Review Cards: Persuasive Unit

Discuss key speech texts studied during this unit

"The dangers of Cell Phones," "Barbara Bush's Speech," "The Living Wage Solution," "Changing Lives Through the Literacy Network," "Phony "

Evaluate the use of supporting materials in a speech

The use of them make the difference between a poor speech and a good one.

Discuss Monroe's motivated sequence; identify the five steps, and explain why this organizational method is considered particularly valuable

1. Attention: gain the attention of your audience by using one or more of the methods described in chapter: relate to audience, show the importance of the topic, make a startling statement, arouse curiosity, pose a question, tell a dramatic story, use visual aids. 2. Need: make the audience feel a need for change, show there is a serious problem with an existing solution, by the end they should be concerned about the problem and ready to here your solution. 3. Satisfaction: You have told them the need now you satisfy it by providing a solution to the problem. You present a plan and show how it will work. 4. Visualization: having given your plan you intensify desire for it by visualizing its benefits, use imagery to show audience how they will profit from your policy, how better conditions become under your plan. 5. Action: once the audience is convinced your policy is beneficial, you are ready to call for action, say what you want them to do, and how to do it.

Describe and differentiate among the three types of examples

1. Brief Examples- a specific case referred to in a passing to illustrate a point. 2. Extended examples- a story, narrative, or anecdote developed at some length to illustrate a point. 3. Hypothetical example-an example that describes an imaginary or fictitious situation.

List and differentiate among the 3 major kinds of supporting materials

1. Examples- a specific case used to illustrate or to represent a group of people, ideas, conditions, experiences, or the like. 2. Statistics- numerical data. 3. Testimony-quotations or paraphrases used to support a point.

Identify and discuss the four methods of organization used most often in persuasive speeches on questions of policy

1. Problem-solution order: a method of organizing persuasive speeches in which the first main point deals with the existence of a problem and the second main point presents a solution to the problem. Ex. The use of antibacterial chemicals in products is highly dangerous. Solving these problems requires a combination of government and consumer action. 2. Problem-cause-solution order: a method of organizing persuasive speeches in which the first main point identifies a problem, the second main point analyzes the causes of the problem, and the third main point presents a solution to the problem. 3. Comparative advantages order: a method of organizing persuasive speeches in which each main point explains why a speaker's solution to a problem is preferable to other propose solutions. 4. Monroe's motivated sequence: a method of organizing persuasive speeches that seek immediate action. The five steps of the motivated sequence are attention, need, satisfaction, visualization, and action. It is valuable because it follows the psychology of persuasion, it follows the process of human thinking and it is more detailed.

Discuss ways to assess the different types of reasoning; identify the flaws incases of problematic reasoning

1. Reasoning from specific instances: Make sure the generalization isn't too hasty, beware of jumping to conclusions on the basis of insufficient evidence. Make sure the specific instances are large enough to justify your conclusion, they are fair and representative. Also be careful with your wording, qualify your argument if evidence does not justify a sweeping conclusion. Avoid a hasty generalization. 2. Reasoning from principle: Pay attention to your general principle, will listeners accept it without evidence? You need to support your minor premise ad general principle too make listeners more likely to accept your conclusion. 3. Causal reasoning: It is tricky because relationships between cause and effect are not always clear. Avoid false cause, the fact that one even happens after another does not mean that the first is the cause of the second. Another flaw is when using this assuming that events only have one cause when they usually have several causes. 4. Analogical reasoning: The question to ask is whether the two cases being compared are essentially alike, if yes then the analogy is valid. If not, it is invalid. You are more likely to persuade your audience if the analogy actually shows a parallel.

Identify, apply, and evaluate the use of the 4 basic methods of reasoning

1. Reasoning from specific instances: reasoning that moves from particular facts to a general conclusion. No matter how many specific instances you give there could always be an exception. Ex. Fact 1: My gym class was easy last term. Fact 2: My brother's gym class was easy last term. Conclusion: All gym classes are easy. 2. Reasoning from principle: reasoning that moves from a general principle to a specific conclusion. Ex. 1. All people are mortal. 2. Socrates is a person. 3. Therefore, Socrates is mortal. 3. Causal reasoning: reasoning that seeks to establish the relationship between causes and effects. Ex. "Because that patch of ice was there, I fell and broke my arm". 4. Analogical reasoning: reasoning in which a speaker compares two similar cases and infers that what is true for the first case is also true for the second. Ex. If you're good at racquetball, you'll be great at ping pong.

Identify and describe the 8 major logical fallacies which speakers should guard against

1. Red herring- a fallacy that introduces an irrelevant issue to divert attention from the subject under discussion. Ex. How dare my opponents accuse me of political corruption at a time when we are working to improve the quality of life for all people in the United States. 2. Ad hominem- a fallacy that attacks the person rather than dealing with the real issue in dispute. Ex. the head of the commerce commission has a number of interesting economic proposals, but let's not forget that she comes from a very wealthy family. 3. Either-or- a fallacy that forces listener to choose between two alternatives when more than two alternatives exist. Ex. The government must either raise taxes or reduce services for the poor. 4. Bandwagon- a fallacy that assumes that because something is popular, it is therefore good, correct, or desirable. Ex. the governor must be correct in his approach to social policy; after all, the polls show that 60 percent of the people support him. 5. Slippery slope- a fallacy that assumes taking a first step will lead to subsequent steps that cannot be prevented. Ex. Passing laws to control the amount of violence in video games is the first step in a process that will result in absolute government control of the media and total censorship over all forms of artistic expression. 6. False cause- a error in causal reasoning in which a speaker mistakenly assumes that because one event follows another, the first event is the cause of the second. This error is often known by its Latin name, post hoc, ergo propter hoc, meaning "after this, therefore because of this." 7. Invalid analogy- an analogy in which the two cases being compared are not essentially alike. 8. Hasty generalization- an error in reasoning from specific instances, in which a speaker jumps to a general conclusion on the basis of insufficient evidence. 9. Appeal to tradition- Appeal to tradition is fallacious when it assumes that something old is automatically better than something new. 10. Appeal to novelty - The fallacy of appeal to novelty is the opposite of appeal to tradition. Appeal to novelty assumes that because something is new, it is therefore superior to something that is older.

Describe three methods a speaker can use to generate emotional appeal

1. Use emotional language- "dreams, freedom and justice, American dream", all have strong emotional power, and produce the desired effect. 2. Develop vivid examples- use vivid, richly textured examples will pull your listeners into your speech. Ex. "Nathan was only 5 years old when the fever struck him, no one knew he would wind up in a coma...." 3. Speak with sincerity and conviction-this is the strongest source of emotional power, it won't work if you are emotionless, make it show in everything you say and do (tone, rate of speech, gestures, and facial expression).

Explain how to use examples effectively in a speech

1. Use examples to clarify your ideas. Ex. a suspension bridge has a roadway suspended by vertical cables....... Two well-known suspension bridges are the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco. 2. Use examples to reinforce your ideas. Ex. In a speech about coming home from war and post-traumatic stress disordered the speaker cited Robert Brown a marine from Peru, who was a part of the first wave of troops deployed. 3. Use Examples to Personalize Your Ideas- Ex. Let me tell you about Arturo, he has never once enjoyed three square meals in a single day. 4. Make you examples vivid and richly textured- give details to let us see (think of runner speech) as she battles through pain and misfortune. 5. Practice delivery to enhance your extended examples-maintain eye contact and be able to tell the story as naturally as if you were telling a story to a group of friends.

List the 4 key reasons listeners are persuade by speakers

1. perceive speaker as having high credibility 2. won over by the speakers evidence 3. convinced by the speaker's reasoning 4. their emotions are touched by the speaker's ideas or language

Explain the differences b/w an informative and persuasive speech

An informative speech is a speech designed to convey knowledge and understanding. A persuasive speech is the process of creating, reinforcing, or changing people's beliefs or actions. (look back at the informative speech notes to remember aspects of informative speech).

Explain why speakers must be audience-centered, and what it means to say that audiences are egocentric

Audience-centeredness is keeping the audience foremost in mind at every step of speech preparation and presentation. You must be audience centered because then you can create a bond with your listeners by emphasizing common values, goals, and experiences (known as identification). This way your speech will be clear, interesting, and persuasive to the audience. Egocentrism is the tendency of people to be concerned above all with their own values, beliefs, and well-being. Your audience only wants to hear (cares about) things that are meaningful to them. They will pay closer attention to messages that affect their own beliefs, values, and well-being.

Explain how a speaker can adapt to the audience while preparing the speech and delivering the speech

Before the speech: 1. Assessing how your audience is likely to respond to what you say in your speech, and 2. Adjusting what you say to make it as clear, appropriate, and convincing as possible. During the speech: If something is changed (the classroom, the time of your speech, the location, the size of audience, no projector, etc) don't panic. Your listeners will sympathize with your predicament. Make sure to keep an eye out during your speech for audience feedback, to be successful in public speaking adapt to your audience.

Describe credibility

Credibility is the audience's perception of whether a speaker is qualified to speak on a given topic.

Discuss evidence, what it is

Evidence is supporting materials used to prove or disprove something.

Distinguish between peer testimony and expert testimony

Expert testimony is testimony from people who are recognized experts in their fields. Peer testimony is testimony from ordinary people with firsthand experience or insight on a topic.

Define, identify, and give examples of question of fact, value, and policy; give an example of a specific purpose statement for each

Fact: a questions about the truth or falsity of an assertion. Some can be answered for certain, others we don't have enough information, and some are predictions. They are usually organized topically. Ex. To persuade my audience that William Shakespeare did not write the plays attributed to him. To persuade my audience that an earthquake of 9.0 will hit California in the next ten years. Value: a question about the worth, rightness, morality, and so forth of an idea or action. They demand judgments, based on a person's beliefs about right or wrong, good or bad, proper or improper, fair or unfair. They are almost always organized topically. Usually use first main point to establish the standards for your value judgment and your second main point to applying those standards to the subject of your speech. Ex. To persuade my audience that bicycle riding is the ideal form of land transportation. To persuade my audience that capital punishment is morally and legally wrong. Policy: a question about whether a specific course of action should or should not be taken. They all deal with specific courses of action, they can involve questions of fact or value, but go beyond and decide if something should be done. You need a need, plan, and practicality. Ex. (passive agreement) To persuade my audience that the age for full driving privileges should be raised to 18. (immediate action) To persuade my audience to give blood through the red cross.

Guidelines for effective use of questionnaires

Guidelines for Effective Use: 1. Plan the questionnaire carefully to elicit precisely the information you need. 2. Use all three types of questions- fixed-alternative, scale, open-ended. 3. Make sure the questions are clear and unambiguous. 4. Keep the questionnaire relatively brief.

Explain why speaking to persuade is especially challenging

It is challenging because it is the process of creating, reinforcing, or changing people's beliefs or actions. You need to act like an advocate and get listeners to agree with you and perhaps act on. It is especially challenging because you need to make sure your goals are ethically sound and you use ethical methods to communicate your ideas. You need to be able to defend them. It is the most complex. Your objective is more ambitious, and audience analysis and adaptations are much more demanding. No matter how much you prepare, or how well you deliver, some listeners will still disagree. You need to make sure you tailor your message to the values, attitudes, and beliefs of your audience

Differentiate among the mean, median, and mode

Mean-the average value of a group of numbers Median-the middle number in a group of numbers arranged from highest to lowest. Mode-the number that occurs most frequently in a group of numbers.

Explain the basic issues of need, plan, and practicality and their importance in persuasive speeches on questions of policy.

Need- the first basic issue in analyzing a question of policy; is there a serious problem or need that requires a change from current policy? There is no point in arguing for a policy unless you can show a need for it. Plan-the second basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: if there is a problem with current policy, does the speaker have a plan to solve the problem? Practicality- the third basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: Will the speaker's plan solve the problem? Will it create new and more serious problems.

Explain the difference between passive agreement and immediate action as goals for persuasive speeches on questions of policy

Passive is a persuasive speech in which the speaker's goal is to convince the audience that a given policy is desirable without encouraging the audience to take action in support of the policy. Speech to gain immediate action is a persuasive speech in which the speaker's goal is to persuade the audience to take action in support of a given policy.

Discuss why persuasive speakers need to use evidence

Speakers need to use it because it enhances your credibility, increase the persuasiveness of your message, and help "inoculate" listeners against counter-persuasion.

Discuss what strategies a speaker should follow to use evidence effectively

Strategies a speaker should follow include: use specific evidence (state it in specific rather than general terms, ex. 31 million instead of "lots"), use novel evidence (find new evidence, it is more persuasive this way), use evidence from credible sources (find it more persuasive if they are qualified), make clear the point of your evidence.

Explain the concept of the target audience and its role in persuasive speaking

Target audience is the portion of the whole audience that the speaker most wants to persuade. Use questionnaires to find out where your classmates stand on your speech topic, once you know where they stand then you can tailor your speech to fit their values and concerns, aim at the target, so to speak. By doing this you are more likely to persuade your audience.

Discuss testimony

Testimony is quotations or paraphrases used to support a point.

Identify the major demographic and situational traits of audiences

The major demographic traits are age, gender, sexual orientation, religion, group membership, racial, ethnic, and cultural background. The major situational traits of audiences are size, physical setting, disposition (interest, knowledge, attitude), disposition toward the speaker, disposition toward the occasion.

Explain what it means to say that audiences engage in a mental dialog with speakers

The mental give-and-take between speakers and listeners during a persuasive speech. This means you must think of your persuasive speech as a kind of mental dialogue with your audience. You need to anticipate the possible objections the audience will raise to your point of view and answer them in the speech.

Explain the proper use of testimony in a speech

The proper use of testimony is make sure you quote or paraphrase accurately (don't quote a statement in such a way as to distort its meaning by removing the statement from the words and phrases surrounding it). Use testimony from qualified sources (being a celebrity or authority doesn't make you competent in other areas, make sure the source is qualified on the subject at hand.) Use testimony from unbiased sources (someone who works for Taser International would naturally say they are a good thing, but he is biased). Identify the people you quote or paraphrase (you need to identify them otherwise you wouldn't know why their opinions should be valued).

Discuss the role of emotional appeals in persuasive speeches

The role of emotional appeals is to add feeling and the force of imagination to your logical argument, which makes you a more compelling persuasive speaker. They are intended to make listeners feel sad, angry, guilty, happy, proud, etc.

Explain the three basic types of questions

The three basic types of questions are fixed-alternative (questions that offer a fixed choice between two or more alternatives), scale questions (questions that require responses at fixed intervals along a scale of answers), open-ended questions (questions that allow respondents to answer however they want).

Describe the 3 ways a speaker can enhance credibility

The three ways to enhance credibility are: explain your competence (advertise your expertise on the speech topic), establish common ground with your audience (connect yourself with the values, attitudes, or experiences of the audience), deliver your speech fluently, expressively, and with conviction (credibility is strongly affected by delivery, so be prepared, and speak with spirit and enthusiasm).

Describe the 2 primary factors which affect credibility

The two major factors influencing a speaker's credibility are competence and character. Competence is how an audience regards a speaker's intelligence, expertise, and knowledge of the subject. Character is how an audience regards a speaker's sincerity, trustworthiness, and concern for the well-being of the audience.

Describe the 3 types of credibility

There are three types of credibility: initial, derived, terminal. Initial is the credibility of a speaker before she or he starts to speak. Derived is the credibility of a speaker produced by everything she or he says and does during the speech. Terminal is the credibility of a speaker at the end of the speech.

Discuss the use of statistics in speeches, including the three questions to ask in judging their reliability (representative? Measures used correctly? From a reliable source?)

They are used to clarify and support ideas, strengthen a speaker's points, show the magnitude or seriousness of an issue. Ask yourself: Are the statistics representative? (make sure they measure what they actually claim to measure, the sample is big enough.) Are statistical measures used correctly? (think of mean, median, mode and if they are used correctly because they can be easily mixed up and mean different things). Are statistics from a reliable source? (is your information from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency or a company that owns a landfill, the information will be very different).