Rome Midterm

Suetonius- **Caligula**

-Comes from The Twelve Caesars. -This work was written in 121 AD. - The themes in Roman history that it could potentially illustrate: Caligula's insanity, any many others just analyze the text. - Why or How it is significant: this is significant to the understanding of Roman history due to the fact that Suetonius' account of Caligula is essentially the utmost primary source of information on the ancient emperor. All other accounts were lost.

Tacitus-**Nero**

-Comes from the Annals. -This work was written in 116 AD. -The themes in Roman history that it could potentially illustrate: Nero's insanity, any many others just analyze the text. They will most likely just trash Nero. -Why or How it is significant: this is significant due to the fact that they are essential to modern understanding of the history of the Roman Empire since they are one of the only lasting records.

Characteristic Traits of Augustus' Rule

-Made the term of military service 15 years --> became a career option. -Pax Romana. (Peace after 120 years of civil fighting). -Improved roads. -Expanded territory dramatically. -There was now more socioeconomic mobility for non-nobles. -Senators were reduced and more consulships created. Also created more civic offices (vigiles, urban cohorts, new grain supervisors, Augustales). b.) His rule lasted from 17BC to 14AD. c.) This is important to understanding Roman history due to the fact that Augustus was one of the most important rulers that Rome had ever had. Since he was the first emperor of Rome, he set the precedent for rulers essentially having absolute power. In addition, it is interesting to see how Augustus tried to mask his ultimate power which shows that it was still frowned upon at the time.

Possible Primary Source Readings for part 3 of Exam

-Res Gestae -Suetonious --> Caligula -Nero --> Tacitus

Apennine Mountains

a.) A mountain range that separates the Po valley from the rest of Italy. They run in a basically straight line to the Adriatic Sea. The Apennines take up most of Italy which forced many people to settle on the coast. b.) They basically stretch up and down the entire boot of Italy. c.) This is significant to ancient Roman society because it shaped how Rome was settled. They settled in the hilly Peninsula area due to the fact that the mountains were good protection and also gave them a good vantage point.

Tiberius Gracchus

a.) A plebeian Tribune that pushed the limits of politics of the Roman republic. He wanted to transfer wealth from the rich to the poor. Of course, these reforms threatened the rich landowners in Italy which eventually lead to his murder. He runs a second time for Tribune (unprecedented, nobody has done before). Opposition view him as having too much power (too much like a REX) which leads to his eventual murder and execution of all his supporters. His body was tossed in the Tiber river. b.) Lived from 169-133. c.) Tiberius Gracchus is significant to understanding ancient Roman history due to his importance to the republic's political structure. He constantly pushed the boundaries of the republic's government which in turn created a richer political history and advanced the government to what it became after his death.

Struggle of the orders

a.) A political conflict between the Plebeians and the Patricians. The Plebeians wanted political equality with the Patricians. Eventually through protest and public outcry, the Plebeians were able to gain access to more rights, more protection, more access to public offices (they could run for more offices in elections), and finally got legal equality. b.) The struggle started in 494 and continued for about 200 years until legal equality was finally gained. c.) This is important for understanding ancient Roman history because it provides insight into class conflicts. In addition, it shows the progress that Roman society made over time.

Secessio Plebis

a.) A strike that was done by the Plebeian peoples of Rome. During a strike, they plebeians would abandon Rome and leave the Patricians to themselves. It is basically a strike taken to the extreme. Because of this, all business would stop (since the Plebeians were the workers that produced all of the food and other goods) which would really prove a point. They thought that they had no political power and were also suffering from starvation and poverty which is what caused them to strike. b.) These started as early as 494 BC and continued on from there. c.) This is significant to the understanding of Roman history due to the fact that it highlights the way in which early Roman social classes interacted with each other.

First Settlement

a.) After the death of Antony in 30 BC, Octavian is left as sole ruler. He decides to manage his newly acquired power by keeping traditional structures but leaving them with only the illusion that they held power. He does this by acknowledging Agrippa as his fellow consul and announcing that he was stepping down and returning his authority to the senate and people of Rome. In shock, the senate begs him to continue in the office of consul while managing a few provinces → Spain, Gaul, Egypt, Syria, and others (all very improtant). He is then given the authority to appoint deputies and given the title AUGUSTUS ("revered one"). c.) This is significant to understanding Roman history due to the fact that it shows how Octavian was able to essentially forcibly make the senate give him even more power than he previously had. Basically, it shows how manipulative Roman politicians were and how power hungry they were.

Agrippina the Younger- Relationship with Nero

a.) Agrippina tried to exercise power power through her young son, but her behavior was more scandalous than seriously detrimental to the empire. In the first months of Nero's reign Agrippina controlled her son and the Empire. Agrippina between 55 and 58 became very watchful and had a critical eye over her son. In 55, Agrippina was forced out of the palace by her son to live in imperial residence. Nero deprived his mother of all honors and powers, and even removed her Roman and German bodyguards. Nero even threatened his mother he would abdicate the throne and would go to live on the Greek Island of Rhodes. Towards 57, Agrippina was expelled from the palace and went to live in a riverside estate in Misenum. While Agrippina lived there or when she went on short visits to Rome, Nero had sent people to annoy her. Although living in Misenum, she was still very popular, powerful and influential. Agrippina and Nero would see each other on short visits. According to Suetonius, Nero was annoyed at his mother being too watchful and tried three times to poison Agrippina, but she took the antidotes in time and survived. He then tried to crush her with a mechanical ceiling over her bed at her residence. After this failed, he devised a collapsible boat, which would either have its cabin fall in or become shipwrecked. Nero then ordered captains of a different boat to ram this boat while Agrippina was aboard. Nero heard Agrippina survived the wreck so he ordered her to be executed and framed it as a suicide. b.) N/A. c.) The relationship between Agrippina and her son is one essential to understanding how power hungry everyone was within ancient Rome. Sons would go so far to kill their mother and mothers would attempt to essentially take control of their son's position. In addition, Agrippina accumulated a lot of power over time and was one of Rome's most famous women. However, her eventual demise was due to both her sons craziness as well as her efforts to drive him to that point.

Agrippina the Younger- As a Key Player in the Politics of Late Julio-Claudian Dynasty

a.) Agrippina was the most important woman in the Julio-Claudian dynasty. She was the great granddaughter of the emperor Augustus, great-niece and adoptive granddaughter of the Emperor Tiberius, sister of the Emperor Caligula, niece and fourth wife of the Emperor Claudius, and mother of the Emperor Nero. Obviously, she was very involved in Julio-Claudian Dynasty due to all these relations. Many ancient historians say that she was responsible for poisoning Claudius. In addition, she was extremely domineering in her relationship with Nero (her son). Also, she managed to marry Tiberius (when he was emperor) in order to gain more power for herself. Essentially, she did whatever she could to exploit them and use their power to her advantage. b.) N/A c.) This is important to understanding ancient Roman history due to the fact that it shows how Agrippina was able to gain power and move through the ranks and eventually stay as the most powerful woman until her death. Again, this emphasizes how power-hungry she was and is a general reflection of how most leaders/famous/powerful people were at the time (for the most part). In addition, she was able to influence and play a significant role in one of Rome's most important families: the Julio-Claudians.

Caligula- Ascendancy to Principate

a.) Although Augustus' succession plans were all but ruined due to the deaths of more than several family members, including many of his own descendants, in the end Tiberius remained faithful to his predecessor's wishes that the next emperor would hail from the Julian side of the Imperial family. Thus, Tiberius was succeeded by Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, the sole-remaining son of his adopted son Germanicus. The new emperor not only belonged to both the Julian and Claudian sides of the Imperial family, but was also a direct descendant of Augustus Caesar through his mother Agrippina the Elder. More commonly remembered in history by his childhood nickname Caligula, he was the third Roman Emperor ruling from AD 37 to 41. When Tiberius died on 16 March AD 37, Caligula was well positioned to assume power, despite the obstacle of Tiberius's will, which named him and his cousin Tiberius Gemellus as joint heirs. Caligula ordered Gemellus killed within his first year in power. Backed by Naevius Sutorius Macro, Caligula asserted himself as sole princeps. His arrival in Rome from Capri was celebrated with high hopes, and the senate immediately conferred imperial power to him. b.) Caligula came into power in 37 AD. c.) Caligula's ascendancy into Principate is important in understanding Roman history due to the fact that it draws a sharp contrast between expectation and reality when it comes to some emperors. Caligula's ascendancy to power was very hyped up and the people were very happy to see him essentially gain power over everything. Later, however, it turned out that he was a total psychopathic leader that tortured his own people and caused widespread chaos. In addition, whenever the Julio-Claudian dynasty is able to continue that is very important given the fact that they were basically the most important family to ever leave their mark on Rome.

Tiberius- Relationship with Augustus

a.) Although at Augustus' death in 14 Tiberius hesitated to jump into his role too quickly, saying that he was inadequate for the job and reluctant to get it. His authority as Augustus' heir also stemmed clearly from his tribunician power, his adoption by Augustus, and Augustus' bequest to him of most of his estate as well as the name Augustus. b.) N/A c.) The relationship between Tiberius and Augustus is important in understanding Roman history due to the fact that they were both important Roman leaders that held a lot of power. In this particular relationship, power was being handed off from one man to another. In addition, it is interesting to see how they interact with each other given the fact that Tiberius was definitely not Augustus' first choice yet he fulfilled the role anyway. In addition, Tiberius was never Augustus' legitimate son but instead his stepson since Augustus married Livia (for her second marriage) and he happened to already be born and eventually found himself to be the best fit for heir despite the fact that he was never even in Augustus' bloodline.

Asylum

a.) An asylum is a place where people can go to seek refuge from other places. Romulus opened an asylum in order to increase the population of Rome. b.) The Asylum was located on the capitoline hill between the two summits. c.) The was significant to Roman history because it suddenly made moving to the city of Rome very accessible for any people that wanted to live there. In addition, this Asylum is responsible for the drastic population hike of Rome. In a way, it helped build Rome up to the massive empire it eventually became after it was founded by Romulus.

Plebian

a.) Anyone (mostly) who was not patrician. Most of the time they are poor, but in a few rare instances could be wealthy. They were concerned/interested with fair land distribution, access to offices of the state, debt, high food prices, and poverty. Their grievances eventually led to the creation of the office of tribune. They were the working class whose individuals had very little power. However, together they could make changes within society. b.) They existed throughout ancient Roman history. They lived in very cramped, small quarters. c.) This is significant to understanding Roman history because it provides further insight into the class system and spread of wealth and resources throughout the society.

Augustus and Problems Finding an Heir

a.) Augustus developed a highly non republican preoccupation by planning to pass on his position to a capable successor of his own choosing, preferably a blood relative. Moreover, given the depth of family pride in Roman society, his passionate desire to install a successor of his own blood must at least have met with some understanding, even on the part of contemporaries opposed to such a plan. For him to gain the acceptance of any successor was still extraordinarily delicate, not only on the ground of principle, but also because he only ever had one child- a daughter Julia, from his short lived marriage to Scribonia. He was so worried about finding an heir because he knew that he was going to die soon. He could not find a successor for the longest time and eventually he became healthier and was able to live longer. Since he had no remaining male blood relatives, he again turned to Agrippa, prevailing upon him to divorce Marcella and marry Julia. Agrippa then did this and later had a son with Julia named Gaius. Then they had a second one named Lucius. They were both adopted by Augustus as his own sons. Then later, they both died at an extremely young age. So, at this point, his only option was to turn back to his elder stepson Tiberius. Augustus then adopted him as a son and gave him imperium and later gave him imperium equal of that of Augustus in 13 AD. Nonetheless, Tiberius was reliable, experienced, and faced no obvious rival since they died. b.) Augustus died in 14 and therefore Tiberius came into power. c.) This is significant to show how desperate Augustus was to get a successor that was somehow related to him. He wanted to preserve his dynasty instead of being the one that allowed it to stop. This demonstrates the great lengths Romans would go to in order to preserve their lineage.

Gaius Gracchus

a.) Gaius Gracchus was the brother of Tiberius Gracchus. He became a Tribune in 123. Favored reforms brother had begun, but went even further → Capital punishment for anyone who had executed a citizen without first going before a voting body of citizens for approval + Grain price provided at a fixed price to the plebs once a month. As a result of this, he was assaulted on election day while running for his third term as Tribune. b.) Lived from 154-121. c.) This is significant to understanding ancient Roman history because it shows that neither of the brothers were able to survive while in office. Gaius pushed the government to the limit in an effort to help the poorer members of society and the opposition ended killing him.

Tiberius- Characteristic Traits of His Rule

a.) Before he became Princeps, he spent most of his time away from Rome which meant that he did not have many personal friends in the city. Due to this, he never had the easy familiarity with his peers that Augustus enjoyed. He seemed to be secretive in many ways and very cautious. He did not have a good relationship with the Senate and those relations only worsened when treason trials increased during his rule. Treason charges could be made on the grounds of conspiracy against the Princep's life, slander against him, or adultery with a member of the imperial family. Tiberius' general distrust, combined with his military background, led him to rely on the Praetorian Guard. Between 19 and 23 he built a force of about 9,000 a huge barracks ar the edge of Rome itself. This ensured that all future emperors would have a personal bodyguard there, and over the next two centuries these troops did often influence the choice of emperors. Tiberius did not show much interest in building things either- besides the barracks, he only sponsored the Temple of the Deified Augustus and a new stage for Pompey's theater. When there was an earthquake in Asia, Tiberius sent over architects to help rebuild. Tiberius rarely attended public games: he had actors expelled from Italy in 23, and limited the number of gladiators. After being Princeps for 23 years, he moved to the island of Capreae (modern day Capri). He never went back to Rome, not even for his mother funeral. So basically he had no relationship with the public and barely any with the other parts of the government. The majority of Tiberius's energies went to military and administrative matters. He monitored the governors of Rome's provinces very closely as well. In general he did make the Roman empire better than how he left it despite the fact that they weren't very noticeable. b.) Was in power from 14 BC- 37 AD. c.) Tiberius is important to understanding Roman history due to the fact that he was one of Rome's earliest emperors in addition to being part of one of the most important families in Ancient Rome - the Julio-Claudians.

Optimates and Populares

a.) Both names used to describe the holders of contrasting political attitudes. Optimates continued to uphold traditional methods of competition among senators. The Populares sought wider popularity among the citizen population as a means of advancement. The optimates were not concerned with the good of the common man, but rather of the elite. They wished to extend the power of the Senate. The populares were Roman political leaders who were on the side of "the people" as is indicated by their name. b.) Throughout Roman history they existed. c.) These two factions are significant for understanding ancient Roman history due to the fact that they represent the ideas of everyone in Rome. This gives one a great picture of how Rome was politically during the time.

Hills: Capitoline, Palatine, and Aventine

a.) Capitoline→ One of the most if not the most famous of all the hills in Rome. The magnificent temple of Jupiter is built on top of it. It overlooks the Roman Forum. Palentine→ Romulus officially founded the city of Rome upon this hill. Also overlooks the Roman Forum. Aventine→ Presumably state owned public land at the time. One of the smaller hills. b.) These hills were part of the Apennine mountains which serve as the "backbone" of Italy. They are three of the seven hills that lie within the Pomerium. c.) These hills are significant to the understanding of ancient Roman history because they are the places in which Rome was founded and settled.

Marcus Tullius Cicero

a.) Cicero and his family were Optimates. He rises to fame through a famous and risky legal defense despite the risk of upsetting Sulla. He later went on to play a key role in the Catilinarian Conspiracy by exposing Catiline's plot to overthrow the Roman Republic which in turn forced Cataline to flee Rome. He served as Consul in 63 BC. Clodius becomes tribune and forces Cicero to be exiled and he loses everything. After 1 year, Cicero is finally able to come back to Rome but he's afraid to speak again due to fear of retribution again. He writes philosophy and stays far away from politics. Later, he leaves Italy in fear that Caesar would take control and proscribe him. After the battle of Philippi proscriptions begin. The first person proscribed is Cicero and he is eventually killed. b.) Was alive from 106 BC-43 BC. c.) Cicero is significant to understanding Roman history due to his importance to almost every facet of Roman society. Politically, he served as consul and was involved in government and law. Socially, he was a philosopher that wrote many famous works. He was arguably one of the most important figures in ancient Rome because of this. In addition, he is an example of how brutal Roman leaders can be when it comes to proscriptions.

Nero- Ascendancy to Principate

a.) Claudius is suddenly poisoned and dies. Many people think this was because of Agrippina. Either way, Nero's position as Princeps was largely the result of Agrippina and her marriage to Claudius (he owed her). Nero continued to increase in power as time went on and his mother (Agrippina) started to have a decreased role and significance. Nero removes Pallas, secretary of Treasury under Claudius (tied to Agrippina). Agrippina protests this and berates Nero but he ignores her. Agrippina then threatens to reveal that she killed Claudius and present Britannicus as the legitimate heir. So, Nero poisons Britannicus. He was not yet seventeen when he succeeded Claudius. At his accession in 54, he promised good relations with the Senate, Equites, and army. b.) Came into power in 54 AD. c.) Nero's Ascendancy into Principate is very important in understanding Roman history due to the fact that he is the last of the Julio-Claudians to come into power. In addition, his promises early on are much different than what he actually does during his time as Princeps.

The class system (Consul, Dictator, Censor, Praetor, Aedile, Quaestor; Tribune of Plebs)

a.) Consul: Generally seen as the leader/general of the army. Decides if someone lives or dies if a big crime is committed. Represents executive power, has chief authority, can carry out laws. Outside of Rome most of the time. They only spend one year in office. Dictator: An emergency office (almost always in the case of a military emergency). Oversees all military actions. They have the power to do whatever is needed in order to help Rome. When the emergency is officially over, the dictator goes out of power. The senate chooses the dictator. The dictator selects an assistant (like a vice president) called the magister equitum. Censor: They make sure people of the senate behave well essentially. They make sure that they are doing their job properly. They also conduct the census which counts the number of people. Census is conducted in order to predict the tax revenue. The census could also document people in tribes. Usually, they are in office for 5 years but many stay for the rest of their life. Praetor: Similar to a consul but will only command the army when needed. The praetor also oversees the courts/judicial elements of government. They spend just one year in government. Aedile: The Aedile takes care of the public. They are also in charge of the operations of the city. They make sure that the streets are clean and make sure that the festivals are well-run and help with them. Basically, the position of Aedile is just a way to get your name into the political sphere. They spend only one year in office. Quaestor: The Quaestor manages the public finances of Rome. They collaborate and work with the senate and look after the treasury. As Rome became richer and richer over time, their job became bigger and bigger and more important. Since Rome was getting richer, the number of Quaestors grew as well. Quaestors are in office for a year. After being Quaestors many go and serve in even more prestigious offices such as consul. Tribune of the Plebs: The Tribune of the Plebs proposes laws and enacts laws. They can also call citizens to vote and can veto potential laws as well. They are the only people that have a veto power. They are seen as sacred by the Roman people. If anyone wants tries to kill the Tribune, they are subject to execution since they are seen as a god/sacred. However, if they go a mile outside Rome and are killed, the potential killer is not subject to execution and the Tribune is fair game. Their typical time in office is a year.

Traits of a good/bad emperor

a.) Good: - Improved Rome's infrastructure. - Doing things to improve the lives of the people. - Political reform. -Cooperated with others involved in government. Bad: -Cruelty. -Lead by their own interests and not the interests of the people. - Violence. - Killing/Executions for no reason. - Pedophelia. - Passing the blame onto others. b.) These traits began to show themselves when the first emperor (Augustus) was put into power in 17 BC. c.) This is important in understanding Roman history in order to demonstrate the wide range of emperors Rome experienced. Some did almost everything that would make them a "bad" emperor while others would be considered "good" based off of their actions. It also provides some perspective on how the position of the emperor evolved over time. The emperorship of Rome went from a relatively positive and "good" emperor to men partake in things such as pedophelia and subjecting their citizens to cruel and unusual punishment.

Patrician

a.) Had to belong to a specific noble, old, and established Roman family. Claimed and successfully held the highest offices in government (e.g. consul, military tribune, senate). Claimed exclusive rights over religious rituals that were essential to passing laws. Blocked and prevented plebeians from holding highest offices in government. b.) Throughout ancient Roman history they existed. They lived in very nice areas. c.) This is significant to understanding Roman history because it provides further insight into the class system and spread of wealth and resources throughout the society.

Gaius Julius Caesar

a.) Has a consulship in 59 BC→ but during his time as Consul he makes many enemies: Forces legislation instituting land re-distribution for Pompey's veterans, Ignores fellow consul (Bibulus), acts independently; Consulship of "Julius and Caesar." He immediately alienated the aristocrats with his reforms. His policies proved so controversial, the aristocrats attempted to prosecute him. However, Caesar proved too adept and his alliance with Crassus and Pompey too powerful for his enemies. In the end, Caesar enacted his reforms and avoided persecution. During this consulship, Caesar was also part of the First Triumvirate. The aristocratic opposition was horrified by the Triumvirate's tactics. They attempted to limit his power by giving him a really small command in Italy and limited the number of troops Caesar controlled after leaving office and also eliminated his ability to earn military glory and riches through conquest. Caesar finessed them though and managed to get governorship of Gaul. The governorship provided immunity from any prosecution for his actions as Consul. Caesar's presided over a heavy handed and controversial consulship. He intimidated his co-consul into irrelevance and used soldiers and mob violence to ensure the passage of his program. These tactics left him open to prosecution upon leaving office. However, he outmaneuvered his opponents leading to greater glory. Yet during the winter of 52, almost all of those leaders and tribes joined to expel the Romans from their lands. It was a serious political failure that resulted in the greatest military problem Caesar had ever faced. The result was a savage war on a massive scale, war that would test the limits both of the Roman general and his army. However, Caesar and his army were eventually able to conquer Gaul after years of fighting. Caesar did a lot of things as dictator from 49-45 BC: he fixed the debt crisis and coin circulation crisis, he recalibrated the calendar, curated many building projects. He was later assassinated by conspirators including Cassius and Brutus. Romans everywhere were very upset about this. Brutus: He was one of the conspirators that killed Caesar. Caesar continued to consolidate his power and in February 44 BC, he declared himself dictator for life. This act, along with his continual effort to adorn himself with the trappings of power, turned many in the Senate (including Brutus) against him. Sixty members of the Senate concluded that the only resolution to the problem was to assassinate Caesar. They thought he could become a REX or King.

Octavian

a.) He was born Gaius Octavius into an old and wealthy equestrian branch of the plebeian Octavii family. His maternal great-uncle Julius Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC, and Octavian was named in Caesar's will as his adopted son and heir. He,Mark Antony, and Marcus Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate to defeat the assassins of Caesar. Following their victory at Philippi, the Triumvirate divided the Roman Republic among themselves and ruled as military dictators.[note 4] The Triumvirate was eventually torn apart under the competing ambitions of its members. Lepidus was driven into exile and stripped of his position, and Antony committed suicide following his defeat at the Battle of Actium by Octavian in 31 BC. After the second Triumvirate dissolved, Augustus: - Restored the outward facade of the free Republic with power in all the branches even though in reality he had all the power. - Developed the framework for the Principate --> rejected monarchial titles called himself "Princeps." -Pax Romana during his reign. -Enlarged the empire drastically through annexation/conquest. -Reformed the Roman system of taxation, built roads, and created the Praetorian guard and fire department. Augustus died in AD 14 at the age of 75. He may have died from natural causes, although there were unconfirmed rumors that his wife Livia poisoned him. He was succeeded as Emperor by his adopted son (also stepson and former son-in-law)Tiberius. b.) He lived from 63 BC- 14 AD. c.) He was significant to understanding Roman history due to the fact that he was Rome's first autocrat. He also did a lot for the city and helped develop it in more ways than one. In addition, his life is an example of how power-hungry all Roman people were. However, he came out on top of the power struggle.

Caligula- Characteristic Traits of His Rule

a.) His first act was to rehabilitate his brother's and mother's memories. After that, he undertook to both restore senatorial prestige (by granting senators the full authority to make decisions) and publishing an imperial budget that was publicized unlike that of Tiberius who came before him. He attended a lot of races in Rome, and showed himself to be accessible to the people. He was interested in Italian roads and other utilitarian constructions, and in Rome he began two new aqueducts as well as the Vatican circus. His public perception was that he was a very good emperor and also very popular. However, within a year he became seriously ill, perhaps with a brain fever, and although he recovered, his erratic behavior escalated. He began to execute people left and right and also quarreled violently with the senate and was ruling more and more autocratically. He did crazy things like tried to make his favorite race horse Consul or when he had his sister (Drusilla) deified. Apparently he had incestuous relations with her before her death that year. He appeared in public dressed as a god and had a golden statue made of himself. Militarily, he launched small campaigns against Germany and Britain during the winter of 39-40. He traveled to Gual and the Rhine regions, in both instances at great cost to local communities.His deficiency of military leadership was the root cause of his assassination by members of the Praetorian Guard, whom he had relentlessly humiliated. Few mourned his passing. b.) Was in power from 37 AD - 41 AD. c.) The characteristic traits of Caligula's rule are important in understanding Roman history due to the fact that Caligula was the third of the Julio-Claudian rulers but also probably the most destructive out of all the ones that came before him. Caligula really set a precedent for the emperor to have all the power - while also setting a precedent for abusing power.

Nero- Characteristic Traits of his Rule

a.) In 62, his unlimited spending, together with protracted military actions in Britain and Armenia, caused him to devalue coinage and to revive the laws of treason. He then randomly began poisoning people in government and replacing them with people who were corrupt just like himself. Some senators were suspect to Nero since they refused to adopt their fellow members' servility (didn't suck up constantly like the others) towards him. Other senators and equites conspired against him. By the end of his rule, he was boasting that he would dispose of the entire senate. He was in a constant state of either terrorizing people or being nonchalant.

Comitium

a.) In all Roman communities, a designated place for citizens to meet when summoned by officials. It was essentially an open-air public meeting space of ancient Rome, and had major religious significance. A lot of political and judicial activity also took place here. Many monuments were inside the Comitium including the Rostra. b.) In Rome, the Comitium was situated north of the Forum at the foot of the Capitoline hill. c.) This is significant for understanding Roman history due to the fact that it is one of the epicenters of ancient Roman culture. Essentially, most of the important public events regarding politics and law took place here. The comitium also highlights Rome's tendency to publicize all major events in order to involve the people.

Cursus Honorum

a.) The "sequence of offices" of a Roman politician. The prescribed series of magistracies which Roman senators sought to hold in order to become leading public figures. Also gave minimum age and the minimum number of years between holding offices. b.) Took place throughout ancient Roman history. However, towards the end of the republic of Rome, many leaders blatantly ignored the rules. c.) This is significant to understanding ancient Roman history due to the fact that it gives one a perspective on how the government was organized and functioned.

Gaius Marius

a.) Marius was among the populares (essentially the new version of patrician). He has a lot of military success (many triumphs) which gives him the rise to fame. He was Consul for a ridiculous seven times. His main rival was Sulla. At one point Marius had to flee Rome in order to escape being executed by Sulla. Marius did return, however, and had just regained his power in Rome when he died of a fever. b.) Lived from 157-86. c.) This is significant to understanding ancient Roman history because it shows one of Rome's most important and popular leaders. He massively influenced the republic over his many years and office and made changes to the army that would make it one of the most powerful. In addition, the powerful military that he improved helped Rome conquer more land, thus makign it more powerful.

Prima Porta

a.) One of Augustus' most famous portraits is the so-called Augustus of Primaporta of 20 B.C.E. (the sculpture gets its name from the town in Italy where it was found in 1863). At first glance this statue might appear to simply resemble a portrait of Augustus as an orator and general, but this sculpture also communicates a good deal about the emperor's power and ideology. In fact, in this portrait Augustus shows himself as a great military victor and a staunch supporter of Roman religion. n this marble freestanding sculpture, Augustus stands in a contrapposto pose (a relaxed pose where one leg bears weight). The emperor wears military regalia and his right arm is outstretched, demonstrating that the emperor is addressing his troops. We immediately sense the emperor's power as the leader of the army and a military conqueror. He is also reaching his hand out to touch a Cupid figure that is riding a dolphin. The dolphin became a symbol of Augustus' great naval victory over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE, a conquest that made Augustus the sole ruler of the Empire. The cupid astride the dolphin sends another message too: that Augustus is descended from the gods. Cupid is the son of Venus, the Roman goddess of love. Julius Caesar, the adoptive father of Augustus, claimed to be descended from Venus and therefore Augustus also shared this connection to the gods. The Augustus of Primaporta is one of the ways that the ancients used art for propagandistic purposes. Overall, this statue is not simply a portrait of the emperor, it expresses Augustus' connection to the past, his role as a military victor, his connection to the gods, and his role as the bringer of the Roman Peace. b.) Was vowed to Augustus by the Senate in 20 BC and set up in a public place. c.) The Prima Porta is important to understanding ancient Roman history due to the fact that it shows what political propaganda of the day looked like. This is extremely important since politics and overall reputation/prestige played a very large role in ancient Rome.

Gaius Pompeius Magnus (Pompey the Great)

a.) Over time, his fame begins to increase due to some of the major accomplishments he had. He frees the Mediterranean of pirates, Final defeat of Mithradates (one of Rome's greatest and most successful enemies), and In effect added Western Turkey (Greek Ionia) to Roman empire. Pompey wants land for his veterans who had fought for him against Mithradates. He was from a Plebeian family but acclaimed as one as Rome's greatest generals. He was eventually elected Consul after all of his success and rise to popularity. He esentially bought the Plebian support. As Pompey was reaching the height of his power, an aristocrat named Gaius Julius Caesar started making waves in the Roman political scene. Unlike Pompey, Caesar was from an ancient patrician family. But he was also the nephew of Gaius Marius, the leader of the populares, whereas Pompey had been fighting on the side of the optimates. Pompey was a pleb fighting for the aristocracy, and Caesar was an aristocrat fighting for the plebs. Despite their different origins, both of these men tried to straddle the growing gap between the two classes. Recognizing this kinship, Caesar formed an unofficial alliance with Pompey by marrying his daughter, Julia, to the aging general (Julia and Pompey get married). Eventually, the First Triumvirate is formed consisting of Pompey, Caesar, and Crassus. Afraid of Caesar's growing power, Pompey turned against his old ally and formed an alliance with the Senate. The Senate declared Pompey sole consul and declared Caesar an outlaw. It is unclear whether the Senate and Pompey truly meant to threaten Caesar, or if this was all meant to be a bluff to bring Caesar in to line. But Caesar took it as a threat and, in defiance of Roman law and custom, marched his army on Rome. Caesar moved faster than anyone had expected, and in 49 BCE, he marched his army across the Rubicon. Unprepared and with only raw recruits at hand, Pompey and the Senate fled Rome, surrendering the city without a fight. He then flees to Greece so he can get more troops. Caesar eventually follows him to Greece where they fight at the Battle of Pharsalus in central Greece. Though Pompey led the larger force, Caesar's superior tactics won him the battle. His army destroyed, Pompey fled to Egypt, with Caesar hot on his heels. Then Pompey flees to Egypt where Caesar follows but discovers that Pompey had died. Caesar then takes over any lands that were loyal to Pompey or the Optimates in Rome. b.) Lived from 106 BC-29 BC. c.) This figure is significant for understanding Roman history due to his political importance. He did many good things for the people of Rome (especially the Plebeians), but also died a tragic death as a result of political conflict. Pompey serves as an example of how relations could change extremely quickly within ancient Rome.

Res Gestae

a.) Res Gestae Divi Augusti (Eng. The Deeds of the Divine Augustus) is the funerary inscription of the first Roman emperor,Augustus, giving a first-person record of his life and accomplishments. The Res Gestae is especially significant because it gives an insight into the image Augustus portrayed to the Roman people. Various inscriptions of the Res Gestae have been found scattered across the former Roman Empire. The inscription itself is a monument to the establishment of the Julio-Claudian dynasty that was to follow Augustus. b.) According to the text it was written just before Augustus' death in AD 14, but it was probably written years earlier and likely went through many revisions. c.) This document is important because it show how Augustus wanted himself to be portrayed to the rest of Rome once he passed away. The document serves as a prime example of how Roman leaders will go out of their way in order to portray a certain image to their people.

Mark Antony

a.) Rise to prominence: Mark Antony became a cavalry officer after his youth and achieved victories in Palestine and Egypt. After this, he joined Caesar to fight in Gaul where Antony served as a staff officer. In 49 BC, he was elected as a tribune and served as a staunch defender of Caesar against his rivals in the Senate. During Caesar's first yearlong dictatorship, Antony was his second-in-command. By 48 B.C. he was in Greece, supporting Caesar's left wing at the Battle of Pharsalus. A year later, Antony's violent expulsion from the Senate by anti-Caesar factions gave Caesar's legion a rallying point as they crossed the Rubicon River, igniting the Republican Civil War. When Caesar assumed his fifth and final consulship in 44 B.C., Antony was his co-consul. Fall From Prominence/Cleopatra: Antony was a supporter of Julius Caesar, and served as one of his generals during the conquest of Gaul and the Civil War. Antony was appointed administrator of Italy while Caesar eliminated political opponents in Greece, North Africa, and Spain. After Caesar's death in 44 BC, Antony joined forces with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, another of Caesar's generals, and Octavian, Caesar's nephew and adopted son, forming a three-man dictatorship known to historians as the Second Triumvirate. The Triumvirs defeated Caesar's murderers, the Liberatores, at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC, and divided the government of the Republic between themselves. Antony was assigned Rome's eastern provinces, including the client kingdom of Egypt, then ruled by Cleopatra VII Philopator, and was given the command in Rome's war against Parthia. Relations among the Triumvirs were strained as the various members sought greater political power. Civil war between Antony and Octavian was averted in 40 BC, when Antony married Octavian's sister, Octavia. Despite this marriage, Antony carried on a love affair with Cleopatra, who bore him three children, further straining Antony's relations with Octavian. Lepidus was expelled from the association in 36 BC, and in 33 BC disagreements between Antony and Octavian caused a split between the remaining Triumvirs. Their ongoing hostility erupted into civil war in 31 BC, as the Roman Senate, at Octavian's direction, declared war on Cleopatra and proclaimed Antony a traitor. Later that year, Antony was defeated by Octavian's forces at the Battle of Actium. Defeated, Antony and Cleopatra fled to Egypt, where they committed suicide. b.) Mark Antony was alive from 83BC-30BC. c.) Mark Antony is significant to understanding Roman history due to the fact that he played a critical role in the transformation of the Roman Republic from an oligarchy into the autocratic Roman Empire. Once he killed himself, all of the power was essentially transferred to Octavian which made autocracy.

Romulus and Remus

a.) Romulus and Remus were the sons of Rhea Silvia and the god Mars- who impregnated her. Their actual father, Amulius (who was married to Rhea Silvia), ordered for the kids to be drowned in the Tiber river. However, the basket that they were placed in on the river washed up on shore and the twins were rescued by a shepherd. Once they grew up, they overthrew his father out of anger from trying to drown them and then decided to create a city where they were saved. However, the brothers fought and eventually Romulus ended up killing Remus, making Romulus the only founder of Rome. b.) Rome was founded in 753 by Romulus. He was in power from 753-715. Rome was founded where the shepherd found Romulus and Remus. c.) This is significant to Roman history because Roman history would not have existed without this.

Tacitus

a.) Tacitus was a senator and a historian of the Roman Empire. The surviving portions of his two major works—the Annals and the Histories—examine the reigns of the Roman Emperors Tiberius, Claudius, Nero, and those who reigned in the Year of the Four Emperors (AD 69). These two works span the history of the Roman Empire from the death of Augustus in AD 14 to the years of the First Jewish-Roman War in AD 70. There are substantial gaps in the surviving texts, including a gap in the Annals that is four books long. Tacitus is considered to be one of the greatest Roman historians. He lived in what has been called the Silver Age of Latin literature. He is known for the brevity and compactness of his Latin prose, as well as for his penetrating insights into the psychology of power politics. b.) He lived from 56 AD- 117 AD. c.) Tacitus is important in understanding Roman history due to the fact that he is one of the most important people that documented it. A lot of what we know now about ancient Roman civilization is due to his records. Although there is debate over the accuracy, it is the best primary source that we have today.

Virgil's Aeneid

a.) The Aeneid is a Latin epic poem, written by Virgil between 29 and 19 BC, that tells the legendary story of Aeneas, a Trojan who travelled to Italy, where he became the ancestor of the Romans. The first six of the poem's twelve books tell the story of Aeneas's wanderings from Troy to Italy, and the poem's second half tells of the Trojans' ultimately victorious war upon the Latins. It was written as a propaganda tale to justify Rome conquering other places. b.) It was supposedly written over 2000 years ago by Virgil. c.) The Aeneid is important to understanding Roman history due to the fact that it serves as yet another piece of propaganda. Romans would do essentially anything to justify their conquest even if it meant writing an epic poem.

Ara Pacis

a.) The Ara Pacis The Ara Pacis Augustae is an altar in Rome dedicated to Pax, the Roman goddess of Peace. It was commissioned by the Senate in order to commemorate the return of Augustus to Rome after his fighting in Gaul and to symbolize that there was now peace after those wars. It is essentially an altar surrounded by walls and on the walls were various depictions of scenes. The Ara Pacis also operates as propaganda for Augustus and his regime, easing notions of autocracy and dynastic succession that might otherwise be unpalatable to traditional Roman culture. b.) Built in 9 BC. c.) This building is significant for understanding Roman history due to the fact that it reflects the importance of Augustus in Roman politics and culture. Obviously, he was so important that they built a monument to commemorate him.

Curia Hostilia

a.) The Curia Hostilia served as one of the meeting places for the senate. It was part of the Comitium in the Roman Forum. Supposedly built by Tullius Hostilius (the third king of Rome). It was burned downed in riots resulting from the death of Clodius. b.) In the comitium. Built in 700 BC and burned down in 52 BC. c.) The curia hostilia is significant to understanding Roman history due to its significance to Roman government. The senate were for all intensive purposes (in early ancient Roman government) the predominant branch of government and were made up of the most elite members of Roman society. Therefore, the place where these important people meet also becomes very important. In addition, its demise reflects how the Roman people can be destructive when they don't like something that happened.

First Triumvirate

a.) The First Triumvirate was an unofficial political alliance between Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus formed in 59 BC and lasted to 53 BC. The group was not really a union but a way for them all to benefit personally. Caesar wanted a consulship, Pompey wanted land for his veterans who fought for him, and Crassus wanted relief for tax collectors in Asia. They all agreed to take no action that would harm the interest of the others. Ultimately, Caesar gets his consulship, the legislation to give Pompey's veterans land is approved, and Crassus becomes governor of Syria (Asia) where he could implement tax relief. The First Triumvirate begins to break apart once Pompey's wife dies (which strained his relations with Caesar). Crassus was also killed in 53 BC which was a big loss for the group. b.) Lasted from 59 BC- 53 BC. c.) This is significant for understanding Roman History due to the fact that it shows how political masterminds interacted with each other in ancient Rome. In addition, it proves that most ancient Roman politicians were only interested in their own personal gain and not necessarily the well-being of the group as a whole.

Roman Forum

a.) The Roman Forum was the center of Roman public life. Elections, speeches, trials, and many other important events took place here. Also had important buildings such as the Colosseum and many temples. It was the main focal point of Rome. b.) It is located between the Palatine and Capitoline hills. c.) This is significant for understanding ancient Roman history because it is a very major aspect of early Roman civilization. Many important events took place in the forum that would shape the city into what it later became. It was a hub of culture (Roman gladiators in colosseum) as well as politics (the Senate) and everything in between.

Rostra

a.) The Rostra was a large platform that orators and other famous/political figure used to speak to the public. It is named after the bronze ships that decorate the front of the structure. Five honorary columns were erected behind it that pictured famous Romans such as the Caesars. At the Rostra Antony delivered his funeral speech to Caesar and where the Triumvirs proscribed Cicero. b.) The Rostra was planned by Caesar but made into its final form by Augustus in 42 BC. It existed throughout the Republican and Imperial Periods. c.) The Rostra was significant for understanding Roman history due to its importance as an architectural structure. Not only was it a good looking structure but also many events took place here. In a way, the building serves as a tribute to the Roman need of publicizing everything whether that would be a speech or a proscription.

Second Triumvirate

a.) The Second Triumvirate was an official political alliance instated by law between three dictators: Lepidus, Antony, and Octavian. Their objective was to hunt down the conspirators of Caesar's assassination and bring them to justice. They had a group of troops totaling around 200,000. They fought the army of Brutus and Cassius at the Battle of Philippi. After they win the battle, people are proscribed such as Cicero. When Antony became involved with Cleopatra (Egypt's pharaoh) and decided to fight Rome, Octavian played a part in defeating Antony's forces. Once Antony was out of the way and Lepidus was forced to retire, Octavian was free to become Augustus Caesar. b.) Lasted from 43 BC- 33 BC. c.) This is significant for understanding Roman History due to the fact that it shows how political masterminds interacted with each other in ancient Rome. It also shows some of the repercussions of Caesar's death and how other powerful men within Rome reacted.

Pomerium

a.) The boundary around the city of Rome. Beyond the barrier, it was not longer the city of Rome but Roman territory. Romulus ordered for it to be built around the city. This was a sacred boundary that was ritually marked by a priest. Also, a boundary where political and military action could and could not be exercised. b.) Located at the boundary of the city → not sure of specific date. d.) These walls are significant to understanding Roman history because they permeate every aspect of ancient Roman culture and society. In politics and military affairs they denote places in which people can and cannot assert their power. Socially, the boundary denoted if someone was a Roman citizen, or a citizen of a Roman territory. Furthermore, we would not know the exact location of Rome today if this wall was not constructed. In the present day many archaeologists have found human skeletons within the wall.

Nero- Early Reign vs. Late Reign

a.) The early part of Nero's reign is characterized mainly by conflicts between him and Agrippina. She tried to insert herself into every aspect of his life whether it would be political or social. Later in his early rule, he poisoned Britannicus due to the fact that he was seen as a threat to Nero's power since Agrippina began to push the Senate to realize that Britannicus is the true heir to Claudius just to spite her son. However, Nero's late reign is characterized by many different things. His mother is finally killed by a planned assassination by Nero. Conflicts with Agrippina leads to gradual consolidation of power that marginalized the senate. Since the Senate is marginalized, there is increased criticism of Nero. In response to this criticism, Nero executes a Praetor for criticizing him at a party and then exiles a poet for writing poems that criticize him. So, to combat this the Senate devices the Pisonian conspiracy (65 CE). Organized by a leading member of the senate: Gaius Calpurnius Piso (followers: fellow senators). However, Nero foils the plan after it is leaked and 41 conspirators are accused - majority either executed, forced to commit suicide, or exiled. From 65 CE onward, Nero becomes increasingly concerned about the security of his rule. However, in 68 CE the senate declares Nero an enemy to the state and sentences him to death. Nero then flees Rome and commits suicide before he is captured.

Tiber River

a.) The hills on which Rome was founded upon overlook the Tiber River. The river provided fresh water for Rome that could be used for drinking and farming. Also, many people's dead bodies were tossed in the Tiber (example→ Tiberius Gracchus and Romulus+Remus). The mountain range also served as a boundary between the land of the Etruscans, Sabines, and Latins. b.) Flowed through the Apennine mountains in Italy. c.) This is significant for understanding Roman history because it is essential part of the natural layout of Italy. In addition, Rome was extremely reliant on this River for many purposes in order to facilitate their lifestyle.

Julio-Claudian Family Line

a.) The term Julio-Claudian dynasty refers to the first five Roman emperors—Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero—or the family to which they belonged. They ruled the Roman Empire from its formation under Augustus in the second half of the 1st century (44/31/27) BC, until AD 68 when the last of the line, Nero, committed suicide. The "father-to-son" form of succession is notably absent in the history of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Neither Augustus, Caligula or Nero fathered a natural and legitimate son; Tiberius' own son, Drusus, predeceased him; only Claudius was outlived by his son, Britannicus, although he opted to promote his adopted son, Nero, as his successor to the throne. Adoption ultimately became a tool that most Julio-Claudian emperors utilized in order to promote their chosen heir to the front of the succession. Augustus, himself an adopted son of the Roman dictator Julius Caesar, adopted Tiberius as his son and heir. Tiberius was, in turn, required to adopt Germanicus, the father of Caligula. Caligula adopted Tiberius Gemellus shortly before executing him; Claudius adopted Nero, who, lacking a natural or adopted son of his own, ended the reign of the Julio-Claudian dynasty with his fall from power and subsequent suicide. b.) Their rule lasted from 27 BC to 68 AD. c.) The Julio-Claudians were essentially one of the most important Roman families of the time. Their consistency in keeping in power shows how much they valued power. Moreover, this was the first time that such a long dynasty had existed which went against the republican structure. This lineage marked the beginning of emperors in Rome.

Lucius Cornelius Sulla

a.) Was the Consul twice and Dictator once. He was among the optimates (essentially the new version of the plebeians). He marches on Rome (Unprecedented and shocking move). 22 of Gaius Marius supporters are executed with little to no trial (Gaius Marius was his rival). Proscriptions (82-81); at least 500 were proscribed; grossly exploited by Sulla's supporters. Sulla orders the bones of Marius to be exhumed and scattered. In a dispute over the eastern army command (legally awarded to Sulla by the Senate) fomented by Marius who wanted the Mithridatic command for himself, and during a period of extreme instability in Rome, Sulla unconstitutionally marched his armies into Rome and defeated Marius in battle. After his second march on Rome, he revived the office of dictator which had been inactive since the Second Punic War over a century before, and used his powers to enact a series of reforms to the Roman constitution, meant to restore the primacy of the Senate and curb the power of tribunes. b.) He lived from 138-78. c.) This is significant to the understanding of ancient Roman history because Sulla is a very important leader. Important leaders influence a society which is exactly what Sulla did through some of his serious power moves.

Claudius- Quality as a Ruler/ Characteristic Traits of his Rule

a.) When Claudius was put into power, he immediately reduced his reliance on the Praetorian Guard, and loosened his grip by appointing two Praetorian Prefects rather than one. But he had already alienated the senators, and he angered them further when he paid each Praetorian 150 gold pieces. As Princeps, Claudius took his imperial duties very serioulsy, and treated the senate with respect. He consulted it frequently and involved himself actively in military and administrative affairs, even reviving the old Republican office of censor in 47-48. However, his tone in the documents he wrote comes off as almost introvert and fussy. He considered it his duty to take in all sorts of trials. Senators, however, saw this judicial activity as meddling with their prerogatives of dignity, especially because his judgement had proven to be erratic. For most advice, Claudius relied on mostly imperial freedman rather than senators and equites. This made the elite of Rome extremely angry due to the fact that they felt their power and prestige was being handed to social reformers. His own niece Agrippina the Younger schemed successfully to marry him in 49. Within a year she held more public visibility than any other women and received the title Augusta (very prestigious). Claudius' apparent inability to take charge in his own home only sharpened the resentment felt by many in Rome when he assumed the censorship and conducted public, but characteristically erratic, reviews of individual's lives. Claudius was much more militarily active than his two imperial predecessors; rather, he shared Augustus' concern to expand the empire. He directed the invasion of Britain in 43, emulating Julius Caesar's efforts exploits there and going to the island personally for the climax of the campaign. He partook in many other expansionary measures besides this. Give that, he received as many as 27 official salutations as imperator, underscoring the importance he attached to gaining and maintaining a military reputation. In addition, Claudius enjoyed things such as races and gaming (pleasures that he shared with the Roman people). He was very keen about the grain supply at all times. His public buildings and renovations tended to be utilitarian, such as a new aqueduct for Rome, and a new port just north of Ostia. He very rarely traveled out of Rome (unless he had to for military reasons). His widespread popularity never overcame the resentment felt towards him by the Senate. His reputation in the literary record is mixed at best, despite his deification at death. b.) Was in power from 41-54 AD. c.) Claudius' quality as a ruler as well as his characteristic traits are important to understanding Roman history due to the fact that he was part of the Julio-Claudian dynasty: one of Rome's most important families. In addition, Claudius is important due to the fact that he exhibited an understanding that military action is important especially since that is very important to Roman culture. Due to this, the Roman people liked him a lot. Lastly, his relationship with the Senate is also important. The senate was constantly worried about maintaining their own power which is why they felt threatened when Claudius consulted people other than them for advice.

Punic Wars

a.) While Rome was expanding its power in Italy, carthage was also expanding its power. Eventually, the two powers clashed in Sicily during the First Punic War. Romans win the war due to their competent navy. Results from the First Punic War: Carthage gives up Sicily and other territories that Rome wanted, Carthage pays Rome a lot of money, Rome comes out of the war with commitments outside of Italy. Second Punic War: By 218 Carthage had enough strength to wage another war. At the outset, Carthaginians were far more successful. Ultimately, however, Hannibal's invasion of Italy proved unsustainable. Roman invasion of Zama in 202 BCE under the leadership of Publius Cornelius Scipio. Scipio is praised and awarded lavishly, gaining the honorific title Africanus. Results: Rome now dominates the entire Western Mediterranean, Rome is now able to continue expansion throughout the Eastern Mediterranean. b.) First Punic War: 264-241. Second Punic War: 218-201. c.) This is significant to understanding ancient Roman history due to the fact that it sheds more light on the intensely violent relationship between the Carthaginians and the Romans. They both want the same thing (land, money, etc.), but only one of them can have it.