Resource security
Future of energy resources (political)
- influence of TNC's will continue to grow- they'll have wealth to control wealth of future -there'll be a scramble to claim previously protected areas and exploit them as resources become depleted e.g. In arctic /less protected than Antarctica
gas (as a energy source)
-21% of global supply of energy / growing source of fuel as it reduces dependency on oil and has fewer environmental concerns -extensions of pipelines into more remote and politically unstable areas presents future problems -increase in proven reserves from shale gas and there's been high levels of investment in gas transport and distributions
Global consumltion of oil
-Mainly USA. Japan -90% of fuel energy from oil but for electricity and gas and nuclear production
Future of energy resources (environmental)
-carbon capture and sequestration: enables scrubbing of carbon from power plants for storage in underground reservoirs / eliminates carbon emissions from fossil fuels -can be used with less environmental impact
how geology (physical geography) plays a role in energy supply
-coal: formed from plant debris being buried under layers of mud and sand ; heat and pressure from subsequent layers gives rise to a process of coalification -oil and gas: are hydrocarbons of organic origin/settling of dead plants and animals at bottom of sea led to fossilisation in sedimentary rocks
Global consumption of coal
-dominated by china, USA ,Russia India / account for coal consumption
energy mix
-the composition of different sources from which a named area obtains its energy energy mix differs due to contrasting settings
Future of water resources
By 2059 predicted 15% of the worlds countries will be facing water deficiency Future of water Resources can be looked at in relation to technology, economy,environment and politically
Water availability
Despite there being enough water on earth for 7 billion people, water availability differed around the globe as supply is unevenly distributed. Availability is then also impacted by human factors like management and population and wealth.
End uses of copper
Electrical wiring Pipe works Pesticides and fungicides Ornamental use Plumbing Coinage Food preparation
Components of demand for copper
Equipment and construction industries use largest percent of copper Equipment: 31% Construction : 30%
energy mix of france
NUCLEAR 38%, OIL 32%, GAS 15%, RENEWABLES 10% (geothermal, wind, solar), COAL 4%,HEP 1% -high usage of nuclear fuel -many large rivers for cooling purposes in nuclear fuel production -has few fossil fuel reserves
Countries with highest and lowest usage of water per capita
North America and Australia have the highest per capita water usage. ----- as they are more developed affluent regions of the world they have greater water usage for domestic reasons e.g. Appliances (which most people can afford to own) like dishwashers. Recreational use like swimming pools, and water for personal hygiene is also higher in medc than in less developed ones. Agriculture does use a lot of water as it tends to be in drier than in places like Europe however water for agricultural makes up less of americas water usage than in less developed countries who'd economies revolve around agriculture. Subsaharan Africa had lowest per capita usage due to physical and economic scarcity. Due to importance of agriculture in their economies most of the water available is used for irrigation especially due to arid conditions; the lower GDP here mean less water is spent on domestic reasons
Environmental impacts of carajas mine (climate, soils and vegetation)
Since trees are regulated of both temperature and humidity, loss of them leads to less rainfall, less humid and with extremes of heat during the day Soil is more prone to erosion due to lack of tree cover and roots Heat and slack of tree cover makes it harder for vegetation to regenerate
What two natural resource categories are there
Stock resources and flow resources
Groundwater management (sustainable water management)
This consists of recharging aquifers with water that is a surplus to requirements so it can be stored and used when needed. This is done by pumping water underground or diverting rivers to permeable surfaces so water can infiltrate.
Give a brief description of Aswan high dam
• the dam is situated across the Nike river in Aswan, southern Egypt. It is nearly 4km wide across the valley • the reservoir stores behind it waters of lake Nasser, a lake which stretches 550 km southwest to the Sudanese border • built between 1960-70 it aimed to increase economic production by regulating the annual river flooding and providing storage of water to agriculture and later to generate hydro electric power HEP
Future of energy resources (technology)
- hydrogen is high energy-density fuel / could replace fossil fuels as technology for conversion develops - as desperation for energy supplies increases gasification of coal is potential future method/ turning coal into gas in inaccessible resources - nuclear power industry have made advances in safer technology to make nuclear fuel a more viable future energy source e.g. Nuclear fusion (promises limitless carbon free power without dangerous waste)
Coal production
- more widespread because of its wider wider availability and how common the resource is around the world -top 3 producing countries: -china USA India -despite coal production not decreasing it dominated energy production in the past bc now oil dominates
Oil production
- not as dispersed as coal as there's a more limited supply -over 70% oil production from top 3 regions: USA Russia Middle East (contribute 25% of worlds energy) - geological factors affect production patterns so production doesn't always reflect size of the reserves (easier to extract oil form oil fields in Saudi than when buried below permafrost in Alaska) - could be argued more politically volatile environment of Middle East also affects production -less conventional reserves allows more countries to become important producers e.g. Canada for oil sands
Renewable energy production
- significant increase in global energy production due to environmental issues and decreasing fossil fuel reserves -sources for renewable energy can be found in many countries so its most widely dispersed -65% in low income countries who can't afford to produce other energy
biomass energy (as as source)
-12% of global energy/ mainly in developing countries -wood most important biomas fuel/ can be sustainable depending on management of wood
hydroelectric power (as a source)
-2% of global energy supply -large scale projects include three gorges dam in china -requires powerful rivers with high annual discharge, steep gradients and natural storage -popular alternative source of fuel /renewable, caron free,can generate large amounts of electricity -but large projects have environmental (flooding) and social impacts (displacement)
oil and gas exploration
-countries have been willing to grant exploration rights to tnc's to find new reserves of oil and gas or investigate speculative reserves -price rises in oil and gas also prompt TNC'S to invest in technology to advance exploration / eg the award licences to fracking companies like Caudrilla in NW england and EW midlands
strategies to manage energy consumption
-developed in response to international plans eg agenda 21/kyoto protocol -efforts to conserve energy include : -household energy saving/ draught proofing, new building materials that reduce heat loss, use of solar panels etc -industrial and commercial energy saving/ installation of heat recovery systems to collect and reuse heat arising from any industrial process -energy saving in transport/ more efficient engine design with lower emissions, hybrid cars using electric power, road tax based on emissions, car sharing incentives
enhanced greenhouse effect
-due to earth's natural greenhouse effect solar insulation is trapped in lower atmosphere -rise in combustion of fossil fuels over past 200 years has increased amount of greenhouse gases, enhancing this effect -growing agreement among scientists that co2 ,methane and nitrous oxides released by burning fuels leading to climate change
Future of energy resources (economic)
-energy trade flows towards Asian markets will continue to gather pace - by mid 2020, non OPEC oil supply from Canada, brazil and the USA may start to decline and the oil economy will rely on supplies from Venezuela and Middle East countries
development of renewable sources
-financial support has been offered to renewable energy schemes eg renewable obligations and feed-in tariff schemes these schemes have seen rapid growth in wind, solar energy sources in uk
wave power
-further development required to make it commercially viable -there's regular supply of wave power and its pollution free but transmission from offshore locations preset problems
Natural gas production
-grew in importance last 50 years - top five producing countries contribute 50% of global gas production
tidal power
-has huge potential but only small amount currently used -ideal sites are estuaries with large tidal ranges where barrages can be built -problems / environmental issues ; impacts on mudflats and salt marshes and disruption of normal tidal flows
how climate (physcial geography) plays a role in energy supply
-high levels of sunlight can be harnessed for solar energy -best location in tropical and subtropical areas/sun is higher in sky so potential maximised -solar energy has more potential in mountainous areas where air is thinner and sunlight is scattered less -in high winds of 50-80mph most turbines will sut down
Global energy consumption
-increases annually 2% -increasing global energy consumption due to emerging economies like Brazil and China rather than developed countries WHO energy efficient tech and energy conservation
Consumption of gas
-largest USA , Russia , iran etc - gas consumption accounts for 1/5 of energy consumption due to reasons like it's less polluting than coal
geothermal energy
-make use of temp rises within earth's crust -most common way of capturing this energy is to tap into hydrothermal convection systems
nuclear power
-many consider nuclear power to offer most effective long term solution to over-reliance on fossil fuels -in 2007 uk energy policy review announced more nuclear power stations would be built
nuclear waste
-nuclear waste remains highly radioactive for thousand of years / consequently has to be disposed of safely -spent fuel rods+ fission productions are removed from nuclear reactors, vitrified into solid blocks and stored in lead-lined containers underground -however, burial sites with depths of 200-1,000m need to be found in areas of geological stability/its expensive to purchase land for this/ transport needs to be safe and is also costly -politicalconcerns regarding sites posing a target for terrorism
wind energy (as a source)
-potential of wind energy determined by wind speed,spacing and size of turbines -wind farms connect to electricity grid network -sites with prevailing winds and long coastlines are tidal locations -turbines can be visually intrusive/ many best sites haveenvrionmtal status
solar energy (as a source)
-produced via passive solar architecture( eg south-facing windows) by boiling water to produce steam to drive turbines -many localised sites but mains sources are in desert environments / with clear skies 300 days a year
how drainage(physical geography) plays a role in energy supply
-size and shape of drainage basins influence the potential for dam building and HEP -vital factors are the volume of water that can be captured-the flow -other vital factor is height of water will fall-the head -dam building is expensive/ so a long , narrow, steep sided valley basin is suitable
coal (as a energy source)
-supplies 29% of global energy needs / 40% of electricity production/ most consumed domestically in country of production -depth, thickness and quality of coal influences cost of mining -concerns over greenhouse gas emissions
oil (as a energy source)
-supplies 31% of global energy as petrol, oil and diesel. many developed countries cant satisfy their oil requirement and import oil/can create geopolitical tensions. -transport costs via oil tankers are relatively low and is flexible method of transport/ environmental concerns over leakage
nuclear energy ( as a source)
-supplies 6% of global energy/ requires high investment, technology and careful handling of waste (why most production in developed world) -opinion over this energy source is divided due to potential for accidents (eg chernobyl) + radioactive materials remain toxic for thousands of years -nuclear power plants are potential target for terrorism - difficult to find suitable sites -advantages: nuclear power is efficient,holds large reserves, less pollution than fossil fuels
Global energy trade
-trade in energy driven by need of countries to gain energy security / countries without enough energy import energy from countries with energy surplus -oil is most traded resource bc of demand for fuel
Nuclear energy production
-uranium is primary source of nuclear energy, its extraction depends on quality and quantity (areas with higher quality and quantity produce more) E.g. Kazakhstan, Canada etc -uranium producers aren't same as those which produce nuclear energy; nuclear energy producers are richer e.g. France
Why is sustainability of resource development a concern
1- as low income countries develop, their resources use will increase 2- the environmental impact of current levels of resource use is an issue 3- there needs to be careful management of current resource use so that future generations can have access to the resources they require.
Strategies to manage agricultural water consumption
1- drop feed irrigation which delivers water to the plant base reducing run-off losses and evapotranspiration 2- collecting storm water and irrigation runoff in ditches or drains 3- using organic fertilisers as organic matter retains soil moisture and reduces need for extra water
Natural resource development over time
1- exploration: Rights and licences; geological exploration 2- evaluation: Viability of given markets and costs assessed also eia occur 3- construction of site 4- production and exploitation: Continues until all viable reserves are recovered 5- closure of site 6- development: Extraction techniques for secondary and tertiary recovery operations are developed 7- reclamation and monitoring : of site e.g. Afforestation
Management of industrial water consumption
1- industries can use above measures too and should aim to educate workforce on importance of consuming water E.g walkers crisps are using water metres and recycling systems
Strategies to manage domestic water consumption
1- installations of water meters so people pay for amount they use instead of standard rate e.g companies like southern water (U.K.) -works as incentive to use less 2- collecting rainwater to use in gardens 3- low/flush toilets since regular Ones use few litres per flush
Physical geography link to mineral deposits
1- magmatic deposits / linked to magma, crystallisation produces areas containing nickel- copper deposits and platinum metals 2-hydrothermal deposits/ hot solutions containing dissolved minerals flow into rock cracks and fissures and move towards the surface where they cool- copper, lead and tin form in this way 3-metamorphogenic deposits/ formed by intense heat and pressure over a long period of time-iron ore,gold and uranium are formed in This way 4- sedimentary deposits / contain copper, lead and zinc LOcATION: Mineral deposits can form in all types of geological locations so main physical obstacle on exploration and mineral development is the remoteness and ability to exploit the resource This difficult areas tend to be areas with extreme temps or environments e.g. Desserts, mountains, densely forested areas Advanced in tech have allowed even the most difficult and remote sources to be explored (desserts e.g. Atacama desert for copper and forests e.g. Tropical rainforest of Brazil for iron ore)
Environmental impacts of carajas mine (human impacts)
3 tribes of native Amazonians have been disturbed by he carajas project in the region they once settled in; their ways of life lost The project has however increased employment in the region
What is a resource frontier
A resource frontier is an area where resources are brought into production for the first time. They exist at a variety of scales - local, between nations or cross continents. In the core periphery model by Friedman resource frontiers exist within the periphery where there is a resource discovery prompting investment.
What is resource security
Ability of a country to ensure sustainable and reliable flow of a resource to maintain current and future development
What are the subdivisions of metals
Abundant metals: e.g. Iron, aluminium, silicon Scarce ferroalloy metals: e.g. Nicole, chromium Scarce base metals : e.g. Copper, lead, tin,zinc Scarce precious metals: e.g. Gold, silver, platinum
Future of mineral resources (technology)
Advancement in tech allows future exploration of mineral supplies Remote sensing will allow large areas to be surveyed for new resources Magnetometry will identify iron ore deposits Developments in technology will enable exploration of lower grade ores without increasing costs
What is Agricultural, industrial and domestic water usage
Agricultural water usage: Mainly irrigation of crops, also in cleaning and watering livestock Industrial water usage: Used as coolant in electricity generation and various manufacturing processes Domestic water usage: Drinking water, water for food preparation, personal hygiene, sanitation and washing
What is a mineral ore
An ore is a type of rock containing minerals with a high concentration of a certain element, typically a metal, which can be extracted from the rock. E.g. Bauxite, an ore of aluminium Ores can be extracted from earth either underground or open pit mining; they are then refined, often with smelting at high temps to extract the valuable metal
What is a resource
Any aspect of the natural environment that can be used to meet human needs eg fossil fuels They have economic value and can be used to increase a country's wealth and further development. Resources are unevenly distributed around the world eg saudi has lots of oil but not enough fresh water
3 mineral ores , their uses and production patterns
BAUXITE / ore of aluminium Measured global reserves; over 20 million TNT Too 4 producing counties; Australia,brazil, china, guinea IRON ORE/ steel Measured global reserves; over 60 million TNT Too 4 producing countries ; Australia, Brazil, china, India COPPER/ alloys,pipes, wires Measured global reserves; over 300 thousand TNT Top 4 countries; China, chile, Peru, USA
Social economic impacts of Aswan dam CONS+ PROS
CONS : • much of lower Nubia was flooded by lake Nasser forcing 100,000 Nubians to resettle in camps in Sudan and Egypt • downstream, lack of enough deposits of fertile alluvial sediment, due to the dam holding back most of it, has affected soil quality and livelihoods of farmers- resulting in more fertiliser usage PROS: • the flooding of lake Nasser created a large fishing industry producing over 25,000 tonnes of fish annually • electricity generated by the dam provides 10% of egypts electricity
Human factors affecting water availability
Capability of population to access the water Capability to ensure water is safe to drink Usage and management
Name a case study of an ore extraction scheme
Carajas iron ore extraction scheme in para state Brazil
Environmental impacts of carajas mine (at global scale)
Carajas project contributes to global climate change by a net addition to greenhouse gases Burning fuel for trucks and machines Deforestation removed significant carbon sink Sprays and chemicals used on site contribute to ozone depletion Emissions from vehicles and from waste materials will also contribute to acid rain
Environmental impacts of carajas mine
Clearance of large areas of rainforest for the open pit mine and associated development a like the 900km railway to sea port and the airport Deforestation has large impacts on landscape and wildlife and the drainage basin etc
What are main global energy resources
Coal , oil and gas (provide 80% of worlds energy)
Role of copper in commerce and industry
Codelco(Chile) and Rio tinto are amount the top copper producers Copper is virtually 100% recyclable, meeting 40% of demand End products such as motor vehicles and electronic equipment make up a large % of copper trade. The diversified use of copper across markets makes it key indicator of economic well being
What is water conflict
Conflict between countries, states or groups with opposing interests over access to water resources Local scale conflict : kaladera northen india National scale conflict : yellow river basin china International scale conflict: grand Ethiopian renaissance dam
What is COPPER
Copper is a scarce base metal with important properties that give it value for use in many industries It is the third most used metal in the world
Costs of mining
Costs need to be balanced against what can be extracted from the mine. This will depend on : The 'striping ration' - the amount of waste rock mined relative to amount of ore mixed The 'cut off ore grade' - cut off ore grade is the lowest ore purity that can be explored economically and processing costs depend on purity of the ore
Future of mineral resources (environmental)
Exploration and mining will continue to put pressure on the environment The economic gains of mining mineral resources may outweigh environmental concerns in emerging economies that are resource- rich e.g. Latin America (Brazil,Peru) And Africa (Zambia, dr Congo) Environmental concerns specifically relate to reserves in Antarctica, Alaska and the oceans (part of global commons)
Future of mineral resources (political)
Governments have a continued duty to control mining operations and protect the environment. Compulsory EIAs will be a necessary step to ensure environmental protection
Water usage in high income vs low income
High income: Low income: 59% industrial. 10% industrial 30% agricultural 82% agricultural 11% domestic 8% domestic
Why is it a good thing that mineral resources aren't evenly distributed
If mineral resources were evenly distributed in earth's crust then none of them would be sufficiently concentrated to become viable resources for exploration. Geological processes have enabled localised concentrations of deposits suitable for exploitation to occur.
Dealing with Sustainability issues associated with ore extraction
Impact: habitat loss Measure to improve sustainability: restoration plans e.g. Carjas project Brazil Impact: noise and dust pollution Measure to improve sustainability: baffle mounds and water sprays Impact: toxic leachates Measure to improve sustainability: Passing mine drainage water through a filter of limestone to immobilise toxic metals
Dealing with Sustainability issues associated with ore trade
In 2009 the world economic forum launched the mining and metals scenarios to 2039 project It examined the economic, trade and geopolitical future of the minerals and mining sectors. Presenting 3 future scenarios : 1- green trade alliance (GTA) Environment standards used as protectionism measures in trade of ores and metals 2- rebased globalism Free market principles upheld to enable poorer nations to avoid the 'resource curse' 3- resource security- based on national self- interest, protectionist measured limit cross border flows of resources.
Ore extraction : underground mining vs open pit mining
In 20th century there's a shift from underground to open pit Advantages of open pit: - mechanisation has allowed rapid removal of large amounts of material using larger digging machines and trucks - less dependence on people so cheaper alternative and larger scale -equipment isn't restricted by size of opening it must work in, allowing faster production + lower costs ; also lower grade ores can be mined - however environmental impact of open pit mines is large, E.g. Defforestation, poisoned water streams, etc
Strategies to increase water supply
Integrated management approaches like CAMS Reservoir storage River diversion and interbasin transfer Desalination
CAMS (strategies to increase water supply)
Integrated management approaches like CAMS (catchment abstraction management strategy) which ensure water resource sustainability; taking into account needs of the environment they regulate water abstraction through licensing.
Future of water resources (environmental)
Integrated river basin management will be needed in the future to mitigate the impacts of climate change on water resources
Demand side management
Involves reducing consumption of resources, individually and at all other geographical scales : - changing individual behaviour and lifestyle to discourage wasteful and extravagant use of resources - developing technology to enable more efficient use of resources - recycling after use - reducing population growth with population control methods so there is less pressure on resources - regulatory controls and frameworks as part of global governance, for example: • agenda 21 • Kyoto protocol
Supply side management
Involves seeking methods of increasing the supply of resources: - increasing exploration efforts for existing non-renewable resources - increasing research efforts to develop: • more sustainable alternative or substitute alternative or substitute resources to replace unsustainable ones • new technologies that are more sustainable and cause less environmental impact
Background to carajas scheme
Is an open pit mine Largest single iron ore mine in the world, located in northern Brazil- area naturally covered by Amazonian rainforest The mine has the richest reserves and concentrates of high grade iron ore anywhere in the world- iron ore content of around 65% Fully owned by vale; holds 7.2 billion tonnes of iron ore in proven and probable reserves Employed 3000 workers in 2013 In 2011 70% of production was exported as ore to china; using dedicated 900km railway line to the ponta da Madeira deep sea port. The mine has its own designated airport
Conservation methods (sustainable water management)
Land use: Urban areas near river basins should increase permeable land uses so more water can infiltrate and percolate into the ground, ending up in a long term storage as groundwater Afforestation: Increase interception and reduce run off, thereby retaining water in the drainage Bain system and maintaining ground water stores at a sustainable level
Environmental impacts of carajas mine (landscape, wildlife and ecosystems)
Landscape was previously of a dense vegetation now as scene of bare cliffs and billowing dust Noise pollution due to machinery disturbs wildlife 25% of wildlife in the region lost. Habitat destruction has led to endangered species facing extinction
Physical factors affecting water availability
Latitude, wind direction+ proximity to coasts: This affects availability since it determines amount of rainfall and thus the water supply
Sources of copper
Mainly found in igneous rocks but also in sedimentary rocks Copper is deposited in sedimentary rocks like sandstone, as a reject of copper- baring fluids moving through permeable rock strata. Zambia has some copper bearing sandstones Copper ores in igneous rocks are a result of hot geothermal solutions bringing copper dissolved deep underground, to cool, near surface environment, cooling the solution, releasing the dissolved minerals in dessimations (spread deposits) within the rock Copper mines are only developed when there's more than 5kg of copper per tonne of rock main areas copper is formed in is malachite and chalcopyrite ( accounts for 50% of copper production on its own) etc 1.6 bn tonnes of copper is accessible for mining on earth's land. 0.7 billion tonnes are available in deep sea nodules, though these are too expensive to extract
Categories mineral resources and reserves can be divided into
Measured reserves: These can be estimated with confidence as quantity grade and quality are well established. This results in a 'proven reserve' which is economically viable to extract and has undergone a preliminary feasibility study Indicated reserves: Quantity grade and quality can be estimated with less confidence than measure reserves and require further evaluation of he economic viability. The degree of confidence is less than with measured reserves but enough to allow a reliable estimate which leads to reference to a 'probable reserve' Inferred resources: Quantity grade and quality can be estimated on the basis of only limited sampling. They remain 'possible reserves' as there is insufficient information on tonnage or grade. Possible resources: There is knowledge of these resources based on the existence of other, mostly undiscovered deposits. They may be economically viable in the long term but there is less confidence about this than with inferred resources. This category consists of hypothetical and speculative resources.
What are the global pattens of mineral ore production
Most developed countries have depleted their reserves of ore minerals. The shift in production has been to developing economies. 1- Australia and Canada dominate production of mineral areas in developed nations 2- emerging economies are filling most of the gap between production and consumption, especially in South America eh Brazil, chile, Peru 3- developing countries are becoming Major producers e.g. Guinea and zambia
Environmental impacts of carajas mine (relieve and drainage)
Open pit mining alters the relief and drainage of the area directly The dislocated soil means, large masses can be eroded in storms- often resulting in landslides and filling rivers with silt- killing aquatic life
Dealing with Sustainability issues associated with ore processing
Recycling of metals and minerals has been established in many country as a result of agenda 21 Recycling rates are good and well organised for some materials Global figures for recycling include: • 70-90% of iron and steel • 40-50% of copper • 90% of tin Media campaigns, legislation and financial incentives all help recycling Mixed materials, transport and labour cost hinder the process
Recycling (sustainable water management)
Recycling of water is mainly done through extensive sewage treatment. The purified water water is then used for agricultural irrigation and other non- drinking purposes. Example/ London had 90% of its waste eater recycled by being immediately treated after ending in sewage system Grey water, waste water that hasn't come in contact with faecal matter, is also recycled and is ideal for domestic water uses that don't require drinking water e.g. For flushing toilet or showering.
What is a reserve
Reserves are the part of a resource that is economically, legally and technically viable to extract. Resources can be converted into reserves if there is technological advancement.
Future of mineral resources (economic)
Reserves of exploitable minerals are limited High extraction costs and limited technology may prevent possible reserves being exploited Prices are therefore likely to rise
Reservoirs storage (strategies to increase water supply)
Reservoirs are built to store seasonal surplus rainfall or regulate river flow. The water stored in them is released via pipeline to the public supply. CONS : • concentrated pollutants downstream •less flooding reduces soil quality overtime • reservoir sedimentation PROS: • are multipurpose and can generate electricity and promote tourism e.g three gorges damn Case study example: aswan dam
What is a resource peak
Resource peak is the stage of maximum production of a reserve or of a resource as a whole. The theory of resource peak is represented in a 'bell-shaped curve' on a graph of production.
Distribution of copper resource
South America has largest undiscovered resources Since 1990s the Andean region of South America had emerged as the worlds most productive site Child is the largest producing copper country, china is the second largest
What are the approaches to sustainable resource development
Supply side management Demand side management (Other approaches include attempts to minimise environmental impacts through advancing technology such as carbon capture and storage technology and seeking alternative supplies of resources particularly for energy)
Name a major water supply scheme studied
The Aswan high dam
Global patterns of mineral ore consumption
The USA, Europe and Japan have now been overtaken as consumers by china, South Korea and India . The change represents deindustrialisation in some regions and rapid growth and industrialisation in china and India in particular.
Global patterns of mineral ore trade
The economic growth, resource wealth and population growth in China mean that it dominates trading patterns in mineral ores. Trade in mineral ores is affected by a number of key factors such as : • global recession • technological change bringing about cost reductions and increased supply • environmental concerns discouraging new exploration and favourable recycling options.
Desalination (strategies to increase water supply )
The removal of salt from sea water so it becomes fresh water. 2 methods: • reverse osmosis The filtering of water at high pressure • distillation Water is boiled, steam condensed and collected, salt is left behind CONS: • very expensive / which is why generally weather countries with water stress/ scarcity like Saudi use this method • unsustainable as its energy intensive • results in significance greenhouse gas emissions PROS: • can provide water for many people (Thames water desalination plant in east ldn provides water for 400,000 homes)
What are stock resources
They are finite non renewable resources that will eventually be expended since it took millions of years to form and can't be replaced- they have a fixed supply. There are non recyclable and recyclable stock resources. Non recyclable: Fossil fuels Recyclable: Metallic ores
What are flow resources
They are renewable resources that can be replaced in a sufficient enough time that it's relevant to decision makers. There are critical flow resources and continuous flow resources Critical: Availability depend on human activity, if exploitation occurs at higher rate than replacement then they can be depleted. E.g. Water, trees etc Continuous: Will not run out no matter how much humans use it e.g. Solar energy, tide, waves , wind
River diversion and inter basin transfer (strategies to increase water supply)
This is the transfer of water from a catchment with a water surplus to one of water shortage. Transfer can take place by aquaducts, river diversion, canal or pipeline, e.g. Transfer from sparsely populated mid wales to the midlands . CONS: • running costs are high since water is expensive to pump • requires development of storage basins in receiving basin PROS: • localised drought can be reduced quickly • habitats can be protected • addresses spatial mismatch in water supplies
Future of water resources (technology)
Unlike energy resources water has no alternatives other than developing technologies that'll give a greater supply from existing sources or reducing demand - somatic distillation may require less energy intensity becoming more sustainable - saltwater greenhouse technology is well suited to arid parts of world, producing water for irrigation by pumping seawater into a greenhouse and piping it over honey comb cardboard pads that provide a large area for evaporative cooling - small scale appropriate technology e.g. Water cones can distill sea water in small quantities
Carajas mine efforts to combat the environmental impacts
Vale has plans to expand the mine to surrounding areas- many say this will lead to more environmental degradation Vale claims sustainability is embedded in its future plans and is aiming to restore the areas to its original state by using spoil to fill the mines, reshaping topography then replant area with native species, which vale has preserved and are growing in a separate nursery -vale also paid for 89 additional forest rangers plus vehicles, boasts and use of a helicopter to guard against poaching of animals and illegal lodging.
Ways in which sustainability issues with water management can be tackled
Virtual water trade Conservation Recycling Grey water Groundwater management
Virtual water trade (sustainable water management)
Virtual water value is a value given to agricultural and industrial products that reflects the amount of water required in the production of the products. The idea of virtual water trade as a sustainable way of water management, is that water scarce countries avoid exporting or producing products with high virtual water value, instead importing them from other countries to save water
What determines a countries water demand
Water demand is illustrated in water consumption per capita. Level of development, levels of personal hygiene, recreational needs and agricultural needs affect the demand
Water as a resource
Water is a critical renewable flow resource meaning that it can only be renewable at any location when there is carefully controlled usage, treatment and release
Future of water resources (economic)
Water shipping, water management and virtual water trade will progress distribution of water resources
Future of water resources (political)
Water still presents the most likely case of international conflict in the future. So conflict hotspots will need close monitoring - the un has a role to play in the future in reducing deaths caused by water-borne diseases, managing the release of chemicals and waste into water sources and conservation of water related wildlife and ecosystems
Categories of water availability
Water surplus : Areas of water surplus have greater supplies than the demands of population. Usually as a result of physical factors like regular plentiful rainfall but can also be due to low water usage and effective management e.g. Russia and USA Water scarcity Low water supplies due to natural reasons, like climate, and human , like not having economic means to access the water or a much greater demand than supply. • physical water scarcity Refers to areas with water deficit; less than 500mm rainfall annually e.g. Parts of subsaharan Africa •absolute water scarcity Water supplies drop to less than 500m3 per person annually E.g. Mena region •economic water scarcity Water resources can't be utilised due to economic reasons e.g. Parts of south east Asia and South America •water stress Where demand exceeds supply over a period of time causing water shortages (less than 1700m3 per person) E.g. India and parts of china
sustainability issues associated with energy production
acid rain enhanced greenhouse effect nuclear waste
competing national interests
as more countries progress along development continuum there will inevitably increase competition for declining supplies of non-renewable energy international competition will focus on: -continued dependence of europe and other western economies on Middle east oil -growing dependence of asia on oil -china's continued investment in and exploration of energy supplies in africa
acid rain
caused by: -burning fossil fuels -sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide react with precipitation causing acidic rainfall impacts: -kills trees -damages ecosystem -damages buildings etc attempts to reduce it: -use of scrubbers an flue gas desulfurization to remove sulphur when coal is burned -using nuclear power instead of fossil fuels
how physical geography affects energy supply
climate geology drainage
components of demand
components of demand refer to way energy is used- industrial, commercial,domestic and transport are most common categories -consumption by sector varies across countries
energy mix of iceland
iceland: HEP 15%, GEOTHERMAL 66%, FOSSIL FUELS 19% -low fossil fuel use -abundant geothermal energy due to being on constructive plate margin -huge potential for hep from fast flowing rivers with steep gradients -as a small affluent country can afford tech needed for both geothermal and hep
strategies to increase energy supply
oil and gas exploration nuclear power development of renewable sources
role of tnc's in energy supplies
powerful tncs eg royal dutch shell, BP, Exxon-mobil, dominate oil trade -due to their involvement in exploration, production and distribution they continue to have significant influence over govs
primary and secondary energy sources
primary sources are obtained in their natural form eg coal or oil secondary are sources that have been converted from primary sources into manufactures sources eg electricity or fuel
Environmental impacts of Aswan dam
• coastal erosion / the dam has held back so much sediment that the lack of sediment reaching the Nike delta had accelerated coastal erosion ; resulting in construction of expensive protection works • algal growth + water quality / lower turbidity of the water downstream allows sunlight to penetrate deeper into the water, which combined with increased nutrients from fertilisers, encouraged growth of algae in the Nike reducing water quality and with it the cost to treat water • marine ecosystem/ reductions in marine productivity in the Mediterranean as the nutrients that used to reach it via the Nike are trapped behind the dam eg sardine catch off Egyptian coast declined greatly • soil salinity / this has increased as distance between groundwater table and surface water became small enough for groundwater to be drawn up by evaporation leaving concentrations of salt in the soil. • health impacts/ incidence of bilharzia ( a parasite that breeds in stagnant water) has increased due to da inhibiting the natural fluctuations of water height • reservoir sedimentation/ this is the build up of sediment trapped in the reservoir, gradually lowering the water storage capacity of lake Nasser. (Can be combatted by dredging the lake)
Geopolitics of mineral ores
• dependence of Europe, china and Southeast Asia on mineral supplies from countries such As those in south America and Africa •there is a largely one direction flow of trade in mineral ores from developing to developed countries •some countries have limited supply or ores e.g. Bauxite form Indonesia, in an attempt to raise prices • china has a leading role in the geopolitics of Iran, steel and copper industries- having invested heavily in mining operations (e.g. COPPER in Africa) •.china produces large amounts of cheap steel which have flooded markets in countries such as the USA and the U.K., leading to closure of plants and unemployment e.g. Tata steel sold its U.K. Operators • a number of tncs control mining operations leading to social, economic and environmental responsibility (Rio tinto, bhp billiton )
