Roman art

Amphitheater at Pompeii

"double theater"; owes its origins to the Greek theater, like we saw in Epidauros (Lesson 3.09), but again the Greeks could never have managed such a structure. Greeks built their theaters on a hillside as they had no way to support such a large, freestanding structure. Again, the Roman science of concrete arches allowed them to construct stadia with relative ease. The arena at Pompeii is amazingly well preserved and has a seating capacity of just over twenty-thousand. If you were to walk around the outside or through the tunnels of the Pompeian amphitheater, you would be hard pressed to find any substantial differences between it and a modern football stadium.

Trajan Deicus

(age of Warrior Emperors) famous for brutal prosecution of Christians. portrait presents a tired, worried, sad old man.

pilasters

(flat, rectangular, engaged columns)

Linear perspective

A system of drawing or painting in which the artist attempts to create the illusion of spatial depth on a two-dimensional surface. It works by following consistent geometric rules for rendering objects as they appear to the human eye. For instance, we see parallel lines as converging in the distance, although in reality they do not. Stated another way, the lines of buildings and other objects in a picture are slanted inward making them appear to extend back into space. If lengthened, these lines will meet at a point along an imaginary horizontal line representing the eye level. Each such imaginary line is called an orthogonal. The point at which such lines meet is called a vanishing point

basilica

The structure housed the law courts in most Roman towns, and it was also the "Wall Street" of Pompeii. Needless to say, the basilica saw many people each day, and it was in fact designed to meet the need for a large, enclosed public space. Two rows of internal, two-storied columns created a large, central space (or nave) flanked by two side aisles that were also rather spacious, providing space on both stories for offices.

groin vault

formed at the point where 2 barrel vaults intersect at right angles

tabernae

shops

Second style (continued)

the masterpiece of second style painting: gardenscape from the Villa of Livia (wife of the emperor Augustus) uses atmospheric perspective. hazy background, juxtaposed to the detail of the two trees, birds, birdcage, flowers and fence gives the illusion of a deep, lush garden. Livia's villa was uncovered at Prima Porta, just outside of Rome. In ancient times, the area was a scenic spot, surrounded by lush vegetation and a beautiful view of the Tiber River valley. Even in a setting such as this, we see the characteristic Roman desire to contain nature, both in the fresco above and in Livia's villa itself. The triclinium from which this fresco was taken did not look out on the Tiber River valley, or even onto an atrium or peristyle court, but rather it was completely enclosed and built partially underground. All four walls, however, were painted with lush gardens. The frescos have long since been removed and now are reconstructed in a museum in Rome.

spandrel

the space above the arcuated opening and below the entablature

relief of the goddess Pax (at the Altar Pacis Augustae)

the stalks of wheat, the animals and the infants symbolize the fruitfulness and prosperity of the Augustan Peace, as do the personifications of the sky (left) and the sea (right) resting in the refreshing breeze. As on the front, the lower regions are decorated with acanthus tendrils in relief, symbolizing the fruitfulness of Augustan Peace. The obvious Classical Greek influences on this work were also intentional. As the Parthenon and the Athens of Pericles conjure up images of Greece's "Golden Age," so the Ara Pacis was meant to convey that, with Augustus, Rome was entering into a golden age of her own.

verism

the use of an uncompromising realism and directness

Arch of Constantine

triple passageway (like the arch of Sept. Severus). reliefs from monuments of former (High Imperial) emperors (Trajan, Hadrian, M. Aurelius). the heads of those emperors were recarved to resemble Constantine. attic story: once M. Aur receiving triumphal honors in front of his troops, but now Constantine. (no doubt an earlier work bc of the proportional bodies, natural poses, and "loose" drapery. Now cubic heads, squat bodies, and rigid frontality (which is not a lack of skill but a rejection of classical norms) Political message: Constantine distances himself from the tetrarchy and identifies with the "good" High Imper. emperors.

apotheosis (ascent into heaven) of Antonius Pius and his wife

trong classical1 influences: proportional figures, a single groundline and divine personifications (the male in the lower left is a personification of the Campus Martius, an historic section of Rome, and the female is a personification of Rome itself).

attic

upper portion of the triumphal arch

fauces

Access to a Roman home was through a single entrance

Ara Pacis Augustae

Altar of Augustan Peace. This structure was built to commemorate the Augustan peace, and the emperor dedicated the work on the birthday of his wife, Livia. As we shall see, the Ara Pacis proved both a marvelous work of art and an instrument of Augustan propaganda. The altar itself is surrounded by an ornate enclosure, the outside of which we will study in detail, as it was the public face of the monument. The outer decorations are divided into lower and upper regions that are separated by a Greek meander. In the upper portions, we see various figure sculptures. All the lower regions, however, show acanthus tendrils in relief, symbolizing the fruitfulness of Augustan Peace. Notice, too, that the lush vegetation is also extremely ordered, as yet another example of the Roman appreciation of, and desire to control, nature. As for the upper regions, the west facade of the enclosure presents mythological scenes involving Mars (the father of Romulus) in one panel and Aeneas in the other, again stressing the divinity of Augustan ancestry. Along the sides, the north frieze shows a procession of senators, for Augustus did not wish to appear as a dictator, but rather the first among equals. The south frieze is comprised of a procession of members of the Imperial family, including Augustus and Livia themselves. The processional frieze of the Imperial family shows idealized figures characteristic with Augustan period art. Interestingly, children are also portrayed, and this too was a function of the Augustan political agenda. The emperor was concerned about the decreased birth rate after three generations of bloody internal conflict; therefore, encouraging large families was a major aspect of the Augustan regime. Finally, the east side (the back of the enclosure) offers two panels, one with the goddess Pax ("Peace") and the other with the goddess Roma. In the relief of the goddess Pax (the central figure of the image), the stalks of wheat, the animals and the infants symbolize the fruitfulness and prosperity of the Augustan Peace, as do the personifications of the sky (left) and the sea (right) resting in the refreshing breeze. As on the front, the lower regions are decorated with acanthus tendrils in relief, symbolizing the fruitfulness of Augustan Peace. The obvious Classical Greek influences on this work were also intentional. As the Parthenon and the Athens of Pericles conjure up images of Greece's "Golden Age," so the Ara Pacis was meant to convey that, with Augustus, Rome was entering into a golden age of her own.

Pantheon

Although the colonnaded porch was obviously a conceit to tradition, everything else about the Pantheon was innovative. Behind the porch we see a huge, rounded concrete structure covered by a hemispherical dome, which is one hundred and forty-two feet in diameter. The distance from the top of the dome to the floor is also one hundred and forty-two feet, creating a perfect intersection of two circles. The intersecting circles of the interior space was imagined as the orb of the earth, and the dome as the vault of the heavens. It was a cool, calm and mystical setting for worship away from the noise of every day life. The construction of the Pantheon was also an engineering marvel. The concrete used to build the lower portions was made with heavier stones, so that the lower portions could bear the heavier load. The successive levels were then constructed with concrete mixed with lighter and lighter stones, so that the weight of the walls and dome would not cause the structure to cave in on itself. If you have ever made a human pyramid, you applied the same principle as the Pantheon's engineers by placing the heaviest people on the bottom and the lightest people on top. The concrete used in the dome itself was made with pumice stone, a very light substance. The thickness of the dome also decreased as it approached the occulus, further lessening the weight-bearing load. Finally, coffering (sunken, decorative panels) was added to the interior of the dome to decrease the weight of the dome as well. Although much of the interior contains Renaissance era ornamentation, the inside of the Pantheon gives the modern visitor a true sense of what a Roman building was like during ancient times. Roman architects are the first to conceive of architecture in terms of units of space that could be shaped by their enclosures. The desire to subjugate the natural world and create their own artificial spaces has been a constant throughout Roman architecture thanks to concrete and vaulting technology, with the Pantheon being a culmination of both of these. Since the Romans worshiped inside of their temples, so there was always a great need to enclose large areas of uninterrupted space, especially considering the rapidly increasing population in Rome. The need for enclosed space was true for secular buildings too, as we saw with the extensive Basilica Ulpia of Trajan. We can also say that such structures are examples of the Roman desire to contain and control their environment.

Capitolium

An ancient Roman temple dedicated to the gods Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. (the focus of Pompeii's forum; a religious structure). shows the expected Etruscan design with a platform, central stairs, and a deep porch, but it has Greek Corinthian columns.

Pax Augusta

with the consolidation of power, Rome experienced an era of order and peace known as this! ("Augustan Peace")

Augustus

His rule marked the beginning of the Early Imperial period. As Rome's first emperor, he was also known as princeps ("first citizen"), imperator ("commander-in-chief"), and pontifex maximus ("chief priest"), giving him control of the civil government, the military and the official state religion.

Colosseum architecture

As high as a sixteen-story building, the exterior facade is divided into four bands, the lower three of which have arches framed with engaged columns. The three so-called Classical orders of architecture are also represented: the first level has Doric columns, the second, Ionic, and the third, Corinthian. The highest level shows Corinthian pilasters. There are seventy-six entrances were were numbered, much like stadiums are today. Inside the structure, there once was seating for about fifty thousand, but the marble rows of seats were looted over the centuries and found their way into other buildings. The extensive seating was supported by a series of barrel-vault covered corridors, again made possible by concrete. The Colosseum also had a velarium which could be unrolled and cover the structure to create shade for the spectators. In the picture of the Colosseum's interior, we are able to see many of these corridors as well as the building's substructure. Here, below the floor, were the waiting rooms for the gladiators and cages for the animals that fought in the arena. Complex machinery allowed combatants to rise up from below the floor into the center of the arena

The way Augustus is portrayed

Augustus gained control of the Roman state in his early thirties and reigned well into his seventies. In his portraits, Augustus is always presented as young and powerful, and, at times, godlike. No longer do we see the aged realism of Republican verism. The images from the Early Empire are much more inspired by works from ancient Greece. Portraits of the emperor were on display throughout the empire- basilicas, forums, baths, markets, etc. Augustus's likeness was the same across the empire on the heads of all the statues, but there were several different body types used. The emperor was shown as an armed general, a ruler on horseback, a hooded priest, a magistrate, a nude warrior, or one of the Roman gods (usually Jupiter, Apollo, or Mercury). These portraits functioned as a type of propaganda. Their versatility allowed Augustus to change his image and present himself to the different populations of empire most effectively.

damnatio memorae

Caracalla killed his brother Geta out of jealousy and greed for power. then he had the Senate declare THIS; essentially damned the memory of Geta & removed Geta from Roman history)

SECOND CENTURY PAINTING (EGYPTIAN)

FAYUM PAINTED PORTRAIT, ENCAUSTIC ON WOOD (abandoned funerary masks for this)

art of the PLEBEIAN

LOWER CLASSES

Pax Romana

Pax Augusta extended over the next two hundred years (a period naturally called this, or "Roman Peace"). also a period that witnessed an unprecedented number of public works: forums, temples, basilicas, baths, amphitheaters, roads, bridges and aqueducts, etc. The Romans improved infrastructure of all its conquered lands, and these works glorified the power and authority of Rome's emperors

revetment

Roman builders would then apply stucco or marble facing to the structure.

a time of great upheaval commonly results in a new set of artistic norms as the old ones are rejected.

Roman civilization experienced an incredible deterioration during the turbulent third century. Rome was hard pressed on its borders by the Germanic ethnic groups in the North and the Parthians in the East. On the home front, the Imperial bureaucracy was failing, inflation soared and trade and agriculture stagnated. Even the sway of the pagan state religion was waning, as Christianity began to sweep through the Roman world.

Forum

Roman equivalent of a Greek agora. open area that served as the commercial and political center of the town

concrete

Romans invented this. less expensive, allowed Roman architects to create all sorts of vaults2 and domes, which could not be achieved with building blocks alone. Romans made THIS from lime mortar mixed with sand, small stones, and water. Builders would then make wooden brackets into which the concrete would be poured. Wedged-shaped stones (and later in Roman history, bricks) would then be inserted. When the concrete dried the brackets would be removed, continuing in a like manner until the work was completed. The final product, as one might imagine, had a rather rough, unpleasing appearance

Augustus of Prima Porta

The work was found in his wife Livia's villa, and it shows him in one of his many roles as head of the empire. Here, Augustus is depicted as a youthful and heroic general addressing his troops. Stylistically, the work is similar to Polyklietos's Doryphoros in hairstyle, facial features, and pose (although Augustus's arm is fully extended in an orator pose instead of bent). The details of the statue carry a political message, which is also a trait of Augustan sculpture. Julius Caesar (Augustus's uncle) claimed to be a direct descendant of Venus, through the mythological patriarch of the Roman race, Aeneas. After his death, Caesar was also deified and worshiped as a god as well. While Augustus never claimed to be a god outright, it is apparent from official portraiture that his divine lineage was not to be missed. Notice in the Prima Porta work (Image 043), the presence of the god Cupid, also a son of Venus, at his feet symbolizes his royal lineage and signifies he has the divine right to rule Rome. To reinforce his power and authority, he is shown in an orator pose addressing his troops and his armor has a battle scene from one of his military victories.

Colosseum activities

Titus, his eldest son, dedicated the work in his father's honor and then proceeded to sponsor one hundred straight days of gladiatorial spectacles, which included the flooding of the arena in order to stage a mock naval battle involving thousands of men

Arch of Trajan

Trajan's well-preserved arch in Benevento, Italy. Originally built to commemorate the opening of a new Roman road, the Via Traiana, this structure is far more ornate than Arch of Titus though it nevertheless shows the same basic shape. This work highlights Trajan's domestic works, not his military exploits. Releifs from the arch show the emperor in civic dress performing various public duties. The message of this work, then, is that Trajan is not only a mighty general as his forum suggests, but also a man of the people.

Basilica Ulpia

Unlike most basilicas, it was entered from the long side. The structure was nearly 400 feet in length and featured huge, monolithic, gray Egyptian marble columns, some of which are still standing. Beyond the basilica was another, smaller plaza which had a Greek on one end and a Latin library one the other. The great marble Column of Trajan stood in the middle.

Colosseum (Flavian amphitheater)

Vespasian commissioned the great public work as gift to the people of Rome soon after he became emperor in an attempt to appease the disgruntled Roman citizenry. The site selected for the structure was also a crafty political move. The great palace of Nero (the "Domus Aurea" or "Golden House") was built on land that was cleared by the great fire in 64 CE. Selfishly, Nero did not rebuild the destroyed public buildings and apartments, but rather constructed for himself an extensive palace complete with its own artificial lake. Needless to say, the move was rather unpopular with the people of Rome. Capitalizing on this sentiment, Vespasian scaled back the palace tremendously and drained the lake. In its place, he built constructed THIS, thus giving the "public" land back to the people.

Second Style (continued)

Villa Poppea in Oplontis, a few miles away from Pompeii. painted platform, the artist has gone well beyond the edge of the platform and created quite a magnificent view out of the "windows" of this triclinium. the room did not actually have windows, but this is exactly the sort of illusion which is characteristic of the Second Style. We can also see the artist's attempt to create the illusion of depth, which is called linear perspective. Although linear perspective would not be perfected until the fifteenth-century Italian Renaissance, it is nevertheless clear that Roman painters had an understanding of the technique.

the reliefs on the sides of the apotheosis of Antonius Pius and his wife

What is most unusual about this work, though, are the reliefs along the sides, which show the ritual of circling the emperor's funeral pyre (called the "decursio"). In these works, the figures are squat and do not appear on a single baseline. In fact, they seem just to float around in space. This break with tradition and the abstract idea of space would soon become the norm.

taberna

a single room shop covered by a barrel vault

Hadrian

adopted son of Trajan (and his successor), Spaniard, artist and an architect. He was one of the most widely traveled emperors as well, and wherever he went, he erected arches and statues in his honor.

vault

an arched roof or covering of masonry construction - made of brick, stone, or concrete

Pont-du-Gard

aqueduct in Nimes, France. (ca. 15 BCE). Aqueducts brought water into Roman cities by a continual and gradual descent, often from great distances (the Pont-du-Gard structure was once over thirty miles long). The balance and proportion in this work is amazing; remember, it once was a completely functional structure.

Trajan markets

built adjacent to Trajan's forum, along the slope of the Quirinal Hill. Concrete made it possible to transform the slope of the hill into a multilevel complex similar to a modern day mall. The basic unit of the markets was a taberna. Each taberna had a wide doorway, and most units had a window above the doorway to let in light through an inner attic area that was used for storage. Clerestory lighting was also used to illumimate the interior. Overall, the markets housed 150 shops and administrative offices, creating a centralized area for commerce and government administration. The combination of the markets, forum, and his column creating a propagandistic building complex with its different aspects.

Late Imperial Artists

captured physical appearance and the subject's inner nature

Apollodorus of Damascus

chief military engineer of Trajan. he was architect behind the plan of the Forum of Trajan

cubiculum

child's bedroom

occulus

circular opening in the center of the dome of the Pantheon.

impluvium

collecting pool in the middle of the atrium. over which was placed a sizable opening in the roof (for light and for collection water for household purposes

composite capitals

combination of Ionic volutes and Corinthian acanthus leaves

First Style

dates from the late second-century BCE to the early first. of Greek origin, easily recognizable, as the walls are painted in such a way as to resemble expensive marble revetment. First Style painting never went completely out of style, and traces of it can be seen in the other 3 painting styles

coloristic

deep carving and the resultant shadows of the woman's hair give it the appearance of being colored differently from the rest of the work, even though it is created from the same piece of stone. typical of Flavian sculpture

atmospheric or aerial perspective

describes the technique of blurring objects in the "distance," while painting those in the foreground with incredible precision in order to create a three-dimensional illusion in two-dimensional space.

bronze equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius

display of authority (oratorial gesture of his outstretched arm), idea of power (he is larger than normal man:horse), majestic presentation, portrayed w a beard (tradition of Hadrian), deeply carved curls + beard against smooth contours reflect Flavian colorism. what is INNOVATIVE is that his expression communicates who he is (he hated war but was an excellent war general... as a Stoic, he placed the duty/good of the state above his own desires. the many wars, revolts, & personal disappointments affected him. His expression shows his weariness (he's maybe even melancholic) but he presses on when duty calls.

Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus

exterior is decorated with a battle scene between the Romans and a barbarian foe, which is likely the Goths. The presentation of the scene on the sarcophagus shows a near total rejection of the classical style. First, there is no common baseline in this extremely chaotic scene. There is also a definite lack of motion in the composition, which should be a frenzy- every figure seems frozen in his pose. In addition, the figures are markedly disproportional and frontal. Notice the central figure in particular, believed to be the son of one of the warrior-emperors and the person for whom the sarcophagus was carved. While he has an air of self-assurance and fearlessness, his head is disproportionately large and blocky while his body is rather stocky. On his forehead, he has the symbol of Mithras, the Persian god of light, truth, and victory over death. This symbol reflects the growing influence of eastern religions inside the borders of the Roman empire. It is clear that the sculptor of the sarcophagus was rejecting the classical norms, which he no doubt saw around him on a daily basis. Instead, he drew from norms that had been used for quite some time in the art of the plebeian

Second Style

first appeared about 80 BCE; completely Roman invention. Here, the artist sought to "expand" the rooms with the illusion of three-dimensional space. We find an early example of this style at the Villa of the Mysteries in Pompeii. In our selection, we see a segment of a ritual for the mystery cult of Dionysis. Not much is known about this cult and its practices, other than it was limited to women (the males in the frescoes are mythological figures: Dionysis, to your right and, before him, three satyrs). Our interests lie in the "ledge," on which the figures are painted. Here, the presence of a mock stage creates the illusion of depth on a two-dimensional surface

triumphal arch

freestanding arches were generally non-functional (although a few were incorporated as part of an aqueduct system). Their primary function was propaganda, and they were used to commemorate events such as military conquests. Domitian constructed one for his brother, Titus.

Head of a Roman patrician

harsh realism in the details of this bust in an effort to convey the wisdom and strict adherence to important Republican ideals, such as loyalty and service to familty and state. The realistic, direct nature of Republican sculpture was also not limited to family portraiture, as our busts of Marcus Tullius Cicero and Julius Caesar, two of Rome's most famous Republican leaders, show. Again we see the receding hairlines, the wrinkled faces and necks, and the stern expressions as we saw in the earlier work. We also see characteristics of the leaders' personalities in their portraits. For example, Cicero, Rome's greatest speaker, has a wrinkled brown, and his lips are parting as to he is going to speak. In contrast, Caesar, the mighty general, presents the hard, forceful pose of a veteran commander.

mores

he fixed morally binding customs of a particular group; 2: moral attitudes; 3: HABITS, MANNERS (

marital portrait, Pompeii

husband holds a scroll and his wife holds a stylus and writing tablet. Roman standard pose apparently indicating the educated status of the couple and shows he same sort of direct realism as we saw in our study of Republican period sculpture.. Unfortunately, this work was taken out of the full context from which it was cut directly out of a wall painted in the Fourth Style and moved to a museum in Naples

Maison Carree

in Nimes, France. modeled after the Augustan Temple of Mars, so we will direct our study there. We see the same characteristics as earlier Roman and Etruscan temples: a platform, central staircase, deep porch, and pseudodipteral columns along the side and back. Two major differences, however, draw us back to Classical Greece: the Corinthian columns and the white marble

Sanctuary of Fortuna in Italy

inspired by Hellenistic design, the Romans built an amazing complex into a massive hillside. World War II bombing raids leveled the Medieval structures, which were built on the sanctuary's foundations, and exposed to modern eyes a marvel of ancient architectural engineering. The complex itself consisted of several terraces, filled with shops, offices and shrines, and culminated with a tholos temple dedicated to Fortuna (which is obscured by the upper most colonnade of our model). The terraces and the long, covered ramps (which are in the foreground of our model) were supported by barrel vaulting

Roman houses

inward looking in nature. did not have backyards as we known them, but many homes had walled gardens (again we see the Roman trait of subduing and enclosing nature). The House of the Vettii in Pompeii (Image 039) provides an excellent example of an early Roman house

Forum of Trajan

it was larger than the Fora of Julius Caesar, Augustus, and Nerva combined. highlighted Trajan's victory over the Dacians, included a vast colonnaded plaza, followed by a massive basilica, libraries, and a monumental column. After the emperor's death, a temple for the deified Trajan was erected at the end of the forum, but it was not part of the original design.

Caracalla's bust

keeps it real/tells it like it is: cruel, resentful, and paranoiac. knotted brow, piercing eyes, tight lips, clenched jaw.

nave

large, central space

Constantine

made Christianity the widely accepted religion. moved capital to Byzantium (modern Istanbul) and named it after himself "Constantinople." beginning of Middle Ages.

Fourth style

motifs painted on monochromatic backgrounds like in the Third Style, but now there are framed views that extend beyond the wall. generally unrelated illusionistic scenes combined with delicate ornamentation. These fragmented architectural vistas are unrelated to one another, and the wall was removed, these scenes do not form a unified landscape or cityscape. The windows provide shallow ledges for the figures, who look like they would tumble forward into the room if they took a step forward

Third style

starting 15 BCE, recognized by delicate linear decoration on a monochromatic background. Architectural motifs in Third Style works were simply pretexts for ornamentation. when landscapes or mythological scenes were added, they appeared as hanging pictures, rather than exercises in perspective. The appearance of this style shows how quickly fashion changed in ancient Rome. The increased sense of depth, which we saw in the evolution of the Second Style works, was more or less eliminated in the Third. It seems as if the Romans returned to embracing the wall through decoration as in the First Style, instead of attempting to dissolve the wall as in the Second Style.

velarium

sun shade

BATHS OF CARACALLA (thermae)

often had rich gardens, exercise grounds, lecture halls, libraries, restaurants, swimming pools, and, of course, baths. The largest bath complex ever constructed was commissioned by Caracalla and covered well over forty acres. The plan of the main complex was laid out on a symmetrical central axis, so each half is a mirror image of the other). Huge groin vaults (some as high as one hundred and forty feet), constructed of brick-faced concrete, enclosed the vast areas of space, and light entered the structure through clerestory windows. From an architectural standpoint, the most interesting feature of the baths was the dome over the circular caldarium (hot bath). This dome was nearly as large as the Pantheon's and was supported by a much taller drum. The interior of the baths was lavishly decorated with frescos, mosaics, and marble revetment as well. The baths were also furnished with incredible statuary, such as a copy of the Weary Herakles (Lesson 3.09) by Lysippos

Arch of Titus

one passageway, is typical of the early form of the arch. We also see the arcuated opening characteristically framed by engaged columns called composite capitals In the area known as the spandrel, there are winged (female) personifications of Victory, while the attic holds the inscription proclaiming Titus' deified status. inner passageway, also sculpted, features two important narrative reliefs, which depict Titus' triumphal procession upon his return from the conquest of Judea and the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE (note the menorah being carried). By combining low and high reliefs, as well as the period's characteristic use of light and shadow, we have a real sense of bustling movement and depth, which is just fascinating.

atrium

open space area

House of the Vettii

owned by 2 brothers who were freemen and made their fortunes as merchants. Their money allowed them to purchase and furnish a house worthy of a member of the upper class.

encaustic technique

painting with hot wax to which colors have been added

poryphyry

purple marble

Roman aristocrat/patrician

purposeful, literal representation, which is vastly different from the heroic presentations of ancient Greece. Notice how realistic the compositions are, complete with receding hairlines and wrinkled faces. The expressions are all aged, reserved, and stern, qualities which were admired in Republican Rome. Overall, the work is still quite elaborate, particularly the folds in the patrician's toga. The origins of this "style" lie in the Roman custom of making an exact portrait mask of departed loved ones in wax. These portrait masks would be preserved within wooden shrines in the home and then transported to later funeral rites. In this way, old Roman families perpetuated the name and character of their line. There is a family resemblance apparent in the two busts that the partician does not share. This is because the original patrician's head and neck were lost, and were replaced in modern times with a random Republican head (ca. 40 BCE).

Classical with a capital C

refers to ancient Greek art of the fifth-century BCE, (while classical with a lower case "c" refers to ancient Greek and Roman art in general.)

Tetrarchy involving Diocletian

rejection of classical style. identically dressed + same expression (anxious/worried). no sense of naturalism (cubic heads, tubeshaped limbs, squat cylinderlike bodies.

decursio

ritual of circling the emperor's funeral pyre

tondo

round format portrait. (Septimus Severus family)

barrel/tunnel vault

semi-cylindrical in cross-section, made up of a continuous row of arches joined to one another

apse

semicircular recess (at the end of Basilica Ulpia)

professional frieze of the Imperial family at the Altar Pacis Augustae

shows idealized figures characteristic with Augustan period art. Interestingly, children are also portrayed, and this too was a function of the Augustan political agenda. The emperor was concerned about the decreased birth rate after three generations of bloody internal conflict; therefore, encouraging large families was a major aspect of the Augustan regime

monochromatic

single color

Commodus

son of M. Aurelius. chaotic reign. abandoned military responsibility to indulge himself. dressed like Hercules bc he believed he was his reincarnation. he was so extra that his advisors hired an athlete to strangle him in a bath. THIN WEAK ARMS. weakness in his face. his expression reveals he actually believes he's Hercules (insight to his unstable mind).

Column of Trajan

stands over 125 feet high and was once topped with a bronze statue of Trajan. The original bronze was destroyed in the Middle Ages, and the column is now capped with a statue of Saint Peter. The podium is decorated with low reliefs of captured Dacian weapons, and after Trajan's death, it served as the final resting place for the emperor's ashes. Around the base of the column, there is a giant laurel wreath, which is an ancient symbol of victory. The column itself is decorated with 650 feet of spiraling continuous narrative reliefs (in slanted registers, the first of its time = innovative) recounting Trajan's two Dacian campaigns. These reliefs were once painted in great detail as well. The one hundred and fifty different scenes unfold around the column, from the base to the top, in a completely unprecedented manner. Some scholars have theorized that the innovative spiral presentation finds its origin in the unrolling of a scroll, which may have some credence since the column once stood between two libraries. Although not as deeply carved as the scenes on the Arch of Titus, the reliefs use varying levels of relief in order to create depth and have incredible detail. We also see a similar use of light and shadow to produce a sense of motion.

coffering

sunken, decorative panels

peristyle court

was usually the centerpiece of the home as we can see in our plan