic errors in identifying and recording behavior, and when

A biased sample

one in which the characteristics of the sample are systematically different from the characteristics of the population.

Ordinal

rank, order, unequal distance (1st/2nd/3rd place; "real" Likert Scales; temperature)

Rationale -

reactivity and subject response bias are reduced or eliminated. Researcher bias can be reduced and eliminated as well. Physical evidence adds to the multivariate structure of a research design.

Structured Observation

record behaviors that may be difficult to observe using naturalistic observation. observation of relations via 2-way mirror to assess behavioral patterns, assessing children's reasoning/developmental process interacting with nature (Piaget - how the "stage theory" evolved), using multiple observations of the same "subject phenomenon" (behavioral changes with different observers and/or confederates.)

three types of archival data

running records, other records include of many different types of public and private doc.and the news media/ popular press

· An IDEA

something imagined in the mind; with or without a purpose or a plan A CONCEPT is a thought or an idea, usually more well-defined than an idea

Problems and Limitations with Physical Traces

sources of bias must be investigated before concluding that a physical trace measure is valid. Validity can be enhanced by looking at convergent (similarities) and divergent (differences) evidence.

what is dispersion

statistics that measure the amount of variation or spread in the data include the standard deviation, variance, range, minimum, maximum, and standard error of the mean

The Hawthorne Effect

that when participants know they are being observed, they will behave according to their perceptions of how they "think" their behavior should match the goals of the observer(s).

· Control =

the extent to which the variables, at any level, can or are under the control of the study and results within the context of the nature of interest

· A correlation assesses

the extent to which two variables covary; the correlation coefficient is a quantitative index of the direction and magnitude of this relationship.

A moderator variable affects

the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables. In the case of the above example, moderators would be stress management and sleep. (Think about this with your own research ideas).

goal of correlational research

to assess "naturally" occurring relationships, usually with some sort of predictive purpose.

The first step in null-hypothesis testing is

to assume that the groups do not differ - that is, that the independent variable did not have an effect (the null hypothesis).

Why is important to run the min./max. statistics?

to identify any possible typos.

goal of observational data

to make "sense" of the data by constructing "groups" of data.

Validity

truthfulness

methods to control reactivity include...

unobtrusive, measurement, adaptation, indirect observations of behaviors

Ethologists

use naturalistic observation to describe innate patterns of behavior in animals and humans.

what are the two types of physical traces

use/non-use types and product types

paired t-test

used to describe whether the mean of the difference between the two variables is different from zero in the population.

analytical comparisons can then be

used to identify specific sources of systematic variation in an experiment.

· Unobtrusive measures

usually involve the indirect study of behavior. Often, participants are not present. Unobtrusive measures (physical traces, archival data) are often used to supplement and bolster existing direct observation and survey methods.