SEI MTEL

example of a pivot

"all" or "more"

CAL

-Center for Applied Linguistics -a non-profit that conducts research into language and culture, develops assessment and curriculum material, and offers training and educational resources for teachers

natural approach to second language learning

-Krashen is co-credited with developing it, and its ideas are similar to his affective filter hypothesis -emphasizes that students should not be forced to speak until they feel comfortable doing so in order to avoid affective interference in the learning process

TESOL

-Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages -the preeminent organization in the field -offers virtual seminars, online courses, certificate programs, and meetings/conventions dedicated to the field

segmental

-a discrete, identifiable speech segment that contributes sound in a sequential pattern -examples include phonemes, syllables, diphthongs, and blends

formulaic speech

-also called the intermediate language proficiency stage -the learner uses 6000 words to make complex sentences, state opinions, and share thoughts -learners can study content subjects in English -teachers may shift the instructional focus to writing

correlative conjunctions

-appear in pairs and join words or phrases with the same function -examples: "either...or," "both...and," and "no sooner...than"

John Schumann's acculturation model

-argues that a person's success in an L2 is directly related to his or her acculturation into the L2 culture -if a language learner joins the dominant-language culture, they will necessarily have more L2 language experiences, resulting in greater L2 competency

Krashen's Monitor Hypothesis

-argues that individuals who acquire languages know inherently what is correct in that language, even if they have not formally studied the grammatical or syntactical rules of that language -learning plays a role even for individuals who have acquired a language: once they learn explicit rules, they can use them to monitor and correct their language use

Why is inhibition a critical concept in language learning?

-because of the importance of performance to language learning -scholars agree that one's willingness to communicate (to seek out opportunities to communicate in L2) is a key factor in L2 learning success -successful language learning also requires a measure of risk-taking - the willingness to make mistakes, often public ones, in learning a language

How should teachers teach grammar?

-both implicitly and explicitly, according to both the subject matter and student needs -in general, students whose L1 is grammatically very different from English will require more explicit instruction -several aspects of English grammar are hard for even speakers of closely-related languages - for example, word order, prepositions, auxiliary verbs, and modal verbs - and thus should be taught explicitly

How do teachers implement CBM?

-by designing probes, or short assessments that target specific skills -for example, a teacher might design a spelling probe, administered weekly, that requires students to spell 10 unfamiliar but level-appropriate words -teachers then track the data over time to measure student progress toward defined grade-level goals

How can teachers reduce social distance?

-by encouraging or requiring students to interact with one another -by reinforcing cultural relativism -by demonstrating the positive contributions of student differences

How can affixes be classified?

-by where they are joined to the root morpheme -by how they change the meaning of the base to which they are joined

similes

-compare, or equate, two unlike things using the words "like" or "as" -example: "my throat is as dry as a bone"

metaphors

-compare, or equate, two unlike things without using the words "like" or "as" -example: "love is war"

task complexity

-concept developed by Peter Skehan in the late 1990s as a framework for understanding the complexity of learning tasks in an L2 classroom -three factors that contribute to complexity of a task: code complexity (determined by language factors such as vocabulary and sentence complexity), cognitive complexity (determined by the nature of cognitive processing required of the students and whether they are accustomed to that type of cognitive processing), and the amount of communicative stress (such as time constraints or uncomfortable group dynamics) -according to this theory, effective teachers will scale the scaffolding they provide to match the complexity of the task evaluated within this framework

communicative approaches to second-language learning

-constructivist theory that focuses on providing students genuine, meaningful, experience-based interactions in the target language -most commonly used in the modern classroom -teachers spend little time talking about the target language or teaching grammar and instead focus on facilitating target-language -students often work in pairs or groups, role-playing or negotiating the transfer of information that one student has and another lacks -reading, writing, speaking and listening are integrated from the beginning

According to Dornyei, how should teachers attend to motivation?

-create the basic motivating conditions in the classroom -generate initial, individualized motivation -maintain and protect that motivation -encourage students to self-monitor

elective bilingualism

-describes the path taken by individuals who choose to study a second language, often for reasons of personal gain -usually learn the second language in an artificial environment, such as a classroom -although they may eventually reach proficiency, their native language will usually remain dominant

Kenneth Goodman

-did research discounting the idea that students read by systematically processing and compiling sequential information -said reading is a "psycholinguistic guessing game" in which students take rapid surveys of the written text and use it to make predictions -reading with an interplay of thought and language is more efficient -the better a student is at reading, the less of it they need to read in order to understand it

linking verbs

-do not indicate action, but instead connect the subject to a word or phrase that describes the subject -example: to be

technologies that are of particular value in ESL classrooms

-document cameras, which can easily provide a visual accompaniment to a spoken lesson -online voice recorders, which allow teachers and students to record lessons for targeted speaking practice -any technology that gives quick access to pictures provides essential scaffolding for early ELLs -anonymous chat and collaboration sites are particularly useful for ELLs who are not comfortable participating in class

How does the federal law give states leeway on ELL participation?

-does not prescribe what type of educational program be provided to ELLs - it leaves discretion to state and local authorities - but it does require the authorities to monitor the success of the programs and make adjustments if necessary -ESSA specified that ELL progress in English be assessed annually

portfolio assessments

-either a student or a teacher collects a student's work over time for eventual formative or summative assessment -valuable assessment tool for ESL writing proficiency and can help remind an ELL of the traits of good writing -can be highly individualized or differentiated, allowing each student to be evaluated in terms of progress rather than by comparison with peers -by definition, it will contain a time-series of a student's work, making his or her progress over time evident (this quality is highly motivational)

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) of 1975

-established the right of students with disabilities to receive appropriate education tailored to their individual needs -qualifies students for what is called special education assistance if they do not reach age-level benchmarks in several language and mathematical competencies

intrinsic motivation

-exists when an individual wants to do something for the sake of it without concern for reward and punishment -more reliable than extrinsic motivation

bilingual education before the 1960s

-federal government provided no educational support to non-English speakers -some schools provided support to immigrant students on an ad hoc (as needed) basis, but most did not -students had to assimilate rapidly -ELLs dropped out at higher rates than native English speakers, and no one tried to figure out why

How can teachers modify written exams for ELLs?

-give ESL students fewer questions -give students questions and/or instructions in simpler, more literal language -give students questions with embedded cues and prompts -allow students to exhibit their knowledge in different formats - for example, by means of an oral question-and-answer session, or by means of projects or presentations

Cummins' BICS vs. CALP

-highlighted the importance of treating the two types of language as separate systems -an ESL student will typically become proficient in BICS in as little as six months, while proficiency in CALP may take 7-10 years -furthermore, many ELLs never achieve full facility in CALP, while failure to acquire BICS is rare

four levels of commitment that schools take toward multicultural education

-identified by James Banks in 1989 -contributions approach, additive approach, transformative approach, decision-making or social action approach

fossilization

-if a learner is stuck in an interlanguage and lacks the opportunity or motivation to improve upon it, the interlanguage risks becoming fossilized -often occurs when a learner achieves a level of proficiency that allows for effective, albeit limited, communication

How should teachers model tasks for ELLs?

-in setting up activities, teachers should demonstrate the key steps using both actions and words -when possible, verbal instructions should be supplemented with visual displays, such as flow charts, which divide the activity or process into identifiable stages -teachers can also supplement verbal instructions with written summaries, ideally set out in brief, step-wise format -teachers might choose to chunk the instructions or stages in a task, pausing the students repeatedly to check their work and understanding before providing a demonstration of the next step

languages that have loaned words to English

-include German, Danish, and French -this occurred through forces such as exploration, colonization and war

possessive pronouns

-indicate ownership -my/mine, your/yours, its, their, etc.

how to reduce phonetic interference

-introduce a word in speech before introducing it in writing -devote large blocks of early instruction to the repetition of unfamiliar sounds

thick and thin language ego boundaries

-introduced by subsequent theorists after Guiora -students with thick boundaries feel fewer inhibitions in language learning and are more comfortable with the performance activities necessary for full linguistic competence

implicational universals

-language properties that occur together -example: if verb-subject-object is the dominant syntax form in a language, the adjective will follow the noun

push-in model

-language specialist joins mainstream classrooms -most commonly: language specialist works with individuals or small groups throughout the day and supports students who need assistance -may co-teach with the classroom teacher, may divide the classroom based on language ability for some parts of the day

absolute universal

-language universal that knows of no exception -relatively uninteresting (all languages have syllables, consonants and vowels)

evaluative comprehension

-occurs when students offer an assessment of a claim in a text or use a text as a basis for expressing an opinion -teachers can extend evaluative conversations by asking students for justifications or evidence for their claims and use them as a forum for putting targeted vocabulary to use, such as analyze, persuade, and contrast

teacher expectations

-one of the key factors that contribute to the academic achievement gap between minority/low-income students and white/privileged ones -students tend to do as well as teachers expect them to, and teachers are often unaware of these biases within themselves

sheltered instruction observation protocol (SIOP)

-originally developed in the early 1990s as a 30-item survey to evaluate the effectiveness of a teacher's planning, implementation, and assessment of sheltered English instruction -has been demonstrated to be valid and reliable and is still widely used to evaluate sheltered English programs, even those that do not follow SIOP as an instructional model

SIOP follow-up

-originators followed up on the success of SIOP as a survey tool by elaborating a full-scale approach to lesson planning and delivery, intended to give content instructors a systematic approach to teaching ELLs -divides the instructional process into eight components: lesson preparation, building background, comprehensible input, strategies, interaction, practice/application, lesson delivery, review/assessment

factors that could contribute to a high affective filter

-overcorrection of errors -fear of speech performance in front of peers -test anxiety

interrogative sentences

-pose a question -"Is your mom home?"

components of good writing

-proper use of English conventions -word choice -organization -voice -fluency -message/content

personal pronouns

-refer to a specific person or an object -I, me, you, he, she, etc.

transitive verb

-requires an object in order to constitute a complete thought -example: throw

acquisition of a second language

-requires conscious effort -may take place primarily in a classroom -affected by first-language grammar -requires instruction -learners may have varied motivations -cognitive and affective factors are central to the rate of progress

clarification of the IDEA of 1975

-specifies that deficiencies cannot arise from environmental variables, including limited English proficiency or cultural differences -frequent misdiagnoses still occur because many of the characteristics ESL learners manifest during the normal L2 learning process resemble those of native speakers with disabilities

phonemes

-speech sounds that are studied by phonetics and phonology -English, for example, consists of 44 unique phonemes arising from the 26 letters of the alphabet used singly or in combination -a competent English speaker can distinguish between these 44 phonemes -substituting one for another will result in a change in meaning

memorization strategies

-techniques used to remember and retrieve information -examples: repetition and acronyms

predicate

-tells something about the subject -in addition to the verb, it often includes an object (direct and/or indirect) and various compliments

stage 2 of morpheme acquisition

-the auxiliary verb "to be" ("He is eating") -articles (the, a)

social distance

-the degree to which individuals accept those that they perceive to be different from them, whether due to differences in race, age, gender, etc. -a form of prejudice, but can be present in a weaker form when individuals in new social settings gravitate toward people they perceive as being like themselves, for example

educational policies

-the educational policies instituted at the federal, state and local level influence the ways in which ESL programs are structures and administered in schools -within the bounds on those laws, however, schools vary in their initiatives and institutional approaches to their ESL communities

affective filter

-the emotional response an ELL has to a language-learning environment -this can either hinder the ELL's learning (in which case they are described as having a high affective filter) or promote it (a low affective filter)

chunking

-the practice of dividing a lesson or a text into mentally digestible parts, often by stopping and inviting the students to pose questions, draw connections to prior knowledge, or anticipate what is to come -teachers often chunk a reading comprehension exercise in order to ensure that students understand the text well enough to understand what is to come, either by asking direct comprehension questions or inviting the students to predict what will come next

content instructors

-those in states with high numbers of ELLs are likely to receive professional development courses to help them understand how to work with ELLs -however, a minority of states mandate such training, even though a majority of content classrooms contain at least one ELL

What two ways can phonemes be written?

-using the International Phonetic Alphabet, which assigns a different symbol to each sound commonly found in languages around the world -using graphemes, which are individual letters or groups of letters that depict how a sound is written in a given language

collectivist cultures

-value group harmony and social acceptance -may see standing out as a cause for concern or stress -education is less the means to individual achievement and fulfillment, and instead a means to social acceptance and fulfilling an expected role

first-generation test question

-was typically a single essay question which a teacher graded subjectively on a full spectrum of language criteria including syntax, content, and organization -alternatively, a series of unrelated short-answer questions were given without supporting context

response to criticism of standards-based assessment

2015 Every Student Succeeds Act scaled back the schedule of standardized exams prescribed by the previous No Child Left Behind legislation

present progressive

I am walking

past perfect progressive

I had been walking

past perfect

I had walked

present perfect progressive

I have been walking

present perfect

I have walked

present simple

I walk

past simple

I walked

past progressive

I was walking

future progressive

I will be walking

future perfect progressive

I will have been walking

future perfect

I will have walked

future simple

I will walk

subjective personal pronouns

I, you, he/she/it, we, you, they

independent clause

a clause that can stand alone as a sentence but can also be joined with other clauses to make other sentences

refugees

a large portion of the U.S. immigrant population due to war, discrimination or natural disasters

valuing

a student develops preferences and commitments

interjection

a word or phrase used to express emotion or surprise

assessment bias

an assessment is considered biased if it disadvantages a certain group of students, such as students of a certain gender, race, or cultural background

ought-to L2 self

an image driven by a sense of obligation, often on imposed by others' expectations

classical conditioning

another theory by Skinner that involves learning to associate two events but does not entail any behavior change

opponents of SEI

believe that a year is not enough time to achieve the right level of proficiency, and that teaching grammar at such an early stage may not be beneficial

perfect progressive tenses

built using features of both the progressive and perfect tenses

diphthongs

combinations of two or more vowels in a single syllable, often resulting in an unpredictable sound (example: chair)

range of student background knowledge

from isolated facts or impressions to full-blown schema

stereotyping

holding a simplified and overgeneralized view of a group, often with a critical or prejudiced view

comprehensibility

how difficult speech is to understand

Chamot and O'Malley

more specifically developed a taxonomy of learning strategies based on three broad categories: metacognitive, cognitive, and social/affective strategies

consent decree

mutually-binding agreement enforced by a court

Bilingual speakers often use their _____ to talk about their daily life and use their _____ when discussing academic or job-related topics.

native language; learned language

consonant clusters

occur when two or more consonants combine to form a single sound (example: wreck)

underrepresentation of ELLs in GT programs

occurs despite awareness that selection should be based on cognitive aptitudes and not English proficiency

simultaneous bilingualism

occurs when a child is raised bilingually from birth or is introduced to the second language before the age of three

sequential bilingualism

occurs when a child obtains fluency in a second language after the first language is well established - usually around the age of three

elision

occurs when a sound is left out of a word - often a sound in a consonant cluster, as when "sandwich" is pronounced "sanwich"

reference

occurs when a word in one sentence refers to a word in another, such as a pronoun to its antecedent

language bias

occurs when an assessment utilizes idioms, collocations, or cultural references unfamiliar to a group of students

language interference

occurs when features of a speaker's native language affect his or her ability to learn a second language

Jim Cummins and cognitive complexity

published a paper that modeled ELL communication experiences as falling in one of four quadrants created by sketching one axis measuring the relative cognitive complexity of the experience and the other measuring the degree to which the experience occurred in a context

L2

second language

maxim of quality

states that we speak the truth

discourse competence

the knowledge of how to produce cohesive and coherent written or oral texts

Students learn new content most easily when it relates to _____.

the knowledge they already have

cognitive load

the number of unfamiliar or unpracticed concepts presented in a lesson

self-efficacy

the perception people have about their competence

Jim Cummins and cognitive complexity: four quadrants of experience

(I) cognitively undemanding, context-embedded (II) cognitively undemanding, context-reduced (III) cognitively demanding, context-embedded (IV) cognitively demanding, context-reduced

Bloom's five processes that lead to student growth in affective response and understanding

(in order from simple to complex) -receiving -responding -valuing -organization -characterizing

"th" in IPA (as in "think")

(the one on the right)

pre-speech stage

-0-6 months -babies may produce what are called comfort signs (grunts and sighs) while paying attention to spoken language and beginning to distinguish phonemes

one-word stage

-10-18 months -children produce their first words, usually in reference to people, objects, or actions that produce desired outcomes -overextension and underextension (using words too broadly or too narrowly) are common

two-word or telegraphic stage

-18-24 months -children produce two-word phrases using lexical (related to words or vocabulary) rather than functional or grammatical morphemes

multiword stage

-30 months -children speak in complete sentences, adding functional and grammatical elements, though often making errors

babbling stage

-6-8 months -babies begin to babble, or produce rhythmic sounds with syllable-like stops, often with repeated patterns -babbling practices essential motor skills and allows infants to learn how to produce basic sounds

What percentage of ELLs have legal status?

-75% -of the 25% who do not, the majority entered the U.S. legally (usually with a nonimmigrant or visitor visa) and then failed to leave

language ego

-Alexander Guiora asserted that individuals learning or using a second language experience widescale changes in their perceived identity, caused by what he referred to as the language ego -a person's original identity is closely tied to their L1 competency and mastery and is challenged or disrupted by an attempt to learn an L2 -used the concept to explain why children acquire second languages more readily than adults - as their egos are less full-formed and less rigid, they suffer less from the feelings of incompetence or social embarrassment inevitable in the language learning process

ACTFL

-American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Language -a membership organization promoting language teaching, with particular expertise in language testing, including for teachers striving for bilingual certifications

providing differentiated assessment and instruction

-ELD standards identify a range of English proficiency levels, such as beginner, intermediate, and advanced, thus providing a beginning framework for differentiation -many ELD frameworks develop further categories that subdivide the primary proficiency levels (for example, California's ELD framework specifies learners in each of the three proficiency levels as needing substantial, moderate, or light support) -many ELD frameworks also recognize long-term English learners (students who have been enrolled for more than six years and are not progressing toward proficiency) as a separate proficiency level and design differentiated lessons to meet their needs

adapting classroom assessments for ELLs

-ELLs are at a disadvantage relative to their English-speaking peers when faced with content assessments -researchers often say that they face doubling the cognitive load, as they must process both language and content in both their comprehension of the task and their production of a response -in order to get a clear sense of an ESL student's content knowledge, a teacher often must make adjustments to the test to render the language component more transparent and less taxing

overrepresentation in special education programs

-ELLs are referred to special education programs more often than their native English-speaking peers -second-language development patterns can resemble emerging special education issues, such as a lack of speaking or answering questions -an accurate referral requires the ability to differentiate between the effects of a student's language ability, content knowledge, and cognitive abilities (should only be made by a trained evaluator) -disability assessments should be made in the student's native language (according to the DOE)

academic disciplines

-ELLs must learn the basic conventions of each -for example, it may be appropriate to use figurative language when writing or speaking about the arts, but not when discussing math or logic -language use also varies with purpose: the conventions that apply to speech intended to persuade are different than those that apply to exposition

using assessment results for evaluation

-ESL programs rely heavily on assessments to measure individual student progress -this same data should be used to evaluate the overall ESL program and to identify areas of improvement -it is important to remember, however, that not all measures of ESL program success are easily quantifiable - the degree to which ELLs are integrated socially at school is one example - and thus assessment results should not be the only basis for program evaluation

granting ELLs accommodations

-ESSA of 2015 renewed the federal government's commitment to ensuring that states provide appropriate accommodation to ESL students taking state-level content exams -ESSA leaves it to states to define appropriate accommodation, and many variations exist -however, many states have joined multi-state consortia for assessment development, leading to gradual harmonization of the accommodation standards

four maxims of conversation

-Grice argues we successfully communicate implied meanings when we obey four maxims of conversation -quality, quantity, relevance, manner

Paul Grice's Cooperative Principle

-Grice's work focuses on how pragmatics function in language -when we engage in conversation, we assume that our interlocutor will cooperate in achieving understanding by speaking truthfully, logically and concisely -emphasized that what we mean is often implied by what we say and that a competent member of our language community will grasp the implications of our speech

Theory of Multiple Intelligences

-Howard Gardner broadened the definition of intelligence beyond its traditional meaning as what was measured on an IQ test -argued that we all possess seven or eight forms of intelligence, reflecting different cognitive processes in the brain and individual learning preferences -visual/spatial, bodily/kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, linguistic, logical/mathematical, and naturalistic

LULAC v. State Board of Education

-LULAC (League of United Latin American Citizens) filed a suit claiming that Florida was failing to provide ELLs with equitable and comprehensible education -settled in US District Court according to the terms of the consent decree (which covers issues such as identification and assessment, equal access to programming, and teacher qualifications and training) -the consent decree now serves as the framework for Florida's ESL programs (widely known as the Florida Consent Decree)

NABE

-National Association for Bilingual Education -a non-profit that advocates for educational equity and provides professional development and instructional resources for ESL teachers

NCELA

-National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition -resource site run by the US Department of Education, providing data, research, and the English Learner Tool Kit, which provides guidance to state and local educators on how to fulfill federal civil rights mandates in the area of English language acquisition

Castaneda v. Pickard

-Roy Castaneda sued the school district of Raymondville, TX because his children had unlawfully been placed in a classroom segregated by language ability and that the school had not properly developed a bilingual education program to allow ELLs to re-enter mainstream curriculum -challenged courts to enforce Lau v. Nichols

SEI teachers vs. ordinary content instructors

-SEI teachers deliver the same content but attempt to communicate that content in ways that don't depend on student English proficiency -thus, they often simplify, use demonstrations, and allow students to use L1 resources to supplement their learning

corpus

-a collection of texts gathered by linguists for purposes of research -today, linguists use computers to search and analyze textual data for insights into language use -corpora are used, for example, to compile dictionaries, and to juxtapose prescriptive and descriptive grammars

tag question

-a declarative statement turned into a question by the addition of an interrogative fragment -example: "Portland is the capital of Maine, isn't it?" -often rhetorical, and are also used to communicate a desired answer to the listener -utilized by many languages, but those in English tend to be complex and varied

idiom

-a figurative expression that has gained widespread usage in a language community -doesn't necessarily make a comparison -many carried a literal meaning when they were first coined, but that meaning has since been forgotten or rendered obsolete -example: "Don't beat around the bush" is now used to exhort someone to speak clearly and directly, but it originally described the practice whereby a group of hunters would beat bushes with sticks in order to flush their prey -particularly difficult for ESL students to learn because they can't be understood simply through the study of their denotation

extrinsic motivation

-a focus on rewards or punishments -tends to be temporary, inflationary, and often shifts a learner's focus from the lesson to the reward itself

learning style

-a general predisposition to learn or process information in a certain way -most common example of cognitive factors that affect language development

tone

-a language's use of pitch to distinguish between words -example: Cantonese is a tonal language

concordance

-a list of the ways in which a word is used in context -it can be very useful for an ESL student trying to understand idiosyncratic constructions - for example, which prepositions go with which verbs - or to see how an unfamiliar word is actually used in discourse -concordances can also show which words are typically used in association with one another - a useful tool when building subject-matter vocabulary

predicate nominative

-a noun or noun phrase that follows a linking verb and renames the subject -example: in the sentence "John's favorite book is War and Peace," "War and Peace" is the predicate nominative

appositive

-a noun, noun phrase, or noun clause that serves to explain or identify another noun nearby in the sentence -in the sentence "Your brother Skip called me," "Skip" is an appositive identifying the noun phrase "your brother" ("Skip" and "your brother" can be described as being in apposition) -in general, appositives that are essential to the meaning of the sentence are not set off by punctuation marks, whereas those that are not are set off by commas, dashes, or parentheses

summary frame

-a series of questions, often provided in an outline form, that help students understand the way in which a reading passage is organized or the way their own writing should be organized -can be created to illustrate a range of rhetorical forms -example: to introduce students to reading or writing texts that compare and contrast, the teacher might provide this framework: "_____ and _____ are alike in some ways and different in others. They are alike because _____, _____, and _____. They are different because _____ and _____."

holophrase

-a single word used to express complex thought -example: a toddler who uses the holophrase "up" may be intending the more complex thought "pick me up" -consistent with the idea that children understand more language than they can produce -holophrastic conversations often consist of the adult trying to interpret the meaning of the phrase, offering alternatives to which the child responds with body-language affirmations or rejections

phonetic interference

-a specific type of language interference regarding issues that arise when trying to learn the sound system of a new language -occurs when a language learner attempts to speak the foreign language using familiar sounds from their own native tongue -example: Spanish only uses the short "i" sound, so a Spanish-speaking ELL might use that sound in every instance of an English "i"

simple past

-a stand-alone main verb (one without an auxiliary verb) doesn't change when the noun changes -example: "The man gave me a box" and "The men gave me a box" ("gave" is the same in both) -many helping verbs, however, do function according to the rule in the simple past

relative proficiency

-a student's relative proficiency in their native language is a factor in L2 language development -students proficient in L1 already possess the perceptual ability to distinguish sounds, words and syntactical patterns -will also likely possess certain cognitive skills, such as the ability to compare, generalize and predict -depending on the similarity between the languages themselves, there may be an opportunity for positive transfer

Benjamin Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives

-a taxonomy of human cognitive skills ranging from the concrete to the abstract -postulated that students progress in learning by mastering progressively more abstract cognitive skills -original taxonomy included the following categories of cognitive skill, ranging from the most concrete to the most abstract: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation -Bloom also elaborated a taxonomy of action verbs that he argued were indicative of each of the cognitive activities (example: when students compare and contrast, they are undertaking analysis)

task-based language teaching (TBLT)

-a teaching method that promotes student language learning through the accomplishment of real-world tasks - for example, ordering a pizza or buying a phone -proponents argue instruction organized this way teaches both the formal and social aspects of successful communication -in some contexts, it can resemble English for special purposes, in which advanced students are taught the vocabulary and rhetorical patterns particular to a given occupation or media

content-based instruction (CBI)

-a teaching method that teaches language indirectly by means of teaching content in the target language -umbrella term that subsumes all teaching methods (such as sheltered instruction) that teach language and content simultaneously -some programs carefully structure the subject matter content so that it systematically treats sequential features of the target language, while others are more immersive in the sense that they rely more heavily on the student's ability to infer meaning from a context-rich learning environment

critical pedagogy

-a type of social action that calls upon teachers in multicultural classrooms to be agents of change in addressing societal and institutional inequalities -teachers should strive not for equality, or treating everyone the same or being "color blind"; but instead strive for equity, an outcome that can only be achieved by providing additional help to students disadvantaged by multiple factors outside of the classroom

dialect

-a variation in one or more features of a language, such as spelling, pronunciation, or word choice -this variation must be mutually intelligible, otherwise it is considered to be a separate language -naturally arise when a language is spread across a wide area -often gradients emerge such that all of the members of a dialect community can understand their neighboring dialects, but the differences between the communities furthest apart are so great as to impede communication

infinitive

-a verb with the word "to" in front of it -to eat, to read, etc.

preposition

-a word (such as in, to, on, with) that is usually combined with a noun or pronoun to establish a relationship between that noun and another part of the sentence -the relationships include things such as location or time

participle

-a word formed from a verb but used either as an adjective, adverb, noun or as part of a compound verb -example: past participle "gone" forms a compound noun in the phrase "has gone"

discourse marker

-a word or phrase used to organize speech, manage the flow of a conversation, or convey an emotional attitude -often inessential to the literal semantic meaning of a sentence but can be critical in conveying the attitude of the speaker -examples: "well," "um," "you know"

predicate adjective

-a word or words that follows a linking verb and modifies the subject of a sentence -example: in the sentence "The dog is brown," "brown" is a predicate adjective -distinguished from ordinary or attributive adjectives, which typically follow immediately after the noun that they modify

verb

-a word that expresses an action or state of being -are typically the core of the predicate of a sentence -in English, they change to agree with the subject and reflect tense, voice, mood and aspect

conjunction

-a word that links sentences, clauses, phrases, or words -examples: and, or, but

noun

-a word that names a person, place, idea, or thing -often combined with determiners to form the subject of a sentence -often replaced by pronouns

four general causes of academic success or failure outlined by attribution theory

-ability, effort, perceived difficulty, luck -students with low self-efficacy tend to attribute academic outcomes to causes outside of themselves (such as difficulty and luck) and are less likely to respond constructively to academic setbacks -students with high self-efficacy tend to attribute outcomes to internal causes and are likely to respond to setbacks by working harder

acculturation patterns

-acculturation implies one-way adaptation of a minority group to the culture of a majority group -if the adaptation is complete and the minority comes to resemble the majority, it is termed "assimilation" -if a minority community resists acculturation, we speak of preservation of their distinct culture -the term "transculturation" refers to the rare phenomenon of two equally dominant cultures mixing and each adopting elements of the other

acquisition of a first language

-acquired without conscious effort -a natural, integrated part of daily life -based on a universal grammar -doesn't require instruction -needed to function in life and satisfy desires -cognitive and affective factors are less important

integrative motivation

-acquiring a second language because they have a positive view of their future L2 community and wish to fully join it -more reliable and durable than instrumental motivation

Krashen's Acquisition/Learning Hypothesis

-acquisition is an unconscious, natural process that occurs when a learner uses the language for a variety of real-life purposes and interacts extensively with native speakers -learning is a conscious process during which a student is likely to study parts of a language in sequence, as when they study vocabulary lists or learn to conjugate verbs -only acquisition leads to fluency, and learning cannot be transformed into acquisition -adults can acquire a new language but doing so would require immersion in that language

restorative justice

-actions that schools can take to address disciplinary problems without suspending or expelling students -emphasize mediation of conflicts, creation of support groups composed of peers and adults for students at risk, and creation of disciplinary practices that keep students in school or at least engaged in academic activities

acculturation

-adaptation of a person or group to another culture, often in the context of immigration -assimilation and accommodation refer to how complete this adaptation is

ways in which sentences may be coherently connected

-add information to the broader text: "In addition..." -illustrate the effect of a previous cause: "Consequently..." -clarify previous sentences: "That is to say..." -provide a summary: "In conclusion..." -establish a logical or temporal order: "First...second..."

differences in how children and adults learn languages

-adults have cognitive and experiential advantages and usually make more rapid progress in syntax and grammar than children -children tend to have more exposure to the target language and appear to have advantages in affect and motivation -children are implicit, intuitive learners and are therefore less likely to be discouraged by the difficulties of learning -adults tend to be more self-conscious about making mistakes

performance-based assessments in the ESL context

-advocates suggest that they avoid many of the problems of language or cultural bias present in traditional assessments, and thus they allow more accurate assessment of how well students learned the underlying concepts -come closer to replicating what should be the true goal of language learning - the effective use of language in real contexts - than do more traditional exams

infixes

-affixes that occur in the middle of the root -rare in English but common in many other languages

annual measurable achievement objectives

-aka AMAO -three objectives required by the NCLB -two measured ELL English proficiency, and one measured ELL progress toward content standards -third element was problematic and a large portion of schools failed to meet these standards

Every Student Succeeds Act

-aka ESSA -devolution of authority from the federal government to the states -grants states more discretion in how to measure school success and how to address low-performing schools -this increase in policy latitude led some states to adopt bilingual education programs -incorporates a measure of ELL progress into the overall Title 1 measure of school effectiveness -proponents say English education will become a higher priority, but opponents say a small ELL population will get lost in the larger Title 1 funding group -requires states to develop uniform standards for identifying, placing and exiting students from ESL programs -allows content test results to be exempt for ESL students in their first two years to remove some of the pressures

Bilingual Education Act of 1968

-aka Title VII of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) originally passed in 1965 -originally part of LBJ's War on Poverty (he believed education was important in overcoming poverty) -provided for dramatic increases in federal funding for education as well as standards for equal access, educational achievement and accountability -provided federal funding for bilingual education programs and recognized the value of students retaining their native languages and cultures

transitional bilingual education (TBE) programs

-aka early-exit program -students typically enter as soon as they start school and initially receive all or most instruction in L1 -goal: early transition to mainstream curriculum (typically happens after 2-3 years) -do not target L1 proficiency as their goal; instead, L1 is used as a transition to L2 -students often have a hard time transitioning and require additional support after exiting the program

transformational grammar

-aka generative grammar -an approach to syntax, developed by Noam Chomsky, that hypothesizes that the surface structure of any language can be explained as a transformation of an innate structure of language which humans all share in common -the term generative refers to the idea that language learners learn to generate sentences by transforming the deep structures present in brains at birth

developmental bilingual education (DBE)

-aka maintenance and late-exit programs -begin with instruction in L1 as soon as students enter school, and gradually transition to instruction in English -goal is biliteracy, so students never fully transition to English -programs typically last through 6th or 8th grade -often evolve as an option in an already-established TBE program -instruction in each language may alternate periods, days, semesters or subjects

internal culture

-aka non-material culture -refers to the shared patterns of thought and social behavior that exist as collective beliefs and customs -elements include values, family structures, and social roles -these elements have a greater influence on how students learn than external cultural elements

sheltered English instruction (SEI)

-aka sheltered instruction program -intermediate English language learners are taught the full curriculum in English and are given appropriate support to further their content learning -explicitly target content knowledge and only address English development indirectly by creating highly contextualized learning environments in which students can practice their English skills -schools with large, homogenous ELL populations may have separate SEI content classes, or a teacher may simply implement sheltering teaching techniques in a classroom of mixed native English speakers and ELLs

dual immersion (DI)

-aka two-way immersion (TWI) -all students (both ELLs and English speakers) are taught in both languages, with the goal of full bilingualism for everyone -some programs balance instruction of the two languages equally -but it's more common for students to begin with a higher proportion of the non-English language and slowly transition to 50/50 instruction -promote biculturalism and tolerance

key features of the universal grammar theory

-all languages share certain properties -children who are exposed to a common language will all converge in their competence, despite receiving different input -children will learn linguistic forms for which they have received no specific input

examples of ELL accommodations

-allowing ESL students additional time to complete the tests -allowing the use of bilingual dictionaries -allowing a native speaker to read a translated version of the test instructions

importance of formative assessments

-also called ongoing assessments (which emphasizes the value of frequent, diverse, informal assessments) -conducted as part of an ongoing learning process -primary objective is to provide feedback that students can use to improve their learning and teachers can use to improve their instruction -also contribute to student self-assessment by identifying areas of strength and weakness -teachers should view them as a teaching tool that can both measure and contribute to a student's knowledge

experimental or simplified speech

-also called the advanced language proficiency stage -the learner approaches fluency and can make generalizations about grammar and semantics -the learner may exit the ESL program but continue to receive assistance with writing and in the content areas

private speech

-also called the early production stage -the learner creates one- and two-word phrases using 1000 words -teachers should pose questions that allow abbreviated answers and scaffold their instruction

silent period

-also called the preproduction stage -the learner knows about 500 words but is uncomfortable speaking -teachers should allow the student to build receptive skills while gaining confidence

lexical chunks

-also called the speech emergence stage -the learner uses 3000 words to form short phrases and sentences with frequent grammatical errors -students are able to conduct short conversations with peers and begin reading stories

curriculum-based assessments

-also known as curriculum-based measurements (CBM) -short, frequent assessments designed to measure student progress toward meeting curriculum benchmarks

progressive forms

-also referred to as continuous forms, as they are used to describe actions or states that are ongoing at a certain point in time -fashioned by combining a form of the verb "to be" and "-ing"

alternate definition of code-switching

-alterations in discourse undertaken in a single language -example: when one speaker changes accent to match that of his or her interlocutor

gerund

-an "-ing" verb functioning as a noun -example: "I like swimming"

structured English immersion (SEI)

-an ESL instructional model designed to transition ELLs to mainstream classrooms quickly (usually after one year) -emphasize English language instruction and defer academic content instruction until students are in mainstream classrooms -students typically grouped by proficiency -instructors teach in English and also teach rules and forms of the language

literal comprehension

-an accurate understanding of the facts and events recounted in a text -students will strive for this level of comprehension in the beginning stages of language learning -by asking basic questions of early readers, teachers can check their understanding of vocabulary and syntax

predictive validity

-an assessment has predictive validity if a score on the test is an accurate predictor of future success in the same domain -example: SAT exams purport to have validity in predicting student success in a college

validity

-an assessment is considered valid if it measures what it is intended to measure -one common error that can reduce the validity of a test occurs if the instructions are written at a reading level the students can't understand (in this case, it is not valid to take the student's failed answer as a true indication of his or her knowledge of the subject) -factors internal to the student might also affect exam validity (anxiety and a lack of self-esteem often lower assessment results)

practicality

-an assessment is practical if it uses an appropriate amount of human and budgetary resources -a practical exam doesn't take very long to design or score, nor does it take students very long to complete in relation to other learning objectives and priorities -teachers often need to balance a desire to construct comprehensive or content-valid tests with a need for practicality: lengthy exams consume large amounts of instruction time and may return unreliable results if students become tired and lose focus

reliability

-an assessment is reliable if it yields similar results when retaken -factors that affect reliability include the day-to-day wellbeing of the student, the physical environment of the test, the way it is administered, and the subjectivity of the scorer

modal verb/modal phrase

-an auxiliary verb that adds shades of meaning to the main verb of a sentence by adding an opinion, attitude, or feeling -most common examples in English: would, will, can

predicting the structure of a text

-an essential element of reading comprehension -students who can successfully anticipate and identify these aspects of a text will have an advantage in overall comprehension because they can use what they already know to infer further meanings and evaluate the credibility of the author or the quality of his or her argument -students can be taught the general features and structures of various genres

phrasal verb

-an idiomatic combination of a verb with another word, usually a preposition or adverbs -examples: "blow up," "break down," "chip in" -pose unique difficulties for ELLs because the word combinations are idiomatic and yet fixed -further, many phrasal verbs can be split when used in a sentence ("Can you add them up?")

directed listening and thinking activity (DLTA)

-an instructional and assessment strategy using listening, predicting, and confirming -with scaffolding, a teacher would pause a story frequently to ask students questions that led them to predict what might come next, and then eventually prompt them to formulate their own questions

culture

-an integrated pattern of knowledge, belief, and behavior, held by a particular human group, that is learned and transmitted through generations -can be thought of as what people do, believe or know, and make and use

speech act

-an utterance aimed at achieving something rather than describing something -examples include requesting, promising, or complaining -the form they take in different languages is often highly standardized -example: a non-native English speaker might not recognize "Do you have a dollar?" as a request -cannot be understood by means of literal semantic analysis (this is why it is important for ELLs to develop cultural competence in addition to knowledge of the language itself)

cognitive academic language learning approach (CALLA)

-another popular model based on the idea of language learning strategies -developed by Anna Chamot and J. Michael O'Malley -designed to help ELLs with limited English proficiency transition to mainstream content classrooms, usually in secondary school -emphasizes cognitive and metacognitive approaches to learning by explicitly teaching learning strategies and encouraging students to both plan and evaluate their undertakings

paraprofessional

-another word for teacher's aide, or someone who plays a supportive role to a certified teacher in a classroom -often take responsibility for the logistics of the classroom or a lesson, give individual attention to students who need it, manage a group of students when the class is divided, and help the classroom teacher with assessments

Merrill Swain

-answered one of the principal criticisms of Krashen's Input Hypothesis - that it only treated comprehension, not speech production - by coining the term "output hypothesis" -students will be motivated to improve their speech production when they notice, in conversation, that they are unable to express themselves fully

three types of anxiety experienced by the second-language learner

-anxiety over one's ability to communicate in L2 -anxiety that peers will view one's L2 communication in negative terms -anxiety about evaluations and grades -understanding the source of a student's anxiety will help the ESL teacher mitigate the anxiety's harmful effects

language proficiency tests

-are used to evaluate a student's overall language ability at a given moment in time rather than their mastery of recent classroom lessons -often used to control access to schools or universities or to control the exit from ESL programs

proponents of SUP

-argue that ELLs should be enrolled in full English immersion programs because their use and development of L1 will only distract from and slow their English acquisition -however, the preponderance of evidence supports CUP, as it has frequently been demonstrated that the frequent use of L1 by students in bilingual programs does not slow their acquisition of English

proponents of linguistic imperialism

-argue that it is still ongoing, with the adoption of English increasingly necessary to function in a global economy or to understand a reality shaped by an English-dominated media and Internet -use a biological analogy to argue that the spread of English causes the extinction of local languages -this can spur movements to revitalize waning languages

critics of cognitive models of language learning

-argue that there is little merit in Piaget's four-stage model, as the stages themselves cannot be empirically identified -the theory undervalues the influence of both culture and social interaction

How did Henry Widdowson extend his ideas to apply to sentences?

-argued that sentences have *significance* in isolation, but *value* when they are considered in the context of a communicative act -his ideas influenced the communicative approaches to language learning, with their emphasis on authentic speech acts and the importance of pragmatic dimensions of communication

language ambiguities

-arise when ELLs are confronted with a word that has multiple meanings or multiple pronunciations and they must rely on context to determine the actual usage -example: if presented with the sentence "Jack will lead the tour," an ELL could use his or her awareness of the basic English sentence structure S-V-O to realize that "lead" in this example is a verb and not a noun

cultural universals

-aspects of culture that are shared by all human societies -Murdock created a list of over 70 of them in 1945, including fire-making, incest taboos, and inheritance rules

prosodic aspects of language

-aspects of spoken language beyond word choice that convey meaning in conversation -include pitch, stress, rhythm, length and loudness

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

-assertion that language has a strong, constraining influence on thought, and thus speakers of different languages have different worldviews -strongest form of the hypothesis is now discounted, but there is still a consensus that language influences thought

demonstrating listening comprehension

-at first, a student may only be able to signal understanding by nodding, smiling, or performing whatever action is being asked (many nonverbal signals and references to illustrations) -next, can signal comprehension by choosing between one of a pair or set of options -then, formulate simple answers without scaffolds -eventually can provide full-sentence answers to comprehension questions -finally, can provide multi-sentence summaries that reveal advanced comprehension

connectionist theories of language acquisition

-attempt to apply insights from neuroscience and computer science to explain language acquisition -learning is seen as the development of specific connections in an otherwise general network in response to environmental stimuli

third-generation test

-attempted to test language used in authentic contexts, often by having students analyze a real-life text or perform an authentic writing task -though these tests were once again subjective in nature, teachers began to use rubrics to reduce the uncertainty involved in grading

pull factors

-attractive features of the destination country -can include economic opportunity, the prospect of reuniting with family members, and social and political freedom

social constructivism theory

-attributed to Lev Vygotsky -emphasizes the importance of social interaction in language theory -children learn primarily from adults who model new language patterns and correct errors

schema

-background knowledge someone has about a certain topic -might be information, associations, or remembered life experiences -essential to reading comprehension because passages typically rely on implied meanings

new literacies of online research and comprehension

-based on the assertion that online reading and research requires a different set of literacy skills than does traditional, paper-based reading and research -success in traditional reading does not automatically translate to success in online reading -further, students are likely to have significant advantages in online literacy over their teachers -online literacy is changing in ways that traditional literacy is not, making online literacy a dynamic engagement

No Child Left Behind Act

-based on the premise that setting and holding schools and students accountable to high standards would promote academic excellence -all schools receiving Title 1 funding must adopt annual standardized tests -schools that failed to show progress created improvement plans and were penalized if they didn't -implicitly replaced the BEA and struck all mention of bilingualism (which mirrored broader national trends of promoting assimilation)

BICS

-basic interpersonal communication skills -aka social language, or the language used in everyday life

precautions teachers must take when using technology

-be careful not to require technologies that their students cannot afford -be careful not to assume that students have Internet connectivity at home

How should teachers handle different dialects brought to the classroom by ELLs?

-be careful to appreciate legitimate variation rather than impose an arbitrary standard -differences in dialect may also slow language comprehension and acquisition, though the overall effect is likely to be slight

Why might a person code-switch?

-because they are unable to think of a word in the language they are speaking, and so they resort to a word from their native language -may signal solidarity or familiarity with other bilinguals -may be used to convey associative, technical or figurative meanings not available in the primary language

Why are phonetic alphabets and graphemes necessary?

-because written alphabets do not by themselves provide language learners with knowledge of how to pronounce a given word -many letters have more than one pronunciation, and often are silent -in other words, spelling is not a reliable guide to pronunciation

bilingual instructional programs

-begin instruction primarily or entirely in the student's native language and then transition to greater use of English over time -some phase out L1 completely over time, while others target full biliteracy and use both languages

total physical response method

-begins with the teacher giving elementary commands in L2 ("stand up!") -as students progress, the commands become more complex -eventually, students begin to give one another commands -still used in ESL instruction today but is one of many teaching techniques rather than an exclusive approach to learning

bilingual learners vs. their monolingual peers

-bilingual learners may experience slight delays in speech production, but the variance is small and within the range of normal development -bilingual children often possess smaller vocabularies in either language than their monolingual peers, but their combined vocabulary is on par with that of their peers

opponents of bilingualism

-bilingualism erodes national unity and identity, and thus the growing number of non-native speakers in schools is a problem to be overcome -support assimilation as opposed to multiculturalism

proponents of bilingualism

-bilingualism is a resource to be cultivated, and a child's L1 helps him or her acquire English -globalization proves the importance of multiculturalism (as opposed to assimilation)

Can motivation be described as a solidified trait or a state of being that can change?

-both -people differ in the nature, sources, and degrees of motivation, and so it is valid to speak of motivation as a trait -however, human motivation is also heavily context- and situation-dependent, and thus motivation is also a state that can and does change

Piaget vs. Bruner

-both believed children learn in different ways as they develop -both were constructivists, emphasizing the active role of the learner -Bruner believed these stages were continuous, while Piaget thought they were discrete -Bruner thought language caused development, Piaget thought development caused language

gerunds vs. present participles

-both formed using the "-ing" form of a verb, and both are often parts of a broader phrase -gerunds function as nouns, while present participles function either as progressive verbs or as adjectives -in the sentence "Hiking to the top of Mt Kilimanjaro is hard work," "hiking" is a gerund (it is a noun, the subject of the verb "is") -in the sentence "Hiking to the top of Mt Kilimanjaro, John fell and sprained his ankle," "hiking" is a participle that initiates an adjectival phrase modifying the noun "John"

similarities in the acquisition of L1 and L2

-both occur in predictable stages -mistakes are normal -learners of both rely heavily on context and cues -production is more difficult than comprehension -learning occurs most rapidly with interaction and task-based instructional scenarios

word order differences in Spanish and English

-both rely heavily on S-V-O ordering, but Spanish allows for frequent subject-verb inversion -many Spanish sentences do not have a stated subject because verbs are conjugated differently for each person and therefore the subject can be implied -in English, adjectives typically precede nouns, but in Spanish, the opposite is more common -in Spanish, nouns cannot modify nouns, so possession is indicated after object, contrary to English

process writing

-breaks the writing task into five phases: prewriting, drafting, revising, editing, and publishing -students focus on the correct use of conventions in the editing phase (though the teacher or peers may point out errors in the revising phase), well after the creative and expansive portions of the task

Zoltan Dornyei's L2 Motivational Self System

-built on the broader theory of the ideal self in proposing that L2 students draw upon three different sources of motivation: ideal L2 self, ought-to L2 self, L2 learning experience -argues that teachers must attend to motivation in different ways

How can teachers lower student affective filters?

-by being cognizant of personality differences and language development differences -ensuring that peers are supportive -ensuring that errors are expected and considered to be routine -limiting the number and significance of summative tests

How can teachers overcome their implicit biases?

-by being self-reflective and reviewing their actions for their evenness at the end of the day -slow their reactive decision-making (because decisions made quickly or with little information are more likely to be made with an implicit bias) -get to know students as individuals rather than members of a group

How can teachers promote reading comprehension in the pre-reading phase?

-by explaining the purpose of the exercise and what the students will be doing with the text one they finish reading it -preview the format of the text so that students know what to expect as they read -solicit student background knowledge to build context and stimulate interest

How can teachers promote multicultural awareness in the classroom?

-by explicitly teaching students about prejudice, stereotypes, and ethnocentrism -by establishing and enforcing clear classroom policies regarding tolerance and cultural sensitivity -by structuring their curriculum around multicultural themes or events, drawing examples and information from the students' home cultures -by adopting multicultural resources for use in the classroom, such as books, films or works of art -by encouraging students to consider minority viewpoints when discussing topics in history or current events

How can teachers overcome the obstacles of ELL family involvement?

-by getting to know each student's cultural background and family circumstances relevant to building a home-school relationship -introduce themselves to parents/guardians and invite them to one-on-one and group meetings -establish multiple means of communication -translate messages into parents' L1 when possible -encourage parents to volunteer or chaperone

How can teachers frame a listening comprehension activity?

-by identifying in advance what they are listening for: the main idea, details in support of an argument, or the attitude of one or more interlocutors toward a proposed idea -prime students to listen for implied meanings or idiomatic expressions by providing suggestive clues -subdivide the class and have each group listen for a different aspect of comprehension, and then combine the elements in a subsequent discussion

How can teachers develop print awareness in early ELLs?

-by modeling how a book is read -using a finger to trace the progression of reading from left to right and then wrapping around to the next line -showing how pictures are associated with parts of a story -explaining the role of title and author -discussing how a book represents a complete narrative

How can teachers deter cultural conflict in the classroom?

-by openly discussing and celebrating cultural differences -ensure that students from different cultures interact frequently in group settings (first with explicit roles, and then later with fewer teacher supports) -lead open discussions when misunderstandings occur to reveal different cultural interpretations

How do linguists conventionally refer to a phoneme?

-by placing a symbol between slashes or brackets ("/a/" or "[a]") -this allows them to distinguish it from a letter that might have different sounds in different languages or multiple sounds in a single language

How can teachers activate student background knowledge?

-by posing questions that help students relate the text to what they already know or that prompt them to involve their own experiences in their understandings of the text -enhances comprehension, raises student confidence, and builds student enthusiasm

How can phonemes be classified?

-by their onset and rime -by their order in a word

balanced reading curriculum

-called for in 2000 by the US National Reading Panel -incorporates a range of reading activities and skills including phonemic awareness, phonics (relating sounds to their written representations), and fluency -phonics alone doesn't help kids become skilled readers; reading is a multifaceted skill -range of reading activities can include phonics activities, shared and guided reading, and teacher prompts that require students to draw connections between texts

disadvantages of textbook assessments

-can be limiting for students who lag in comprehension of academic English, or whose preferred learning style is not verbal -while textbooks may come with DVDs or recommended audio links, ESL teachers will likely need to supplement these assessment materials with some of their own findings -unlikely to represent the range of assessment types used in the modern classroom, such as a portfolio or performance-based assessment

free/independent morpheme

-can occur by itself -also called a root or a base

bound morpheme

-can only occur in combination with one or more additional morphemes -prefixes and affixes are the most common types

intervening phrase

-can separate the subject of a sentence from the verb -causes problems when it contains a noun -correct usage requires that the verb agrees with the subject, not the nearby noun -example: "The students who pass the test receive a prize"

variations of SEI

-can vary by state and by school district -most widely used include SIOP, SDAIE, GLAD, QTEL, and CALLA

error-correction strategies

-certain types of errors are natural at a given stage of language learning and will likely disappear without explicit correction; teachers can thus afford to let these pass -as a general rule, corrections involving vocabulary are easier for students to learn than corrections of grammar -teachers should focus on correcting errors that impede communication -experts agree that error correction is less important to student success than allowing abundant opportunities for language practice and authentic communication

five reasons for underrepresentation of ELLs in GT programs

-challenge for teachers in recognizing giftedness through the filter of another language and culture -bias toward verbal aptitude in the definition and assessment of gifted students -lack of appropriate cognitive testing in students' native languages -lack of systematic communication between school ESL and gifted programs -unspoken sense that ESL learners must become proficient in English before their cognitive skills can be recognized

Lois Meyer's Four Barriers

-challenges facing ELLs in the classroom -cognitive load, cultural load, language load, learning load -reminds ESL teachers of the multiplicity of factors that need to be planned or controlled in order to create an optimal classroom learning environment

CALP

-cognitive academic language proficiency -aka academic language, or the language used in formal academic settings

strategies used by students when learning a second language

-cognitive strategies -social strategies -communication strategies

balanced literacy

-combining phonics instruction with whole language approaches (actual reading and writing exercises) -emerged in the 1990s to correct other practices that relied too heavily on one or the other

verbal communication

-communication that occurs via words -can include all four major language skills: speaking, listening, reading, and writing

summative assessments

-conducted at the end of a learning process -document a student's knowledge or learning, often by assigning a score or grade -may identify student learning needs and are often used by teachers to plan and improve instruction for future use -however, the fact that they are conducted at the end of a learning process makes it more difficult for the student or teachers to make effective use of the feedback they provide

elaboration

-connecting information to what is already known -example: connecting something to an analogy or usage in a phrase

parameters

-constraints that any actual language places on Chomsky's set of universal rules -example: a parameter of English grammar is that, in a verb phrase, the verb must precede its object complements, as in "ate the cake"

Castaneda v. Pickard results

-court issued Castaneda Test to assess whether district bilingual education programs were meeting the standards of the right to equal education -bilingual programs had to be based on sound theory and have a legitimate design, had to be supported with appropriate resources and personnel, and must be evaluated to determine if they are effective

local property taxes

-cover nearly half of school funding in the US -this leads to significant discrepancies in funding for schools located in wealthy and impoverished areas -federal Title 1 funds and some state funds lessen that gap, but it still exists -fewer funds result in fewer resources, larger classes, and lower teacher salaries, deterring more experienced and qualified teachers from taking these jobs, and causing less experienced teachers to take these jobs due to their availability -this contributes to sub-par student performance and high teacher turnover -many ELLs live in low-income neighborhoods and experience these funding gaps

How can teachers respect an ELL's home language in the classroom?

-create a positive environment that recognizes student competence in their native language -ensure that all languages are treated equally and that one native language doesn't have priority over another (this is particularly important during group work) -enforce rules about when students are allowed to speak in their native language -organize activities that invite translation of home languages, or presentations by students of elements of their home cultures -attempt to involve parents in their students' lessons to create continuities between home and classroom experiences

common underlying proficiency (CUP) hypothesis

-created by Jim Cummins -states that a bilingual or emerging bilingual individual will draw on a common pool of cognitive and linguistic abilities to speak either language -thus, his or her abilities and knowledge in L1 are available for and will facilitate L2 learning -often called the dual iceberg model because he used this image to illustrate his idea that two apparently distinct peaks of visible ice (L1 and L2) are actually connected below the surface in a vast, single iceberg (the CUP)

pivot grammar model

-created by Martin Braine to explain how children first structure language when moving from the one-word to the two-word speaking phase -children create many utterances anchored by a single word (the pivot) used in combination with a larger variety of words (which he termed open-class words) -children use certain pivot words first and others second, suggesting that in this phase they have begun to understand differences in word class and function

the language experience approach

-creation of a class-specific text based on a shared student experience -teacher writes first draft by compiling sentences from student work, which can then be read for practice -class revisits the text over time, adding new vocabulary, syntax and educational experiences -text serves as a basis for both reading and writing instruction

cultural generalities

-cultural features that occur in many cultures, but not all -example: nuclear families

cultural particulars

-cultural traits that are unique to a single culture -example: specific recipes or celebrations

ELD frameworks

-define scales of student English proficiency -then elaborate benchmarks by grade and proficiency level and offer teachers curriculum guidance and provide instructional suggestions for the various grade and English proficiency combinations -in circumstances where ELLs are grouped by language proficiency, teachers can use the ELD frameworks to guide their classroom-level plans and instructional delivery -when faced with a class composed of students with varying levels of proficiency, teachers can use the frameworks to plan differentiated lessons and activities

anxiety

-defined as an abnormal sense of apprehension, often accompanied by physiological signs of stress -can be thought of as both a trait, something which people experience in different degrees as a background feature of their personality; and as a state, in response to a particular event or experience -debilitative and generally detracts a student from learning -however, can also be useful to the learning task by leading to greater focus, greater effort, or a sense of competitiveness that can drive a student to mastery

How might schools differ in their initiatives and institutional approaches to their ESL communities?

-degree to which their ESL students are integrated into the broader student community -schools that celebrate and promote the integration of different language communities achieve better language outcomes -schools that recognize and showcase minority languages and cultures achieve greater buy-in from ESL students (if the value of their own cultures is recognized, they are more likely to embrace a new culture) -school engagement with minority cultures should not stop with the students - successful schools also engage with the community, inviting parents and community organizations to participate in school activities and sponsor events that showcase minority cultures

cognitive constructivist model of L1 acquisition

-derives from the work of Jean Piaget -cognitive/language development occurs in universal, identifiable stages -learning occurs when a child's experiences challenge his or her current understanding of the world, driving the child to a new, more complex stage of cognitive development -thus, language learning is a form of adaptation to one's environment

coherence

-describes a text whose ideas belong together -demands that the text corresponds to logic or reality

cohesion

-describes a text whose individual sentences are linked in ways that bring them together into a single whole -can be thought of as an achievement of grammar or rhetoric

circumstantial bilingualism

-describes the path taken by individuals who are forced to learn a second language, as in the case of children immigrating to an L2 country -usually learn the second language through immersion -likely to achieve greater mastery of L2 over time, and L1 and L2 are likely to assume complementary roles in their lives, with either dominant in a given situation

intonation

-describes the rise or fall of pitch over the course of a sentence -in English, intonation is often used to distinguish a statement from a question

authentic assessment

-designed to closely resemble something that a student does, or will do, in the real world -thus, for example, students will never encounter a multiple-choice test requiring them to choose the right tense of a verb, but they will encounter context in which they have to write a narration of an event that has antecedents and consequents spread out in time - for example, their version of what caused a traffic accident

diagnostic assessment

-designed to reveal a student's strengths and weaknesses -unlike a placement exam, not used to determine the appropriate level of instruction for a student, but the results can be used to tailor instruction or provide the student with an awareness of areas in need of improvement -often detailed and comprehensive within a certain area of instruction (example: punctuation and capitalization) -ESL teachers often use them at the beginning of the school year to get a sharper sense of what they should teach that year

backwards lesson planning

-developed by Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe -a lesson planning process in which a teacher begins with a specific learning objective - often excerpted from the state learning standards - and then works backward to develop lesson plans and activities that will help students achieve that objective -associated with the focus on standardized testing that arose in the No Child Left Behind era, but it has broader application as a method of systematizing instruction and ensuring that the various elements in a lesson plan fit together and build on one another toward clearly articulated objectives

automaticity theory

-developed by Jay Samuels to explain the correlation between fluency and comprehension -students have limited mental attention, and the more reading functions they can accomplish automatically - such as decoding skills - the more attention they have to grasp the broader meanings of a text -in this view, fluency is automaticity

universal grammar theory

-developed by Noam Chomsky -humans are born with innate language abilities, which include general grammatical categories and constraints that can be adapted to or activated by any language a child is exposed to

communicative competence

-developed by linguist Dell Hymes -refers to a language learner's ability to communicate effectively in various social settings -in order to succeed in communication, we need to know not only how to speak, but what to say to whom and under which circumstances

prosodic features of language

-differences in sound that can affect meaning at a level above that of individual phonemes by operating on syllables, words, or even sentences -two main ones are pitch (which in turn is divided into tone and intonation) and stress

three most common types of basic word order

-different ways of ordering subject, verb and object -S-V-O (example: English) -S-O-V (example: Japanese) -V-S-O (example: Malagasy)

Benjamin Bloom

-differentiated between three learning domains: cognitive (thinking), sensory (doing), and affective (feeling) -developed a taxonomy of concepts for each domain -his concepts serve as a reminder that education concerns more than just cognitive development and that the experiences and valuations that students encounter early in life have a lasting impact on their affective outlook

Jonathon Brown's typology of self-esteem

-differentiates between general or global self-esteem, which is a person's broad sense of self-worth; situational self-esteem, which is specific to a certain domain, such as athletics; and task self-esteem, which arises in the context of performing specific tasks or activities -research suggests that, once formed by late childhood, global self-esteem changes little over a lifetime

examples of scaffolding techniques

-directed listening and thinking activity (DLTA) -shared reading -interactive dialogue journal -mapping

use vs. usage

-distinction drawn by linguist Henry Widdowson -language usage is knowing how to construct words and sentences in accordance with formal rules -language use is knowing how to use language to achieve an objective -he used these terms to draw a sharp distinction between linguistic competence and communicative competence and argued that the latter took more time for second-language learners to achieve

elective vs. circumstantial bilingualism

-distinction is likely to be most relevant in a class of adult students -other conceptual categories may be more important when teaching children, such as their age when they immigrated, or whether they will remain resident in the US or return to a home country abroad

How does the identification assessment process typically work?

-districts typically begin by conducting a home language survey, a series of questions that seek to identify households in which a language other than English is spoken -in these cases, an expert will assess the student's educational history and, if there is little or no evidence of previous academic experience in English, refer him or her to take an identification assessment

intransitive verb

-does not require an object in order to constitute a complete thought -example: jump

The Matthew Effect underscores the importance of _____ and _____.

-early phonetic instruction -interventions for students at risk

first, second and third generation test questions

-education theorists have identified three different types of test questions given historically to assess English language learner aptitude -though each generation of test question has its strengths and drawbacks, the schema is meant to demonstrate a progression in the quality of assessment

What is the goal of language instruction?

-effective communication -teachers who are tempted to explicitly correct a student error should first ask themselves whether the error prevented communication -there are many reasons not to explicitly correct a student's spoken errors -doing so interrupts the conversational flow, it may embarrass the student or discourage them from speaking in the future, and it may not even help - research shows that certain types of errors appear during the normal process of language development and then disappear without explicit correction

using various assessments

-effective teachers employ a variety of assessments, as different formats assess different skills, promote different learning experiences, and appeal to different learners -a portfolio is an example of an assessment that gauges student progress in multiple skills and media -teachers can use authentic or performance-based assessments to stimulate student interest and provide visible connections between language-learning and the real world

impact of poverty

-effects on student performance are numerous and well-documented -low-income students often lag behind their peers in cognitive abilities, experience emotional deficits, and experience ongoing stress, which substantially reduces their ability to learn -ELLs are disproportionately poor - by some estimates, more than 50% of ELLs come from low-income families - and thus ESL teachers need to understand how poverty influences learning and how to recognize students who may be at risk of failing academically or dropping out

How have educators used the multiple intelligences model to inform second language instruction?

-emphasize the need for ESL teachers to build a repertoire of instructional activities and techniques that exercise each of the intelligences -a varied approach will reach a wider spectrum of learners, and a skill or lesson taught in multiple forms is more likely to be understood and retained

Michael Long's Interaction Hypothesis

-emphasizes the importance of comprehensible input - language just beyond an ELL's mastery level - for language learning -also emphasizes conversational interaction, suggesting that advances in language learning will occur most readily when conversation partners have to negotiate meaning to be understood - by paraphrasing, restating, or asking for clarification

structural approach to vocabulary learning

-emphasizes the morphological features of a word - the root, prefixes, and suffixes -once students learn the recurring morphemes in English, they can deduce the meaning of a word in isolation without relying on its context

differentiation

-employed by a teacher when he or she modifies instruction to meet individual student needs -teachers may differentiate their instruction by modifying the content of the lesson, how the lesson is taught or learned, or how students demonstrate their learning

meaningful and purposeful literacy activities

-engage the student in something beyond the text -example: might engage the student with something taught in the content classroom, or might appeal to something of particular interest to the student

secondary migration

-entry of people into the U.S. from a location other than their country of birth -two primary types: refugees who flee their home countries to neighboring countries and from there arrange legal entry into the U.S.; and individuals who first immigrate to countries with more lenient immigration policies, such as Canada, and then stage economic or family-based immigration to the U.S.

ELLs and formative assessments

-especially important because these students enter the school system at a language disadvantage -in this context, ESL teachers need to make maximal use of formative assessments to identify what needs to be taught and how

ELL use of discourse markers

-even proficient ELLs use fewer discourse markers than native speakers, and early ELLs misuse and misunderstand their pragmatic use in speech -discourse markers are heavily bound to context and are thus difficult to teach in any systematic way -however, ESL teachers may illustrate some common forms, such as how the expression "Yeah, right" can signal either agreement or skepticism, depending on stress and tone

The Strategic Inventory for Language Learning (SILL)

-examination developed by Rebecca Oxford -designed to identify the learning strategies used by foreign language students -first version was developed for English speakers learning foreign languages, and a second version was created for students learning English as a foreign language -used for both research purposes and to give individual learners insight into their own learning profile

cultural congruence

-exists when classroom experiences and instruction reinforce, or at least are consistent with, student home cultures -a culturally congruent classroom acts as a bridge between a student's first and learned cultures

early silent period

-expected when students are first learning a language -allows them to listen to meaningful speech -they should not be forced to speak until they are ready

frontloading/pre-teaching

-explicitly teaching vocabulary, rhetorical devices, sentence structures, or content that students will encounter in a subsequent lesson -particularly useful in preparing students for listening comprehension activities in order to ensure that the students don't disengage when they encounter unfamiliar words or forms

main genres of academic writing

-expository writing -descriptive writing -persuasive writing -narrative writing -some typologies consider poetry and letter/journal writing to be separate genres

exclamatory sentences

-express strong feelings -"I can't wait for tomorrow!"

Why are family expectations potentially problematic for ESLs?

-families that seek to preserve their home cultures may inadvertently or purposefully limit a child's motivation to master L2 (research clearly shows that language proficiency is affected by the degree of acculturation) -parents of ESL students may not involve themselves in school functions or even attend meetings with teachers, either because of different cultural understandings or because of their own limited English ability -parents with limited English may not be able to help children with homework -research has revealed that a vicious cycle may develop in relationships in which a child's English proficiency far outstrips that of a parent - in these cases, the differential language abilities may lead to estrangement, conflict, and even withdrawal of parental support for language learning

federal requirements for ELL participation

-federal law stipulates that public schools must provide the means for ELLs to participate "meaningfully and equally" in educational programs -requires that ELLs be provided language services to achieve English proficiency -states and school districts have measures in place to identify ELLs upon intake, they must monitor ELL progress toward achieving proficiency in English and content areas, and they must ensure that ELLs do not exit language service programs until they have demonstrated proficiency in reading, writing, speaking and listening

How should teachers handle cultural bias in the classroom?

-find non-confrontational ways to address and discuss expressions of cultural bias when they occur -emphasize the difference between recognizing legitimate cultural differences and stereotyping -many shy away from this out of fear of offending students or initiating disagreements (training can help teachers overcome these fears)

attribution theory

-first applied to the academic domain by Bernard Weiner -uses the concept of self-efficacy to analyze what students believe is the cause of their success or failure on an academic task

critical period hypothesis

-first created by Wilbur Penfield and elaborated by Eric Lenneberg -argues that there is an optimal age for learning a language and that the ease with which a person can learn languages declines over time -language learning is dependent on brain plasticity, which in humans is at an optimal level during a critical period extending from roughly age two until puberty -aligns well with Noam Chomsky's theory because it posits the existence of biological potentials for and limitations to language learning

cognitive tendencies that contribute to the formation of an interlanguage

-first identified by Larry Selinker -examples include language transfer, which occurs when a learner applies knowledge or rules from L1 to L2, and overgeneralization, which occurs when a learner extends a language rule beyond its actual scope (example: I swimmed)

Paolo Friere

-focused on the potential of education to transform -education and literacy are instruments of power, and traditionally have served as a means of disadvantaging the poor -teachers must not only work to empower disadvantaged minorities, but also help these students develop a critical approach to understanding their own treatment by society

comprehension-based learning

-focuses on building students' receptive skills (listening and reading) before they are asked to produce the language (through speech or writing) -proponents argue that listening comprehension is the most fundamental linguistic skill and serves as a useful basis for the others -listening is also viewed as the least stressful language skill, and thus the one most likely to engage and encourage early learners

operant conditioning

-founded by B.F. Skinner -children receive a stimulus and offer a spoken response, usually a repetition of something they've just heard, and then receive either positive or negative feedback -this feedback creates a change in behavior -in terms of language learning, Skinner argues that this back-and-forth process allows children to learn the rules and patterns of language

imperative sentences

-give a command -"Please come here"

analyzing assessment results

-good teachers make a habit of doing this in order to modify and differentiate their instruction -teachers should attempt to determine whether cases of poor student performance were caused by language deficits or a lack of content understanding -often teachers can determine this by looking at a student's response to other, similar questions, by assessing how well-written the student's responses are, or by consulting with a content instructor

grammar vs. syntax

-grammar has a prescriptive sense that is often missing from syntax -grammar describes the way words should be combined in order to be considered correct -syntax describes the ways in which words are combined in reality to achieve effective communication -in common usage, grammar is a broader term than syntax, referring to syntax, phonology, semantics and even punctuation

spoken language

-grammar is less rigid, to the extent that many linguists believe that phrases are the fundamental units of speech, unlike the sentences used in writing -tends to include many repetitions, ellipses, and self-corrections -relies heavily on slang and first-person pronouns -successful communication depends on paralanguage (the nonverbal features of conversation, such as tone, gesture, and facial expression)

improving pronunciation skills

-great way to help ELLs monitor their pronunciation skills is by using audio recordings in which ELLs repeat a word or phrase after a native speaker and then replay the recording -may also be helpful to provide students with surveys or question prompts that encourage them to reflect on which aspects of their pronunciation they need to improve on -class activities like singing and choral reading are low-stress ways to focus on pronunciation -above all, students must be exposed to modeled speech at an appropriate level of phonetic complexity and given opportunities to practice

clause

-group of words with a subject and a predicate -example: "When I saw him"

sentence

-group of words with a subject and predicate that expresses a complete thought -example: "When I saw him, I smiled"

categorical approach to vocabulary learning

-groups words into lists (categories) based on a semantic similarity -example: a student might be given a list of words associated with driving a car (steering wheel, to brake, to accelerate, gear shift, etc.)

Lau Remedies

-guidelines issued by the Department of Education to help districts develop language policies in accordance with Lau v. Nichols -stipulate that districts should develop the means to identify and evaluate ELLs, provide them with appropriate instruction and evaluate their readiness to exit the ESL program

research on learning styles

-has failed to confirm that students learn best when taught in a style that matches their declared preference -one conclusion is that teachers should provide students a variety of ways to learn -another is that a student's affect may be influenced by choice of styles - an important consideration for early ELLs entering a new environment

harsh disciplinary measures

-have been used more often in schools recently (such as suspension), even for non-violent student offenses -these disproportionately affect ELLs especially at the secondary school level -students subjected to these are less likely to succeed academically -high correlation between disciplinary action and student SES suggests deep-seated societal roots

how to let students practice using reported speech

-have students interview one another and then report their findings to the class -have the students summarize a story or video using targeted number of sentences, with the target set to help the students approximate the amount of detail to provide when summarizing

three fundamental approaches on which ESL instructional models are based

-having ESL-trained teachers incorporate content knowledge into their curricula -having content-trained teachers incorporate English language instruction into their curricula -having ESL and content instructors work in tandem, either through co-teaching or via a pull-out or push-in model

Jacob Javits grants

-help states identify and serve gifted ELLs -the bulk of funding for gifted programs still comes from individual states -for this reason, states differ greatly in how they administer these programs and identify the best candidates for these programs

insights from Jim Cummins' cognitive complexity

-his main point was to underscore that ELLs need more time to become proficient in academic-language activities, especially those largely free of context, such as standardized tests -another insight is that emerging ELLs need context support to learn academic language, at least early in their language development -ELL students who are challenged with cognitively-demanding tasks but given little or no support are unlikely to succeed and may become discouraged

David Ausubel's Subsumption Theory

-his work underscored the importance of context for learning -in his view, students learn best when the new material relates to what they already know -he labeled this kind of learning meaningful, and contrasted it with rote learning, in which students learn isolated information that they can only relate to other information in an arbitrary way -with meaningful learning, new information is subsumed under existing cognitive structures and knowledge

homographs

-homonyms that are spelled alike -example: entrance -ESL students should be shown the spoken form to help distinguish them

homophones

-homonyms that sound alike -example: bear and bare -ESL students should be shown the written form to help distinguish them

conversational skills that ELLs must learn

-how to initiate a conversation with greetings and formalities, using a register appropriate to the setting -how to reinforce their interlocutor's utterances, either through non-verbal cues (nodding, smiling) or appropriate and well-timed interjections -how to alternate conversation, ensuring that all parties are equal participants -develop a repertoire of active listening techniques -learn to extend the conversation with open, closed and clarifying questions -the conventions of closing a conversation

four components of communicative competence

-identified by Canale and Swain -linguistic competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence, strategic competence -focuses attention on the fact that there is more to communicative success than mastery of syntax or acquisition of vocabulary -effective ESL teachers implicitly or explicitly teach all of the component competencies

How can ESL instructors help content instructors?

-identify an ELL's language proficiency level or go further to suggest appropriate teaching supports, reasonable expectations, and teaching methods -organize multi-teacher conferences to ensure that the student receives consistent instruction throughout the day -join parent-teacher conferences to address language concerns -recommend ESL-oriented professional development activities to their colleagues or, in the absence of such activities, volunteer to lead periodic training seminars

range of skills required of ELLs who wish to fulfill conversational goals

-identifying the main point of an utterance while setting aside details or irrelevant information (while in another context, they may instead need to focus on details) -recapping an event or a conversation when speaking to a peer requires different skills than giving an oral presentation -ESL teachers need to understand the range of necessary skills and provide instruction and practice in each

advantages of CBM

-if structured well, the probes have high reliability and validity -furthermore, they provide clear and objective evidence of student progress - a welcome outcome for students and parents who often grapple with less-clear and subjective evidence -used correctly, they also motivate students and provide them with evidence of their own progress

ELA standards

-in 2010, a majority of states adopted a common set of standards (the Common Core) outlining what students should be expected to know in mathematics and language arts at each grade level -states that did not adopt the Common Core standards created their own standards designed to be comparable -the ELA standards set benchmarks for student literacy skills in the various subject matter areas

grapheme example

-in English, the sound /t/ is written either with a single "t" (as in "tall") or with two "t's" (as in "better") -thus, English has two graphemes that correspond to the phoneme /t/

Adults have more disadvantages in learning languages than children, but can these be overcome?

-in most cases, yes -the one exception is accent: research sustains the claim that children acquire a native accent more often than adults

Why was America against bilingual education before the 1960s?

-influx of immigrants in 1880s: Americans worried they would lose their identity, because English was such a big part of it -WWI, WWII and the Great Depression didn't help (put restrictions on immigration and required anyone applying for naturalization to be proficient in English)

three distinct registers

-informal (which students would use in casual conversation among themselves) -neutral (which might govern most student/teacher interaction) -formal (which students would use in a presentation or when speaking to an unfamiliar adult)

Geoffrey Leach's five functions of social language

-informational: we use it to convey information, and in this form, we value its accuracy and relevance -expressive: we use it to convey feelings or attitudes -directive: we use it to convey orders or exert influence -aesthetic: we use it creatively or artistically -phatic: we use it simply to sustain a social relationship, such as when we engage in small talk with a stranger -some other linguists add a category of apologetic language

five-stage model of scaffolding

-introduced by Gail Tompkins in 2011 -designed to be used either successively (teacher gradually reduces support) or selectively (based on a given classroom task) -five stages (in order): stage of greatest support, shared stage, interactive stage, guided practice, independent work stage

written language

-is planned, uses formal grammatical structures, avoids repetition, and relies on orderly presentation and evidence in order to be persuasive -whereas speech is reciprocal and can adapt to the reactions and emotions of its audience, writing is nonnegotiable, and thus must be crafted to be comprehensive and complete

ELLs and vocabulary acquisition

-it is well known that language learners typically need to be exposed to a new word multiple times in order to learn it -this is particularly salient in the acquisition of academic language because, unlike common words in their social language vocabularies, students may rarely encounter academic language outside of the classroom -thus, teachers should return repeatedly to academic vocabulary and attempt to situate new words in contexts which each add a new layer to student comprehension

culture-specific content

-its classroom use accelerates language learning by getting students interested in the reading and by allowing students to use what they already know about their culture to leverage meaning about what they don't know -teachers should also remember that not all students are experts on their native cultures, and some may not want to speak about or be identified by their cultures either

subordinating conjunctions

-join unequal parts of a sentence -specifically, they link adverbial clauses (a type of dependent clause that serves as an adverb) to an independent clause -most common examples: when, because, before, and if -in the example "I will go to sleep when you come home," the conjunction "when" joins the independent clause "I will go to sleep" with the dependent clause "you come home"

How can ESL teachers reduce student inhibition?

-keep the classroom affective filter low -develop a classroom group identity conducive to risk-taking -allow inhibited students to proceed step-wise toward production, recognizing the necessity of a silent period -ensure that inhibited students experience early success and ratification

procedural knowledge

-knowledge that is solidified through contextualized practice -repeated practice leads to automaticity marked by fluency and the absence of errors

Krashen's Input Hypothesis

-language acquisition takes place most efficiently when students are presented with input that is slightly beyond their current mastery level -students should be able to understand most of what they hear or read, but not all -if used correctly, students will be able to understand this comprehensible input through the use of context, their background knowledge or non-linguistic cues -if comprehensible input is used effectively, it eliminates the need for explicit explanation of new structures or meanings

Why is communicating with ELL parents and guardians so difficult?

-language barriers -may come from cultures that discourage parental involvement in schooling -disproportionately poor, and may work long hours or multiple jobs that prevent them from attending school events

factors that determine how easily newcomers adapt to a new culture

-language proficiency (most important) -personality type (how outgoing you are) -cultural intelligence (prior knowledge of cultural differences) -social and family support networks (the stronger they are, the easier the adjustment) -emotional intelligence (helps to know the cause of and how to regulate emotional responses) -response of the host community (whether diversity is tolerated or even championed)

pull-out model

-language specialists pull ELL students out of the classrooms for short, individual or group English language instruction -often reinforces content in the mainstream classroom -critics argue this disrupts classroom flow and stigmatizes ELL students

heritage language

-language spoken in a student's home or by their ancestors which the student wants to learn or retain -most often refers to Native American languages, but could also be the native language of recent immigrants

decontextualized language

-language that addresses a subject that is unfamiliar to a student and which offers few context clues that a student can use to aid comprehension -important for fluency, but more difficult in the early stages of learning to read -when used at the appropriate level, allows students to be challenged by inquiries that invite generalizations and abstractions rather than engage only with concrete and immediate things

academic language

-language used in formal settings and academic writing -may be something that generation 1.5 will lag behind in, although they may have a basic proficiency in social English -on the flip side, an understanding of social English may help students to readily infer meaning from context

ELL students benefit most when _____ and _____ are taught at the same time.

-language; content -this is because students who are not taught content right away will be significantly behind their peers once they return to the "normal" classroom -also, content classrooms put language in context and give students a setting in which they can practice using the language they're learning

speech act theory

-launched by John L. Austin -distinguished between locution (what a person says), illocution (what a person means), and perlocution (the effect the person's utterance has) -example: locution "Is there any salt?" has the illocutionary meaning of "Please pass the salt" and the perlocutionary effect of the salt being passed

21st century learning initiative

-launched in 2002 and attempted to identify the most important skills students need to learn in order to succeed in the 21st century -defined these skills as the four C's: communication, critical thinking, collaboration, and creativity (these have been increasingly incorporated into state standards)

declarative knowledge

-learned through classroom instruction or observation -example: being taught a specific grammatical form

importance of respecting ELL's home language

-learning a second language can be an intimidating experience in any circumstance, but it is even more daunting for students who are adapting to life in a new country or attempting to gain social acceptance from their peers -ELLs often feel stressed and are wary of making errors, which can impede the learning process

characteristics of a learning disability vs. L2 learning complications

-learning disabilities rarely manifest in just one language -in a learning disability, language deficits may not improve over time -a language deficit that comes and goes may indicate a learning disability, while L2 learning complications are likely to subside over time -a domain-specific deficiency (such as in speech production but not writing) may indicate a disability

language vs. dialect

-linguistic distinction is clear, but the reality in use is complicated by political and cultural interests -example: Indi and Urdu are treated as separate languages even though they are mutually intelligible

coherent texts of conversations

-linguists study the way in which competent language users connect individual sentences in order to create coherent wholes -may focus on small-scale (word- or phrase-based) connectors called cohesive devices or on broader, logical relations between sentences

coordinating conjunctions

-link together words or phrases that have the same grammatical function -example: "I like to bike, AND I like to run." -for, and, not, but, or, yet, + so (FANBOYS)

self-esteem and academic success

-linked in a chicken-or-egg type of cycle -high self-esteem is linked to better academic performance, and successful performance has been shown to be the most important factor in building situational self-esteem

proponents of connectionist theories

-look to advances in knowledge of how neurons function in order to explain how learning occurs -example: the more frequently a set of neurons fires in tandem, the more established that neuron network becomes (this helps explain memory and is seen as a mechanism by which a language learner comes to make associations between words)

"j" in IPA

-looks like a lowercase "d" with a "3" attached to it -as in "jelly"

Proposition 203

-made heritage languages a public issue in Arizona in 2000 -limited ESL instruction to full immersion to last no longer than a year, and required this instruction to be SEI -threatened many Native American language programs -Arizona issued waivers so some of the programs could continue -many communities still resorted to after-school and weekend instruction -also offered at many colleges

declarative sentences

-make a statement -"Jodie is a tall woman"

How can teachers strengthen students' intrinsic motivation to read?

-make sure the books are relevant to student interests, contemporary events or their cultures -engage in pre-reading activities to activate background knowledge -allow students an element of ownership in the reading process (allowing them to choose a book or when to read it) -choosing level-appropriate books -allowing discussion of what they read with their peers (aids comprehension and fosters a sense that reading is worthwhile) -make sure students are exposed to reading role models

specific lists of at-risk behaviors for failing academically

-many states or school districts have them -include erratic attendance, behavioral issues, and apathy -the at-risk concept is controversial because many believe it is applied wrongly to entire groups of students as a form of stereotyping rather than used constructively to identify students in need of additional support

masculinity vs. femininity

-masculinity refers to a preference for assertive behavior, achievement, and material success -femininity refers to a preference for modesty, cooperation, and caring for others

derivational affix

-may change the meaning of the base word and/or its grammatical form -example: addition of "un-" to "happy" changes its meaning, and the addition of "-ish" to "child" changes a noun into an adjective

inflectional affixes

-may change the number, gender, case, or tense of the root, but they do not change its basic lexical meaning, nor its grammatical form -example: addition of "-s" to "student" (the word becomes plural but remains a noun)

meaning of compound words

-meaning of many compound words adheres closely to the meaning of its separate parts (example: crosswalk) -others have either figurative meanings ("brainstorm") or meanings derived from older forms of English ("cobweb"), and thus may be difficult for ESLs to understand -however, many compound words make delightful combinations and thus may appeal to ELLs (bookworm and skyscraper)

meaningful and purposeful communicative interactions

-meaningful and purposeful classroom activities are those that achieve a specific learning goal while engaging the students with a topic or a process that is interesting to them -the phrase "communicative interactions" points to the sociocultural aspect of language learning - students learn best when they are engaged in authentic communicative acts rather than simply listening to a lecture or practicing repetitive worksheet exercises

purpose of backwards lesson planning

-meant to rationalize classroom activities to ensure that each makes a clear contribution to the learning process -process is meant to focus attention on learning rather than teaching

Rebecca Oxford's Strategies Inventory for Language Learning

-memorization strategies -cognitive strategies -elaboration -compensation strategies -metacognitive strategies -affective strategies -social strategies

How should teachers handle the silent period of second-language development?

-might elicit yes or no answers, or head nods and shakes -ask students to draw pictures that demonstrate their understanding or draw connections between pre-printed images -if a student is hesitating to speak due to a lack of confidence, the teacher can interact first with him or her in a one-on-one, protected environment, and generally strive to create a low-risk classroom environment

formative assessments

-modern education theory recognizes their value in every classroom context -teachers achieve the best outcomes when they utilize frequent, varied and non-intrusive assessments that address clearly-articulated learning objectives and transparent state standards -modern theory also suggests that grades should primarily reflect whether a student has attained an educational objective and not whether he or she struggled along the way

high expectations

-must be constantly modeled by teachers of diverse students in order to ensure their academic success -ESL teachers should treat a student's background as an asset rather than an obstacle -should maintain a clear distinction between language proficiency and cognitive ability -should recognize that student progress may start slowly but accelerate once the student achieves a threshold level of proficiency and acculturation

How can schools seek business or non-profit engagement?

-must be proactive about it -organize an annual community appreciation event and invite local organizations -encourage students to get their parents involved -include community leaders on email distribution lists that include descriptions of school goals and needs -make sure a business' efforts are recognized in the form of on-site advertising or being recognized in school newsletters and notices

How does DI affect ELLs and English speakers differently?

-native English speakers do not obtain the same level of L2 proficiency as non-native speakers obtain in English -could be due to motivation (learning English is more of a necessity than learning a foreign language) and to the fact that the surrounding world provides more opportunities to practice English than a foreign language

most important threat to assessment reliability

-nature of the exam questions themselves -an assessment question is designed to test student knowledge of a certain construct -a question is reliable in this sense if students who understand the content answer the question correctly -statisticians look for patterns in students marks, both within the single test and over multiple tests, as a way of measuring reliability -teachers should watch out for circumstances in which a student or students answer correctly a series of questions about a given concept but then answer a related question incorrectly (the latter question may be an unreliable indicator of concept knowledge)

creating background knowledge

-necessary when ELLs have little or no background knowledge to activate about certain topics (for example, US history) -teachers might use techniques such as anticipation guides, visuals, or parallels in the students' first culture or history -may also focus on key vocabulary through the use of concept maps or word walls -if the new lesson depends on the students drawing connections with a previous lesson, the teacher may need to make that connection explicit

What should teachers do to ensure portfolios function as objective assessment tools?

-negotiate with students in advance of what genres of work will be included -outline a grading rubric that makes clear what will be assessed, such as linguistic proficiency, use of English in academic contexts, and demonstrated use of target cognitive skills

types of professional development

-networking with other experienced ESL teachers, either as a peer or as a mentee -ESL conferences (provide the best intersection of networking with learning about ESL research) -ESL research can also be accessed through professional journals and the websites of informational clearinghouses -websites, blogs, online discussion groups, and Twitter feeds -summer workshops (although they are potentially expensive, they often offer more systematic training and a resume credential) -committed career professionals should consider doing their own research for publication, particularly in an aspect of ESL that they are passionate about

areas in which students benefit from explicit instruction

-new, specialized vocabulary -strategies for deciphering complex and compound sentences -different forms and functions of academic language and the basic conventions of each -students also benefit from repeated exposure to exemplary texts

pragmatic features of communication

-non-linguistic factors that influence what and how effectively we communicate in a given language community -these features are particularly important to ELLs because the conventions of their adopted language community might differ from those of their native language community

purpose of curriculum mapping

-not only to align the content of a course to a set of standards, but also to ensure consistency in teaching from one grade to another, in multiple classrooms teaching the same grade-level subject, and to maximize the extent to which the curriculum in one course reinforces the curriculum in another -the latter is particularly useful for ESL teachers who are striving to teach content that their students will use in content classrooms

What did Ausubel suggest was the most important factor determining whether students will remember what they learn?

-not repetition, but rather the integration of that knowledge in a system of meaning -even information learned by means of an artificial mnemonic device will eventually be lost, he argued, unless it is used and thus anchored in a broader network of meaning

eight parts of speech

-noun -verb -pronoun -adjective -adverb -preposition -interjection -conjunction

pragmatic failure

-occurs when a person fails to understand what is meant even though he or she correctly understood what was said -example: a teacher might call the fact that a student is late to class by asking him "What time is it?"; a pragmatic failure would occur if the student took the question at face-value and failed to understand it as a reprimand

substitution

-occurs when a specific word is replaced with a general word in a subsequent sentence -example: first writing "I doubt he will study," and then "But if he does..."

morphological interference

-occurs when a student's ability to learn a second language is influenced by the morphology of their native language -languages differ significantly in how words are formed and what type of information can be conveyed in a single word -example: English nouns typically have single and plural forms, while nouns in Mandarin Chinese do not change with number, and this information must be implied by context -having a sense of the variations possible in language can help an ESL teacher understand the cause of a student's English errors

suprasegmental

-occurs when phonetic properties are spread over a broader range of speech segments, as occurs with pitch or stress -not inherent to the individual speech segments, but rather supervene on them, constituting an additional communicative tool -"prosody" is often used as a synonym -ELL students must master prosody in order to achieve full linguistic competency, as misplaced stress or tone can readily cause communicative failure

cultural pluralism

-occurs when several distinct cultural groups and traditions coexist in a single society without an impetus toward assimilation to the majority culture -implies that cultural and linguistic differences are not a problem to be overcome, but rather a resource to be utilized in the education process

implicit bias

-occurs when unconscious stereotypes or opinions influence behavior, often in direct contradiction to our consciously held beliefs -we all have them, and they're a result of the brain's attempt to simplify large amounts of complex data coming in from the outside world (not a personal fault)

critics of peer assessment

-often argue that low-performing students have little to offer high-performing students in terms of valuable feedback - and this disparity may be more pronounced in ESL classrooms than mainstream ones -one way to overcome this weakness is for the teacher to lead the evaluation exercise, guiding the students through a point-by-point framework of evaluation

non-profit organizations and local businesses

-often have an interest in the success of local schools, even if their directors do not have children currently enrolled in those schools -for businesses, visible involvement in school projects is an effective and targeted form of advertising

uncountable nouns

-often referred to as mass nouns -cannot be counted -do not have plural forms -example: milk, rice -cannot be used with "a" and "an"

contact stage

-often referred to as the honeymoon stage -individual feels excitement and tends to focus on similarities between the home and new cultures

language-rich classroom

-one in which students are continuously exposed to the language in many different forms -includes ways in which the classroom is constructed, student access to reading material, and teaching activities

performance-based assessment

-one in which students demonstrate their learning by performing a task rather than by answering questions in a traditional test format -proponents argue that they lead students to use high-level cognitive skills as they focus on how to put their knowledge to use and plan a sequence of stages in an activity or presentation -they also allow students more opportunities to individualize their presentations or responses based on preferred learning styles -research suggests that students welcome the chance to put their knowledge to use in real-world scenarios

lack of student engagement at school

-one often-cited factor for the increase of discipline incidents -can arise in the ELL context if these students are unable to successfully join the mainstream curriculum or are tracked in unchallenging courses

common-sense view

-opposite of Sapir-Whorf hypothesis -people have thoughts and put them into words when they wish to communicate

How did the 21st century learning initiative differ from that of the 20th century?

-organizers strove to update the 20th-century model of education based on the three R's (reading, writing and arithmetic) and the objective of providing students with content knowledge -instead, it reflected the transformative effect of the Internet and the implication that the next generation would succeed not by knowing things, but by knowing how to do things

five functions critical to online literacy

-outlined by Donald Leu -identifying the problem (students initiate online research by accurately formulating a question - a skill seldom needed in traditional reading) -locate information (choosing from search results) -evaluate sources for reliability and bias -synthesize information drawn from different sources (as the number of sources has grown, so has the likelihood that relevant information will be spread among multiple locations) -communicate their results in multiple new formats (requiring a different range of rhetorical skills)

Title 3

-part of NCLB that authorizes funds for English-Language Acquisition programs -allowed this funding to be separate from the entire spectrum of socioeconomically disadvantaged students (under Title 1) and raised the profile for ELL issues -obliged states to monitor ELL academic performance more closely

zone of proximal development

-part of Vygotsky's social constructivism theory -set of challenges that a child can accomplish with assistance or scaffolding but not alone -children best learn in these situations

Proposition 227

-passed in California in 1997 -prescribed two language models, one of which was SEI -ended bilingual education programs in public schools, requiring that ESL students enroll in one-year English immersion programs and then transition to mainstream English content classrooms -these students showed improvement on standardized tests, but so did those who remained in bilingual programs (other factors besides the type of program must have been driving the improvements)

Proposition 58

-passed in California in 2017 -repealed Proposition 227 and gave public school districts the right to decide the best way to teach ESL students while retaining the responsibility to ensure that students achieve English proficiency -shows a growing awareness of the value of multilingualism in an interconnected world

Krashen's Natural Order

-people acquire aspects of language in a natural order, regardless of which language they are acquiring or which language is their primary language -in other words, certain grammatical structures are acquired early in the language process and others later -example: individuals acquiring English will master the use of "-ing" before that of "-s"

word analysis

-performed by breaking a complex word into its constituent morphemes in order to help students understand an unfamiliar word -relies on the fact that many English words are composed of separate, frequently-used morphemes with identifiable meanings -example: teaching ELLs the meaning of the prefixes "re-" (again) and "un-" (not) allows them to understand a wide range of words composed of these elements

code-switching

-phenomenon in which speakers switch from one language to another in the same conversation, often in the same sentence -so common among bilingual Spanish-English speakers that the name "Spanglish" has been coined for it

critics of performance-based assessments

-point out that they are difficult and time-consuming for teachers to construct and for students to perform -difficult to grade in the absence of a well-constructed and detailed rubric

proponents of peer assessment

-point out that they require students to apply metacognition -builds cooperative work and interpersonal skills -broadens the sense that the student is accountable to peers and not just the teacher -even advocates of the practice agree that students need detailed rubrics in order to succeed

proponents of cognitive models of language learning

-point to the fact that language learning does appear to proceed according to certain stages of complexity -example: learners in all languages master functional morphemes in similar order

critics of the critical period hypothesis

-point to the fact that some adult-learners do fully master a second language -factors other than brain development could explain the difference in L2 learning, as adults and children learn in different motivational and social contexts

Robert De Keyser's Skill Acquisition Theory

-posits that individuals learn skills by gradually transforming declarative knowledge into procedural knowledge through meaningful use and practice -therefore emphasizes that full competency requires processing of information by two representational systems of the mind, which reinforce one another in language learning

model of first-language acquisition

-pre-speech stage -babbling stage -one-word stage -two-word or telegraphic stage -multiword stage

12 tenses of English language

-present simple -past simple -future simple -present progressive -past progressive -future progressive -present perfect -past perfect -future perfect -present perfect progressive -past perfect progressive -future perfect progressive

When should teachers use formative assessments?

-prior to launching an instructional unit in order to gauge student knowledge and needs -during instruction to check for understanding, identify needed lesson modifications, and detect students in need of help -after instruction to ensure student comprehension with an eye toward modifying subsequent instruction

most commonly used tutoring applications in ESL classrooms

-pronunciation tutorials, in which students listen to native English speakers and record their own speech -reading tutorials, in which electronic glossaries provide definitions and draw connections between related texts -programs that provide outlines and graphic organizers to assist in the writing process

behaviorist theories of language learning

-propose that humans learn language through a process of reinforcement -theory has intuitive appeal and is often used in teaching -however, critics argue it reduces the complexity of language to an input-output model that is far too simple -example: operant conditioning

Adler's model

-proposes that individuals progress through various stages of culture shock -five stages: contact, disintegration, reintegration, autonomy, independence

ESL instructional programs

-provide English-only classroom instruction, with possible occasional use of a student's L1 in support -some focus solely on developing English proficiency, while others focus on teaching academic content in ways that reinforce English language learning

gaps in the Bilingual Education Act of 1968

-provided no guidelines on what bilingual programs being funded should look like -did not require schools to adopt ESL programs, but encouraged and funded district-led innovations and did much to elevate ELL rights as a concern separate from that of racial discrimination

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)

-provides a standard system of symbols for all of the phonemes used in human languages -allows linguists to refer to sounds independently of how they are represented in a specific language -uses many symbols derived from the Latin alphabet, but includes symbols from other sources, such as the Greek alphabet and even the Icelandic alphabet

placement tests

-purpose is to identify a student's level of proficiency in the target language in order to guide his or her placement in a program or school -in order to be effective, should test an appropriate range of language skills (a multiple-choice test, for example, might offer insight into a student's knowledge of grammar or vocabulary, but will not test language production or reception)

reteaching strategies

-re-explaining the subject more slowly and using simplified vocabulary -using visual aids -relying on students who understand the concept to peer coach the students who do not -providing more background knowledge or calling on student experience to situate the new material in context -focusing instruction on the suspected problem area, such as new vocabulary or a particular grammatical form

How can teachers promote fluency?

-read aloud and often while taking care to read with expression and to model how words are not read one-by-one with equal spacing, but instead are read in groups with uneven pauses -students can practice reading a line of text after listening to the teacher read it or read the text in unison with the teacher - either one student at a time (duet reading) or the entire class (choral reading) -research suggests that reading aloud is more helpful to developing fluency than reading silently and that students can profit from reading the same passages repeatedly until they achieve fluency

standards-based assessment

-recent educational reform in the US has focused on establishing grade-level content and skill standards to guide both instruction and assessment -this approach provides greater transparency - all stakeholders can view the learning objectives in advance - and gives teachers the means to develop integrated, proportional lesson plans

other functions of language

-record information for future use (usually in written form) -influence reality (example: "I hereby christen...") -facilitate thought and memory (as when we talk to ourselves to overcome a mental block) -express our personal or collective identity (as when we join a cheer at a sports stadium)

indefinite pronouns

-refer to nonspecific persons or things -anybody, everything, no one, etc.

proper nouns

-refer to specific people or things -example: "President Lincoln" or "Florida" -capitalized wherever they occur in a sentence

countable nouns

-refer to things that can be counted -have separate singular and plural forms -example: one egg, two eggs -in the singular form, can be preceded by "a" or "an"

concrete nouns

-refer to things that can be perceived by the senses -whether a noun is concrete or abstract makes no difference in how it is used

abstract nouns

-refer to things that cannot be perceived by the senses -example: ideas, concepts, or beliefs

common nouns

-refer to types or classes of things that have more than one member -example: "president" or "state" -not capitalized unless they begin a sentence

five cohesive devices that establish links among sentences

-reference -conjunction -substitution -ellipses -descriptor

World English

-refers both to the spread of English as the global language of business and science and to the existence of many regional and national English dialects -some hypothesize that dialects outside of Great Britain and the United States may one day replace that of American English as the informal standard -scholars of world English map its spread along the lines of colonial influence, through commercial and scientific hubs, among the world's educated and economic elite, and increasingly through the instruments of modern technology

print awareness

-refers to a child's recognition that the written symbols on a page represent letters and words and correspond to spoken language -also refers to the awareness that English text is read from left to right and pages are turned from right to left -an essential pre-reading skill which students must grasp before they learn how to read, spell, or practice handwriting

stress

-refers to a difference in force applied to an element of speech, usually a syllable -multi-syllabic words in English have a standard pattern of stress -with some words, changing the pattern of stress may lead to a change of meaning, as between "con-VERT" and "CON-vert"

English-only movement

-refers to efforts to establish English as the only official language in the US (which currently has no official language) -has often failed in Congress but succeeded in over 20 states

accentedness

-refers to how an ELL's pronunciation differs from that of a native English speaker -a major factor in determining both the comprehensibility and intelligibility of speech -scholars have used this information to suggest that, given limited instructional time, teachers should prioritize improving the elements of accentedness that have the most effect on comprehensibility and intelligibility, but particularly intelligibility -teachers should focus on correcting pronunciation errors that carry high functional loads

generation 1.5

-refers to individuals who immigrated to the U.S. in their late childhood or early teen years, and thus are neither first generation (adult immigrants) nor second generation (born in the U.S.) -likely to have substantial remaining ties to their home countries and may lack citizenship and be vulnerable to deportation -may resist being placed into standard ELL programs

culture shock

-refers to the feelings of confusion or alienation a person may experience when first living, studying, or working in a new culture -a person experiences this when they are taken out of a cultural context that provided them with reinforcement and a sense of control and are inserted into another that they don't fully understand

register

-refers to the formality of language -by convention, English speakers will speak more formally in a professional setting than when talking to a close friend -ELLs may need instruction and practice to master these conventions

derivation

-refers to the formation of new words by adding a derivational affix to a root -example: the adjective "thankful" can be derived by adding "-ful" to the root "thank," a verb

tense

-refers to the location of events in time -expressed in English by changing the form of verbs -linguists only recognize two tenses in English (past and present) and classify the other variations in verbs as changes of aspect or mood -non-specialists commonly recognize twelve different tenses

external culture

-refers to the objects and physical space people use to express their shared culture -elements include architecture, clothing and food -markers are easier to recognize than internal cultural markers

transnational migration

-refers to the practice of immigrants to the U.S. maintaining close ties to their country of origin -common expressions of this include regular home visits, sending money to family members abroad, or making plans to return to their home country for retirement or after achieving citizenship -for ELL educators, this can be cultivated as an educational resource

linguistic imperialism

-refers to the spread and domination of one language over others, often in association with acts of power or violence -example: spread of European languages in association with colonial rule

connected speech

-refers to the way in which the pronunciation of a word can be changed by the words around it -presents obvious listening comprehension challenges for ELLs -in addition, ELLs who rely heavily on reading to learn English may use connected speech far too often when speaking, and thus sound unnaturally formal or stilted

stage 4 of morpheme acquisition

-regular past tense verbs ("-ed") -third-person singular ("-s") -possessives ('s)

May 25 Memorandum

-released by the Department of Education in 1970 to school districts with high concentrations of Spanish-language students -warned that some practices denied Spanish-speaking students the right to an equal education -helped define access to appropriate language education as a civil right, but still did not have the status of the law

audio-lingual method

-relies heavily on repetition and drills, with language skills built systematically from simple to complex structures -focuses on accurate pronunciation and the minimization of errors -oral exercises are designed to control the vocabulary and grammar structures in use rather than to reflect real-world communication

grammar-translation method

-relies on explanations in the students' native language of the grammatical structures of the target language -students are challenged to read difficult texts in the target language and to translate sentences from L2 to L1

suggestopedia

-relies on music and rhythm to reinforce language patterns -students are given scripts of L2 to read aloud with games and music -later in the lesson, they might elaborate on the script with their own inventions or compare the L2 script to an L1 translation before moving on to another script

How can teachers modify instead of simplify?

-repeat their statements more slowly, and/or use different intonations or stress to call student attention to the aspects of the sentence that cause confusion or are critical to understanding -paraphrase using synonyms for unknown words but then revert to using the original word to demonstrate that the paraphrase was not for purposes of eliminating the new word from use -if these are ineffective, teachers should aim at explanations that elaborate rather than simplify the original statement

qualities of well-designed authentic assessments

-require a student to exercise advanced cognitive skills, integrate background knowledge, and confront ambiguity -research has demonstrated that mere language proficiency is not predictive of future language success - learning how to utilize knowledge in a complex context is an essential additional skill

How are school districts held accountable to the IDEA of 1975?

-required to have a process in place to evaluate children with potential disabilities -assessments are made by a team of professionals, and if they determine (in conjunction with the child's parents) that a child needs special education services, the team creates an individualized education program (IEP) -the IEP specifies the program accommodations, testing modifications, and counseling the child will receive

downsides of bilingual instruction

-requires a fairly homogenous L1 population -requires a sufficient pool of bilingual teachers -requires a legal framework that allows for non-English instruction

order of morpheme acquisition in English

-research has demonstrated that ELL students acquire English morphemes in a consistent order, regardless of their native language or the instructional context -consists of four stages -teachers should take these into consideration as they decide in which order to introduce these forms -further, teachers may opt not to explicitly correct errors that this model will predict students to master at a later date, and instead focus on correcting errors that correspond to a student's present stage of acquisition

Why does Bloom's Taxonomy present a challenge for teachers?

-research shows that classroom teachers typically prompt their students for responses on the lower end of the scale of cognitive demand - asking them to provide facts, for example, rather than analysis -ESL teachers must consciously frame their inquiries to spur their students to formulate cognitively complex responses

two ways to teach phonics

-research suggests that phonics is best taught explicitly - teachers systematically teach letter/sound correspondence and advance through progressively more complex words by means of grouping words with shared sounds -alternatively, phonics may be taught implicitly - teachers present whole words and then break them into sounds, inviting students to identify common, known sound patterns

What should a teacher do if they discover that a large number of students scored badly on a certain question or group of related questions?

-reteach that subject to the entire class -try to identify the core issue - perhaps the lesson is too complex and needs to be divided into smaller, more manageable chunks; or perhaps success in the lesson was predicated on vocabulary that the students never grasped, in which case the teacher can begin anew with vocabulary instruction

reported speech

-retelling what someone said to an audience later in time -example: you report Joe's words "I am sick" as "Joe said that he was sick" -relatively advanced language skill -even early ELLs, however, can practice retelling events and experiences, and more advanced students can practice narrating them in different registers

Plyler v. Doe

-ruled that children could not be denied education because of their immigration status -arose when Texas law withheld funds to pay for the education of, and allowed districts to expel, students who lacked legal status -Texas had violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment -only applies to K-12 education, and whether or not it should apply to college education is still up for debate -unauthorized immigrants are often still afraid to enroll their students in school out of fear of being reported to authorities

limitations of technology use

-school use of technology varies greatly, as does student access to technologies at home -teachers must be cognizant of these limitations and careful not to disadvantage students who lack access -while technology-based learning is great for differentiation and for autonomous learning, students who lack direction may waste their time or pursue inappropriate goals -even a well-equipped classroom may lack bandwidth or suffer technology failures - teachers have to be prepared with alternative lesson plans

contributions approach

-schools simply add a few references to minority or female contributions to the existing curriculum -often called the holidays and heroes approach to multiculturalism

connectionist theories and artificial intelligence

-scientists attempt to build learning networks and have built models that simulate many language-acquisition activities -these models rely primarily on statistical, inferential learning rather than on the symbol and rule-based learning typically advanced by non-computational models

weaknesses of portfolio assessments

-share many of the weaknesses of other subjective assignments -to be effective, they should be accompanied by clear rubrics and frequent student-teacher conversations that clarify expectations

How can teachers promote high expectations in the classroom?

-should not create differential expectations based on demographic factors -form groups composed of all levels of language proficiency rather than marginalize low performers -call on all students equally often regardless of their proficiency -foster a culture in which errors are seen as a normal part of the learning process

How can teachers make lessons meaningful?

-should use authentic texts and realia, examples and scenarios from the students' original cultures, and scenarios that reproduce scenes and activities that the students actually experience -texts should include sympathetic characters facing familiar challenges

model of second-language acquisition

-silent period -private speech -lexical chunks -formulaic speech -experimental or simplified speech

exceptions to basic rule of subject-verb agreement

-simple past -compound subjects -intervening phrases

ability groups

-smaller-scale version of tracking -separation of students into groups based on their perceived ability to understand a topic -supported by parents of high-performing students who want their kids to receive more targeted instruction -also appeals to many teachers because they can save time by giving specific instruction to different groups

social vs. academic language

-social language often doesn't follow grammatical conventions (in casual settings, people often speak in phrases rather than complete sentences, use slang, repeat themselves, and use narrative strategies that favor expediency rather than economy or logic) -in an academic setting, by contrast, people are expected to use full sentences linked by grammatical transitions (academic language typically requires a specialized or higher-level vocabulary, and variety is expected instead of repetition)

critics of the monitor hypothesis

-some argue children may monitor their speech before they have learned language rules -others argue that the hypothesis excludes use in the vast majority of speech and thus is of limited scope

Is pivot grammar compatible with universal grammar?

-some scholars argue that it is -others argue that with pivot grammars, children are not building upon syntactic regularities, but rather upon lexical regularities - a direct challenge to the UG model of how children acquire languages

How do states vary in their use of identification assessments?

-some states have a single, mandated exam, whereas others can choose from a variety of approved exams -a minority of states do not use an identification assessment at all but rely instead on a human screener to make ESL identifications

assessing and summarizing

-something students should do once they have finished reading -if they find that they don't understand part of the narrative or the author's argument, they should return to the text to improve their comprehension

curriculum mapping

-sometimes called curriculum calibration -the process of ensuring that what is taught corresponds to the expected learning standards -ensures that there are no gaps or redundancies in what is taught and that a course covers in a thorough and systematic way the corresponding learning objectives -usually involves allocating instructional time to the various topics to be taught, often in proportion to the topics' relative weight on standardized exams

language transfer

-sometimes called language interference, but only when the effects are negative -can have either positive or negative effects -example: the existence of cognates can help a learner understand L2, but the existence of false cognates exerts a negative influence

Spoken language relies on differences in _____ to create differences in _____.

-sound; meaning -the primary source of these sound differences is phonemes

How can teachers promote communicative interactions?

-stage activities that draw students into conversations, such as small-group discussions, problem-solving tasks, skits, or dialogue journals -in guiding the conversation, teachers should ask open-ended, exploratory questions that avoid right/wrong answers and invite elaboration -students should assess and discuss what they read and should write in order to be read - whether it be a product like a classroom newsletter or a journal to be read by a classmate or a parent

criteria of appropriate reading materials

-stimulate student interest -provide the proper conceptual load -furnish sufficient contextual support for the narrative -do not contain culturally insensitive references -appropriate length -diversity of genres -clear textual layout that enhances comprehension rather than impedes it

affective strategies

-strategies students use to control their own emotions -example: appeals for assistance and requests for clarification

social strategies

-strategies students use to employ language in social settings -example: role-playing

metacognitive strategies

-strategies that students use to improve their own learning process -their use is highly correlated with language student success -ESL teachers should monitor and encourage their use -examples: planning, self-monitoring, prioritizing

compensation strategies

-strategies used when students lack vocabulary in L2 -example: code-switching

Why are modals especially challenging to ELLs?

-student L1s may not have corresponding forms (Spanish has no word for "will" or "would") -modals often have several unrelated meanings ("may" could convey both possibility, as in "I may come," or permission, as in "May I go?") -irregular in their conjugation (for example, many do not add an "-s" in the third-person present) -when a modal is combined with another verb, the second verb is not used in its infinitive form, as is generally the case when a sentence contains two verbs (example: "I can go" vs. "I want to go")

family expectations

-students are more likely to succeed if their parents hold them to high academic expectations -these expectations may manifest themselves in parental reinforcement and encouragement, parental involvement in school meetings and functions, or parental engagement with their child's homework (all three of these areas are potentially problematic in the case of ESLs)

mapping

-students brainstorm about the words and concepts that relate to a central theme -useful in the planning stages of a writing activity

eye contact

-students from different cultures might have a different understanding of its significance during the conversation -in the US, direct eye contact signals transparency, while in many cultures it is seen as an aggressive assertion of status

Krashen's Affective Filter Hypothesis

-students learn most effectively in low-stress learning environments -affective factors such as boredom or anxiety create affective filters that interfere with the learning process -children are less affected by affective factors than adults, providing children with an advantage in language acquisition

Why does Bloom's Taxonomy present a challenge for all students?

-students of any language background need explicit instruction and practice in order to learn how to understand and produce academic language structured using cognitively complex verbs such as analyze, persuade, and differentiate -standardized exams typically test student familiarity with these concepts, increasing their importance for student success

predictable rules

-students of any language benefit if that language has predictable rules of grammar, spelling, or pronunciation -learning is made even easier if the student experiences positive transfer

effects of praise on performance

-students perform better in the long run if they are praised for their efforts or for a specific academic result rather than for their intrinsic ability -reinforces the idea that students perform best when they focus on what they can control and when they believe they can influence the outcome

skills that students with a lack of formal school experience may also lack

-students who have never attended school are likely to completely lack literacy skills, putting them far behind their peers -they will also lack basic learning and studying skills, which many students and teachers take for granted after a certain age

lack of formal school experience

-students who lack prior formal education are likely to need additional support in the context of an ESL program -students who have had their school interrupted by war or political upheaval may suffer from trauma in addition to experiencing gaps in their education

phonology

-study of how speech sounds function in a context - in a syllable, word, sentence, or language as a whole -would study the ways in which phonemes are used to create larger units of meaning

phonetics

-study of speech sounds in isolation -considers how individual speech sounds are produced and perceived and might ask which sounds are present in a given language

two forms of personal pronouns

-subjective form: to be used when the pronoun serves as a subject or complements a subject -objective form: to be used when the pronoun serves as an object

critics of tailoring lessons to student learning styles

-suggest it is more useful for teachers to vary learning styles in accordance with a particular lesson or task rather than with a particular student -also point out that tailoring instruction to match a student's preferred style is tantamount to reinforcing their strengths and ignoring their weaknesses

critics of universal grammar theory

-suggest that it privileges syntax over semantics, pragmatics and discourse -it focuses on developmental aspects of language acquisition at the expense of social and psychological aspects

emergentist theory of language acquisition

-suggests that children learn language by using a simple but adaptable set of neural networks to process and understand the complex linguistic environment they are immersed in -children are born with a pattern extraction ability that is effectuated by the growth and strengthening of neural networks -social interaction is critical for language development but adds a new layer of pattern extraction from an overwhelming linguistic environment -the brain narrows the field of possible meanings through the use of contextual, phonological and morphological cues and through statistical analysis

common framework that outlines learning styles

-suggests that students vary in their preference for visual, auditory, kinesthetic, or tactile learning -example: the opportunity to give presentations will appeal to a kinesthetic learner, whereas information on a Smartboard will appeal to a visual learner

proponents/critics of acquisition/learning hypothesis

-supported widely by language theorists -critics have disputed his claim that learned languages cannot subsequently be acquired, and that the distinction is difficult to define in some contexts

Why is it difficult to monitor one's language use?

-takes time and conscious attention -it is difficult to speak fluently and simultaneously attend to what one is saying (doing so usually leads to interrupted speech) -more feasible when writing than when speaking

implicit instruction

-teacher does not explicitly teach targeted concepts but instead relies on students to learn them during the course of communication-based activities -advocates model language as something that is acquired

silent way classrooms

-teacher speech is minimized -after initially modeling an expression, the teacher uses a series of props to help students learn basic structures

balanced literacy writing process

-teacher writes in a specific genre -teacher and students engage in interactive writing -students write in small-group or individual writing workshops

scaffolding

-teacher's use of supports to help student understanding of concepts or mastery of skills -in the literary world, allow students to engage with texts and writing projects just beyond their current proficiency levels (aka their zones of proximal development)

differentiation in an ESL context

-teachers can think of it as the merger of a content framework (such as the Common Core) with an ELD framework -ELD frameworks suggest ways in which teachers might differentiate various learning activities for students at different proficiency levels -example: an entering student might follow an explicit, minimal writing model, and be given other activities to demonstrate the content knowledge, while a bridging student might be expected to organize his or her own lengthier, content-filled written response

ELLs and the four C's

-teachers may need to pay specific attention to ensure they engage in them -when ELLs collaborate with native English speakers, they often get left out or behind -in sheltered instruction content classrooms, ELLs may lack the English proficiency to easily express the higher order concepts required for critical thinking and may require specific prompts or scaffolding to engage effectively in communicative activities

selecting materials and resources

-teachers must take care that the resources they choose for the classroom are age-appropriate, culturally inclusive, language-accessible, affordable, varied, and easily accessible -one challenge ESL teachers face is that resources that are language-appropriate for older ELLs may not be age-appropriate - students may perceive them as childish or demeaning

Why should teachers model tasks for ELLs?

-teachers of ELLs should not rely entirely on verbal instructions when staging a classroom task or activity -even if the ELLs understand enough to begin the activity, they may lack critical procedural understanding or the contextual understanding necessary to learn from the activity

balanced literacy reading process

-teachers read aloud to students -teacher and students read together (shared reading) -one-on-one help is provided to individuals or small groups (aka reading workshops)

ESL teacher advocacy

-teachers should advocate for their ESL students in addition to being effective educators -they are uniquely positioned to understand the problems ESL students are going through and how to fix them -includes ensuring access to school resources, engaging parents, helping educate peers with less ELL experience, and correcting misperceptions about ELL aptitude and education

self-questioning strategies

-teachers should encourage students to use these to monitor their comprehension while they read -example: when reading a text with headings, students can stop at the end of a section and verify that they grasped the point anticipated by said heading

activating student prior knowledge

-teaching is most effective when it builds upon what a student already knows in order to introduce something new -teachers accordingly learn techniques for activating student prior knowledge, using techniques such as brainstorming or know-want to know-learned (KWL) charts

importance of conversations to ELLs

-teaching students how to carry out successful conversations is one of the most important outcomes of any ELL program -students who speak flawless English will nevertheless fail to achieve their communication objectives if they do not learn the patterns and conventions of conversational discourse

pitch

-technically a difference in the frequency of the vibration of the vocal cords -recognized by listeners as a continuum between low and high

anticipation guide

-technique for activating student prior knowledge -poses a series of questions to students about the unit to come -good anticipation guides provide teachers with insight into student background knowledge and also stimulate students to think and talk about what they already know

"authentic" vs. "performance-based"

-terms are often used interchangeably -however, a performance-based assessment doesn't necessarily have to be grounded in a possible authentic experience

What misconception are beginning students often taught about English sentences?

-that English sentences, at minimum, need a noun and a verb -in fact, many sentences contain nothing more than a noun and a verb -however, this description of the simplest of English sentences does not describe the entirety of English sentences, most of which contain other parts of speech in addition to a noun and a verb

Instead of being taught that all sentences need a noun and a verb, what should students be taught?

-that all sentences need a subject and a predicate -more formal, exhaustive terms that refer to all the possible elements of an English sentence -everything in a sentence is either part of the subject or part of the predicate

stage 1 of morpheme acquisition

-the "-ing" of progressive verbs ("eating") -the plural "-s" -the copula "to be" (is, am, are)

meeting ELA standards

-the Common Core State Standards hold ELLs to the same standards of English language arts proficiency as native English speakers, while recognizing that ELLs may need more time and support to reach these objectives -in response, both the WIDA consortium and several states developed English language development (ELD) frameworks to give teachers and parents a detailed roadmap of how ELLs could meet the ELA standards

fluency

-the ability to read a text accurately, rapidly, and with feeling -highly correlated with comprehension

limited capacity hypothesis

-the assertion that children who were exposed to more than one language at a time would experience delayed and incomplete proficiency in either -influenced the field for decades, but has been overturned by recent research

textbook assessments

-the assessments provided at the end of a chapter or unit in an approved textbook -present several advantages for a teacher: they are already made; they are likely to be accurate representations of the chapter or unit materials; and, if the textbook has been prescribed or recommended by the state, it is likely to correspond closely to Common Core or other tested standards

classifying sentences

-the categories "compound sentences" and "complex sentences" classify sentences according to their syntax -another common way to classify is by their purpose (declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamatory)

contrastive analysis

-the comparison of two languages to identify similarities and differences -often used by linguists to determine whether language transfer is likely, and in which forms -in general, the more similar two languages are, the greater the likelihood of positive transfer

learning load

-the extent to which the classroom learning activity is unfamiliar or stressful to the ELL -example: if the ELL is asked to debate an issue with a classmate but has no prior experience with debating and is uncomfortable with the interpersonal dynamic, the activity would present a high learning load

irregularities in English spelling

-the fact that the 26 letters of the English alphabet combine to form 44 distinct phonemes will complicate the learning process for ELLs, as there is no one-to-one correspondence between spelling and pronunciation -other confusing features with this same problem include digraphs, diphthongs, and consonant clusters

classifying phonemes by their order in a word

-the first phoneme in a word is called the beginning phoneme -the last phoneme is called the end phoneme -any phonemes in the middle are called medial phonemes -teachers often promote phonetic awareness in readers using this classification

inhibition

-the inner impediment to free expression or action -usually viewed in negative terms, often as a defense mechanism erected by individuals with low self-esteem -however, the absence of inhibition can be pathological, as in the case of many mental illnesses

definitional approach to vocabulary learning

-the most traditional approach -students are either provided definitions of words or look them up in a dictionary, and they are drilled until they commit the meanings to memory

onset

-the phoneme that occurs at the beginning of the syllable -in English, only consonants can be onsets -if a syllable begins with a vowel sound, the syllable has no onset

tracking

-the practice of placing students in separate academic tracks based on their performance at an early age -closely related to ability grouping -critics say it is self-perpetuating (students in low-track courses receive instruction that is less cognitively challenging, all but ensuring that they will remain on that track) -ELLs enroll in high school college-preparatory classrooms at lower rates than their peers and have lower rates of participation in post-secondary education

decoding

-the practice of sounding out written words -in order to be successful at it, students need to understand the basics of phonics as well as how to blend sounds and segment words into discrete sounds -ELLs who successfully decode a written word may discover that they already know the written word through speech (for this reason, decoding is often referred to as word identification)

morpheme

-the smallest meaningful unit in a language -functions as a linguistic sign, meaning it refers to something in reality -a phoneme, by contrast, is a unit of sound that can be put together with other sounds to form words

cultural diffusion

-the spread of cultural traits through contact -the forces of globalization have rapidly increased its rate

sociolinguistics

-the study of the factors that lead to variation in language use, such as region, gender, or class -includes the study of how language use varies depending on the situation (people have a tendency to adopt the dialect of those they are speaking to, especially after lengthy exposure)

etymology

-the study of the origin of words -many English words have Greek or Latin roots and affixes, and learning these affixes is helpful to ELLs

examples of common language transfer issues

-the use in Spanish and French of the verb "to have" in many contexts in which English uses "to be" -in many languages, including Arabic, adjectives typically follow nouns, whereas in English they usually precede them

computer-mediated communication (CMC)

-the use of computers as a communication tool -may either be synchronous (real-time interaction with a teacher or other students) or asynchronous (in which one student posts work for later review or augmentation by another user)

diglossia

-the use of two different languages (or two forms of one language) by a single speech community -one form is usually distinguishable as a high form, which is taught in school, used in formal situations, associated with prestige, and has a written form -the low form is acquired rather than taught, is used in informal settings, is often considered to signal low status, and often lacks a written form -individuals who speak both forms typically engage in code-switching or alternating between the two languages to fit the context

interlanguage

-the version of a learned language produced at any given moment by a language learner -contains elements and structures of both L1 and L2, but may differ substantially from either, leading some linguists to refer to it as an entirely separate language -often considered to be a strategy adopted by a learner to compensate for his or her limited proficiency in L2

rime

-the vowel and any consonants that follow the onset -every syllable has a rime, but not necessarily an onset

syntax

-the way in which words are combined in a language to create phrases, clauses, and sentences -often used synonymously with "grammar," but they are different from one another

language code

-the way language is used by a particular social group, in part as an expression of social identity -in the 1970s, the linguist Basil Bernstein suggested that language could be described as either consisting of elaborated code or restricted code

factors that could limit or prevent an immigrant learner's acculturation

-their perceptions of the L2 language community -whether they lived in a cultural enclave or were geographically integrated -whether the L1 and L2 languages were linguistically similar

gestures

-their use in communication varies widely by culture, as well as by context within a culture -ELLs will have to learn or acquire the conventions of the language community in order to communicate effectively

discovery learning theory

-theory by Jerome Bruner -posits that students learn best when they construct their own knowledge through a process of inquiry, investigation, and problem-solving rather than being explicitly told information -very influential in modern movement away from lecture and toward inquiry-based activities

ELLs and spoken vs. written language

-these students have far more exposure to spoken English than to written English -their natural tendency is often to write as they speak (in phrases rather than sentences) -similarly, the argumentative forms typically used in writing (with ideas presented in a logical sequence, or with a thesis followed with evidence or examples) are not the same as those used in speech and need to be expressly taught

main reasons to teach the four basic language skills in conjunction

-they reinforce each other -in the wider world, students will need to use all four skills, often simultaneously

finite verbs

-those that are conjugated to agree with a subject -three main types: infinitives, gerunds, and participles

cognitive strategies

-those that students employ to understand a task at hand and include such activities as memorizing, categorizing, and summarizing -research has shown that students who use a variety of cognitive strategies are more successful in learning a second language

individualistic cultures

-those that value individual achievement and development above group success or cohesion -example: mainstream American culture -value freedom and individual initiative and tend to ascribe success and failure to individual traits such as motivation or intelligence -encourage students to stand out from the group

goal of assessment in education

-to gather data that, when evaluated, can be used to further student learning and achievement -standardized tests are helpful for placement purposes and to reflect student progress toward goals set by a school district or state -if a textbook is chosen to align with district learning standards, the textbook assessments can provide teachers with convenient, small-scale, regular checks of student knowledge against the target standard

Why have policymakers advocated for a standards-based curriculum?

-to narrow the gap in academic achievement that exists between both states and the districts and schools within states -standardized assessment rates would allow policymakers to identify districts and schools in need of more resources or educational reform -also popular among those who see the need for greater teacher accountability, as student performance on standardized assessments arguably serves as a basis for measuring teacher performance

cultural traits

-traits that arise independently -generally viewed as adaptive but aren't always

three main bilingual language instruction education programs (LIEP) used in the United States

-transitional bilingual education (TBE) -developmental bilingual education (DBE) -dual immersion (DI)

compound subjects

-two or more subjects joined by "and," "or," or "nor" -if two subjects are joined by "and," they should be treated as a plural subject taking a plural verb -if they are joined by "or" or "nor," however, the subject nearest the verb should agree with the verb (example: "neither the dog nor the cats like liver")

newcomer programs

-type of LIEP developed specifically for immigrants who enter the US between grades 6-12 and have had interrupted or no schooling in their home country -often lack the literacy skills to function in standard classes and the academic English skills to join their peers in content classrooms -programs are often off-site and provide separate, all-day instruction for a year -often include after-school programs to help students and families acculturate

competition model of language acquisition

-type of connectionist theory attributed to Brian MacWhinney and Elizabeth Bates -there is no fundamental difference in how people acquire a first language or learn subsequent languages -in both cases, various cognitive processes compete to offer the best interpretation of the language cues offered by the surrounding environment -the processes that lead to the learner having successful interactions and speech acts are reinforced as neural networks get consolidated as permanent features of the brain

English-only initiatives in education

-typically prescribe English as the only language of instruction, eliminate bilingual education programs and accelerate ESL transition programs -proponents argue that the nation and recent immigrants are best served by rapid assimilation -many propositions banned bilingual education in the late 90s and early 00s, although some were later repealed due to popular opinion -research supports efficacy of bilingual education, but there is still a broader cultural debate

Lau v. Nichols decision

-unanimous in favor of the plaintiff -schools receiving federal funding must provide English-language instruction to students who lack English proficiency -court based decision instead on the Civil Rights Act of 1965, finding that the case represented a failure to grant equal access to educational opportunities

push factors

-unattractive features of a home country that compel people to leave -can include lack of economic opportunities, war, or natural disaster

A teacher's ability to mediate cross-cultural conflicts will depend in part on how well they _____.

-understand the competing cultures -a better understanding can be achieved by talking to both parties separately and finding out their intentions

advantages of portfolio assessments

-unlike traditional assessments which focus on one or two language skills, they may contain work in multiple forms -allow a student to develop work in authentic contexts, including other classrooms and at home

"uh" in IPA

-upside down, lowercase "e" -as in "campus" or "love"

What should evaluators look for in assessment data?

-use data that pinpoint success in both basic English proficiency and use of English in the content areas -longitudinal data are also important to show a school's history of scores over time (performance should not be declining, even if benchmarks are being hit) -assessment data for peer groups (school or district may be achieving consistent benchmarks but be lagging behind peers with similar students) and high-performing groups (which can serve as an inspiration for reform or renewal)

computer assisted language learning (CALL)

-use of computer technology to learn languages -discussions often distinguish between the use of computers as a tutor and their use as a tool for communicating with others

use of technology

-use of technology in the classroom is widespread, limited in most cases only by funding and teacher unfamiliarity with emerging platforms -leading to the growth of blended learning, in which online learning replaces a portion of the face-to-face instruction time -plays a key role in many classroom differentiation strategies, as students using software can learn at their own pace and using different learning styles

elaborated code

-used by individuals when they communicate with strangers or people who do not share a common experience -in these instances, they speak explicitly, at length, and with minimal colloquial or expressive language -any listener could understand an elaborated utterance -used for broad, unpredictable interactions

ESL-trained paraprofessionals

-used in both ESL and content classrooms -many school districts hire paraprofessionals who speak the foreign language most widely represented in the student population; in these instances, he or she can provide interpretation when needed

persuasive writing

-used to advance an argument or point of view -often begins with the statement of a thesis, presentation of evidence, and a restatement of the thesis as a conclusion -the author may explicitly state his or her own opinions, and likely will not pretend to be offering a balanced account of the subject

functions of academic language

-used to describe, define, explain, compare, contrast, make predictions, and persuade -for most ELLs, academic language will need to be expressly modeled, scaffolded, and reinforced through targeted practice

reclassification assessments

-used to determine whether an ESL student has reached sufficient proficiency to be classified as a fluent English speaker and effectively exit the ESL program -federal law requires that states assess ESL student proficiency every year, but it does not specify the criteria that a state must use in making reclassification decisions -most states consider additional factors beyond test results, including teacher and parental input -however, overall criteria differ widely by state

identification assessment

-used to identify students in need of English language assistance -by federal law, school districts must have procedures in place to screen newly arriving students for potential language assistance

expository writing

-used to inform the reader by presenting information in an objective manner -written almost exclusively in the third-person, uses complex sentences, and often utilizes the specialized vocabulary of an academic or technical field

achievement tests

-used to measure whether students have learned what has been taught -typically summative by nature, as they are usually administered at the end of a learning cycle

descriptive writing

-used to portray an event, place or person, usually with depth and detail -may rely heavily on adjectives and adverbs to provide vivid descriptions of sensory images -common in fiction but may also be found in advertising and journalism

narrative writing

-used to tell a story, either fictional or factual -usually proceed in chronological order, often use literary devices, and may make heavy use of description and dialogue

restricted code

-used when in the company of friends or members of a shared community -relies on implied meanings and references, thereby communicating a lot with few words -only individuals with shared background knowledge and experiences could understand restricted code -used primarily in narrow, unchanging social contexts where shared values can be assumed -sometimes associated with the working class

proponents/critics of affective filter hypothesis

-useful in drawing attention to the importance of non-linguistic factors in language acquisition -the assertion that children are less affected by affective factors than adults has been challenged

cultural dimensions theory

-useful tool for understanding cultural differences -created by Geese Hofstede by conducting a multinational survey of national values -concluded the key differences could be explained along six dimensions (individualism vs. collectivism, uncertainty avoidance index, power distance index, long-term vs. short-term orientation, indulgence vs. restraint, masculinity vs. femininity)

technology and differentiated instruction

-using computer technology, a teacher can differentiate a lesson by content and degree of difficulty, by the amount or nature of scaffolding provided, by learner-style preference, and by a student's preferred method of demonstrating learning -if students have access to learning technologies at home, they can listen to or read a lesson multiple times, gaining the critical advantages of time and repetition -the same technologies can be used to differentiate assessments (students can listen to questions multiple times or access hyperlinks to contextual information)

inferential comprehension

-using context clues and outside experiences to discover implied meanings in a text -this ability is seen in students with more reading experience -asking students about inferential meaning is a good way to bring their background knowledge into a classroom discussion and to get them to discuss ways in which the text relates to the real world

English language development (ELD) programs

-utilize second-language instructional practices to assist students with limited English proficiency -when the Common Core was developed, many states with ELD programs, such as California, took steps to integrate the two sets of standards -in these settings, ELD can be seen as a type of scaffolding program designed to help ELLs reach the same standards of literacy as native speakers

advanced placement exams

-vast majority of high school students have at least some access to them, due to federal funding of AP programs and teacher training -number of AP exams offered at a given school is directly related to socioeconomic status, as is student participation in the AP program -AP classes are often writing-intensive, which is seen as a poor fit for ELL students

family involvement and student success

-very strong correlation between the two -ELL parental involvement is especially important because these students are more vulnerable to academic failure -language difficulties may further isolate ELL parents and prevent their involvement in their child's education

skills that should be explicitly taught rather than implicitly

-vocabulary and syntax of academic language -comprehension strategies -writing process (planning, drafting, evaluating, etc.) -phonics and grammatical instruction (or at least that which is not as transparent or held in common with the student's native language)

second-generation test

-was composed of multiple-choice or true/false questions, a format that solved the problem of subjective grading but left each question devoid of context -each question could only assess one skill or concept, necessitating long or incomplete exams

Matthew Effect

-well-verified educational observation that students who learn to read well and early experience wide and growing educational advantages over their peers who do not -children who read slowly or poorly fail to understand content-area subject matter and are more likely to become discouraged and expend less effort

subject

-what or whom a sentence is talking about -simple nouns or pronouns often play this role, but it can also be filled by more complex structures -some sentences have implied subjects, as in command: "Be quiet!"

specific policies stated by May 25 Memorandum

-when a lack of English ability excludes students from effective participation, districts must take steps to rectify the language deficiency -districts must not misclassify ELL students as having special needs -ESL programs must be designed to achieve proficiency rather than simply lead to academic dead ends

explicit instruction

-when a teacher informs students of a specific lesson goal, provides an explanation of the important concepts, demonstrates their use, and then guides students in practice -advocates model language as something that is learned

How can teachers ensure resources are appropriate/accessible to ELLs?

-when assigning online language tasks, make sure students have time to complete the work in class rather than assume the students have access to technology at home -invite students to bring realia and written texts from their native cultures for discussion but shouldn't make the presentation of a home culture mandatory -strive to provide resources in different media in order to appeal to different learning preferences and to provide reinforcement of learning through multiple media

typical steps of dynamic process of vocabulary acquisition

-when students encounter a word repeatedly, they might first simply be aware that they have heard the word before, then later have a vague sense of what kind of word it is -they will likely comprehend it long before they learn how to use it, let alone understand its related forms and how it fits in a network of synonyms, antonyms, and associated words

peer assessment

-when students grade one another's work based on a teacher-provided framework -promoted as a means of saving teacher time and building student metacognitive skills -typically used as formative rather than summative assessments, given concerns about the reliability of student scoring and the tensions that can result if student scores contribute to overall grades -used most often to grade essay-type written work or presentations

Why should teachers modify rather than simplify?

-when teaching academic language to emerging ELLs, teachers should be careful not to simplify that language to the point where it ceases to be academic language at all -given that ELLs develop proficiency in social language more rapidly than in academic language, resorting to restatements of essential ideas in social language might serve in the short-term to communicate a concept, but it will do nothing to advance the students' academic language proficiency

What must teachers know about their students in order to be effective?

-where they are in the learning process -teachers use a multitude of formal and informal assessment methods to do this -posing differentiated discussion questions is an example of an informal assessment method that allows teachers to gauge individual student progress rather than their standing in relation to a universal benchmark

individualism vs. collectivism

-whether people think primarily in terms of "I" or "we" -element that has the most influence on educational psychology -teachers must be aware of these differences in order to understand student motivation and the impact of classroom activities that emphasize individual performance and bestow individual praise

motivation for students with a lack of formal school experience

-while students without educational experience are often highly motivated to attend school, they also have high drop-out rates, due in part to the demotivation they experience from lagging behind their age group in educational attainment -even when such learners make dramatic progress, they often underestimate their achievements

benefits of CALL

-widely used to differentiate instruction and learning, as individual students can use CALL to learn different lessons at different rates -when used responsibly by self-motivated learners, CALL can provide unique opportunities for self-guided learning -as a communication tool CALL expands the possibilities for distance learning and collaboration beyond the physical classroom -computer-based assessments can automate much of the grading and feedback functions of teaching

ideal qualities of a placement test

-will be tailored to a specific language program or school by including a sample of the actual material taught so that the results provide for unambiguous placements (however, programs can also adapt or interpret the results of standardized exams) -will offer an initial diagnosis of student strength or weakness in order to help teachers provide early effective instruction

How do the patterns of first and second language learning differ?

-with L1, oral competency almost always comes before written competency -this pattern is far more variable for L2

loanword

-word adopted from a foreign language without translation, though it may be modified in small ways to fit the adopting language -lead to similarities by borrowing, whereas cognates lead to similarities by descent

ways in which a language-rich classroom is constructed

-word walls displaying spelling words, commonly-used words, or target vocabulary words -displaying student writing -labeling objects with various names or descriptive terms

compound words

-words created by combining two separate words -resulting word often has a meaning that is difficult to predict from the meaning of the combined words -many languages, including English, make generous use of them, while they are virtually non-existent in other languages

false cognates

-words that appear similar between languages and did not actually have similar origins and meanings -make second language learning harder -example: Spanish word "embarazada" means pregnant, not embarrassed

homonyms

-words that are spelled alike or sound alike but have different meanings and origins -some share both spelling and pronunciation but differ in meaning and origin (example: saw)

cognates

-words that have a common origin, and retain similarities in meaning, spelling, or pronunciation -exist within a single language (biology and biography have the same Latin root "bio-") -also exist between two languages that share a common origin (Spanish words biologia and biographia to the English words biology and biography) -their existence makes learning a new language easier, especially for beginning learners in need of comprehension early on

conditions covered by IDEA

1. other health impairment (ADHD can be classified under this condition or the next) 2. specific learning disorders (which includes dyslexia, dysgraphia, and dyscalculia) 3. autism 4. emotional conditions (such as anxiety and depression) 5. speech or language impairment (such as stuttering) 6. deafness 7. hearing impairments 8. deaf-blindness 9. visual impairment 10. traumatic brain injury 11. orthopedic impairment 12. intellectual disability (such as Down syndrome) 13. multiple disabilities

Chomsky vs. Piaget and Bruner

Chomsky prioritized the importance of innate cognitive potentials as opposed to the active role of the learner

personal space

ELLs may have a different sense of appropriate personal space when conversing than their typical American interlocutor, which can interfere with effective communication

ELL accommodations vs. disability accommodations

ESSA covers ELL accommodations, IDEA mandates accommodations for students (including ELLs) with disabilities

implication

a conclusion that can be drawn even though it isn't stated

prejudice

a negative opinion formed about an individual or group without basis or sufficient knowledge

receiving

a passive condition that is necessary for learning but which does not by itself add value

simple sentence

a single independent clause - in other words, a complete thought consisting of a subject and predicate

basic rule of subject-verb agreement

a singular subject requires a singular verb, and a plural subject requires a plural verb

organization

a student develops a value system, combining elements to create a logical relational framework

responding

a student is attentive to learning and responds with positive emotion

major benefit of bilingual instruction

a student's literacy skills in L1 facilitate literacy in L2

interactive dialogue journal

a teacher and student pass a journal back and forth, each writing in response to the other's comments and prompts

shared reading

a teacher reads along with a class, modeling things like pronunciation and fluency

adjective

a word that modifies a noun, typically by describing the quantity, quality, or by distinguishing one noun from another

adverb

a word that modifies a verb, adjective, or adverb and often shows degree, manner, place or time

pronoun

a word that replaces a noun or noun phrase (its antecedent) that was previously used or understood

denotation

a word's most literal definition, the one listed in a dictionary

How are phonemes classified?

according to how they are produced

How are consonants classified?

according to three criteria: -the location in the vocal tract where they are produced (some descriptive terms include bilabial, labiodental, interdental, etc.) -the manner in which they are produced (stops, nasals, fricatives, etc.) -whether they are voiced or unvoiced -example: the [b] sound is described as a "voiced, bilabial stop"

instrumental motivation

acquiring a second language to achieve a specific goal, such as finding a job or going to college

proponents of interaction hypothesis

add the qualification that it helps if the conversationalists are of equal status or social position, so that conversational queries and negotiations can occur freely

How does the critical period hypothesis extend to L2 learning?

adults rarely achieve full fluency in a second language learned later in life, failing most often to master complex grammatical structures or achieve a native accent

suffixes

affixes that occur after the root

prefixes

affixes that occur before the root

2015 reauthorization of ESEA

aka Every Student Succeeds Act

2001 reauthorization of ESEA

aka No Child Left Behind Act

How are vowels classified?

all vowels are voiced, so their classification occurs along two dimensions, both of which refer to the position and movement of the tongue during utterance: -high, mid, or low -front, central, and back -example: the short vowel [u] as in the word "boot" is produced high and in the back of the mouth

diversity lottery program

allows a limited number of high school-educated people from underrepresented countries to immigrate to the U.S. each year

conceptual load

amount of new versus familiar structures and vocabulary

construct validity

an assessment has construct validity if it accurately measures student knowledge of the subject being tested

content validity

an assessment has content validity if it includes all the relevant aspects of the subject being tested - if it is comprehensive, in other words

How formal or informal can assessment results be?

anywhere from student scores on an exam to students signaling their understanding with a thumbs-up or thumbs-down gesture

proponents of CBI

argue that students can best learn languages indirectly, by focusing on interesting subject matter content

proponents of culturally congruent classrooms

argue that students learn best in these environments, in part by eliminating the perceived choice that students in minority cultures make between learning and maintaining a loyalty to their own cultural traditions

method bias

arises when the format of an assessment is unfamiliar to a given group of students

"ch" in IPA

as in "chore"

"sh" in IPA

as in "shoe"

Why might connotations be difficult for an ESL student to understand?

because they often have to do with cultural understandings and can even change over time

proponents of SEI

believe that teaching grammar facilitates a smooth transition into the mainstream classroom

Lau v. Nichols

brought by Chinese students in San Francisco, who argued that the fact that their classes were taught in English rather than Chinese violated their rights under the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment

How can teachers lessen the impact of negative transfers?

by becoming familiar with those most likely to arise from a given L1, and then explicitly teach methods of overcoming those transfers

How can teachers promote cultural congruence?

by incorporating content from student cultures or adapting their teaching techniques to reflect student learning preferences or customary patterns of interaction

How can teachers become aware of their implicit biases?

by using diagnostic tools such as the implicit association test

student access to reading material

can be ensured through access to the school library and by stocking the classroom with level-appropriate books

What should an ESL teacher do if they discover a lack of content knowledge rather than language knowledge?

can plan more content-related tasks in consultation with the content instructor

What should an ESL teacher do if they discover a lack of language knowledge rather than content knowledge?

can use scaffolding and differentiated teaching to address these deficits

dependent clause

cannot stand alone as a sentence, but must be combined with another clause or clauses to form a sentence

L2 learning experience

captures situational motivations, the types that arise daily in the classroom

language universal

characteristic that is shared by all the world's languages

complex sentence

consists of an independent clause and a dependent clause joined by a subordinating conjunction such as "when" or "because"

compound sentence

consists of two or more independent clauses, often joined by a conjunction, such as "and" or "or"

Some verbs are both transitive and intransitive, depending on _____.

context

figurative language

conveys a meaning different from the literal meaning of its component words

proponents of social constructivism theory

credit it with giving proper attention to discourse, or actual language use (language is developed in a specific context rather than in accordance with universal structures or dispositions)

classic diglossia

describes the situation in which a community speaks two forms of a single language

opponents of the language experience approach

difficult to use due to the near-universality of statewide or region-wide curricula planning, which leaves little room for a text that evolves in undefined directions

decision-making/social action approach

encourage students to use what they learn about societal inequities to become agents of social change

how to combine skills in mutually-reinforcing ways

example: students read a text, discuss it, and then write about it, explicitly incorporating ideas that they heard in conversations with their peers

attitudinal bias

exists when a teacher has a pre-conceived idea about the likely success of an assessment of a particular individual or group

content bias

exists when the subject matter of a question or assessment is familiar to one group and not another - for example, a reading comprehension passage which discusses an event in American history would be biased against students new to the country

How does Jim Cummins' cognitive complexity build on his earlier distinction between social (BICS) and academic (CALP) language?

face-to-face social conversations generally fell in quadrant I, whereas learning activities with high academic language content fell in either quadrant III or IV

perfect tenses

fashioned by combining a form of the verb "to have" and the past participle of the main verb

non-absolute universals

features of language that are found with a high degree of statistical regularity but also have exceptions

L1

first language

critics of standards-based assessment

focused less on the nature of standards-based assessment than on the number and assigned importance of these assessments, arguing that these factors force teachers to teach toward the exam

example of open-class words

for "all" - "all done", "all gone"

multicultural education

generally refers to the practice of adapting the curriculum and classroom environment to reflect or incorporate the viewpoints of multiple, minority, or non-dominant student groups

critics of natural order

have argued that one's first language does influence the order in which elements of a second language are acquired

critics of interaction hypothesis

have pointed out that conversational clarifications are not always successful, particularly when conducted by non-proficient language speakers

language activation device

hypothetical region of the brain created by Chomsky and devoted to language acquisition and production

example of relying on shared understandings in order to carry out conversations

if a person tells me that she has two daughters, I assume that she has only two, although logically, her statement is consistent with her having three or seven or 25

language-rich teaching activities

include classroom reading in all of its forms and activities that call upon students to read outside of the classroom

long-term vs. short-term orientation

includes a measure of whether people are pragmatic toward change or prefer to preserve cultural values

transformative approach

incorporate first-person minority perspectives on key issues and use teaching methods to investigate key issues from those points of view

autonomy stage

individual becomes more competent in the new culture and relaxes the previous defensiveness

independence stage

individual feels comfortable in the new setting and is able to offer generalizations and perspectives on the process of cultural adaptation

disintegration stage

individual focuses on differences and may feel alienated

What type of language do linguists consider to be referential?

informational language (because the language we use refers to something that exists in our minds)

stage 3 of morpheme acquisition

irregular past tense verbs ("He went out")

How does ELL background knowledge differ from that of native English speakers?

it is likely that ELLs have acquired this background knowledge in a different cultural context than their peers

literal language

language that means exactly what it says

No alphabet has a one-to-one correspondence between _____ and _____.

letters; sounds

How is Ausubel's work viewed today?

many of his insights are now accepted as givens, but his work is a useful reminder of the importance of activating student prior knowledge, pre-teaching concepts, and in general providing students with a context for what is to be taught

translation bias

may arise when educators attempt to translate content-area assessments into a student's native language - rough or hurried translations often result in a loss of nuance important for accurate assessment

How may an ELL's perceived mastery of social language impact their learning of academic language?

may lessen their motivation to improve upon it

objective personal pronouns

me, you, him/her/it, us, you, them

The best professional development provides a teacher with...

new ideas and the knowledge of how to implement them in the classroom

biculturalism

occurs when a person functions fully and simultaneously in both cultures, balancing each without a drive to either assimilate or exclude the new culture

conjunction (cohesive device)

occurs when a sentence begins with a word or phrase, such as "however" or "alternatively," that ties it to the previous sentence

accommodation

occurs when an individual accepts certain elements of the new culture, especially those necessary for public life in school or at work, but retains many elements of the first culture, particularly when at home and with family

extended diglossia

occurs when the community alternates between two separate languages depending on context

assimilation

occurs when the individual adapts fully to the new culture and largely abandons the cultural markers of his or her first culture

positive transfers

often raise the confidence and spur the interest of language learners

complex-compound sentence

one with two or more independent clauses joined to one or more dependent clauses

oral communication

only includes two of the four major language skills: speaking and listening

aspirational dialect

people often adopt the language patterns of a social or economic class they hope to join

critics of social constructivism theory

point to the fact that not all cultures prioritize interaction between children and more experienced others, and yet these children still become competent language users

proponents of the language experience approach

point to the strong association between student lives and the classroom text

Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1965

prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, color or national origin in any program receiving federal funding

contextual approach to vocabulary learning

provides the student with multiple examples of the word used in a genuine context, allowing the student to infer the meaning without resorting to a dictionary or an explicit definition

self-esteem

refers to a person's overall sense of self-approval or self-disapproval

digraph

refers to any two-letter grapheme, such as "tt" or "ch"

sociolect

refers to language variations shared by members of the same social class

linguistic competence

refers to proficiency in grammar, vocabulary, and orthography

dynamic process of vocabulary acquisition

refers to the fact that student understanding of new words, and their ability to use those words, typically progresses over time - students seldom learn a word and then effectively use it as the result of a single encounter

intrusion

refers to the insertion of an unwritten sound into a phrase, as when "do it" is pronounced "dewit"

gifted programs

research supports these instead of ability groups because they give gifted students more benefits while removing the negative effects on low-performing students

principles

rules of Chomsky's hypothesized universal grammar

How can information from a concordance be obtained?

simple search engines will return some of the information available from a concordance, but intermediate and advanced ESL students may benefit from a concordance program that provides more information than a dictionary about actual usage

debriefing

specific type of lesson summary or wrap-up, usually used to revisit a key point or reinforce a specific learning goal, and to assess how successfully the students mastered the lesson

consensus view

states that both mental processes occur (language influences thought, and thought influences language)

maxim of quantity

states that we provide as much information or detail as is necessary to fulfill our conversational purpose

maxim of relevance

states that we will stay on topic

interactive stage

students and teacher share in both the conceptualizing and the creation of the product

shared stage

students contribute to the task, but the teacher still performs the act or records the product

Why does learning a foreign language pose particular challenges to self-esteem?

students often feel the gap between what they can express in L2 and what they think or feel

independent work stage

students perform the entire activity without significant teacher assistance

guided practice

students undertake the task, either alone or in groups, with the teacher providing assistance as needed

affective value of background knowledge

students who can relate what they are learning to their own past experiences are more enthusiastic and ultimately successful

Why should teachers frame a listening comprehension activity?

students who listen to audio or watch video files at their zone of proximal development are unlikely to be able to answer multiple questions about multiple levels of meaning - at least not without listening to or watching the file multiple times

transitioning from informal to neutral or formal conversational registers

students will need to learn to use complete sentences rather than rely on contextual meaning, eliminate slang and excessive discourse markers, and avoid hyperbole and repetition

Why is decoding an essential early reading skill?

successful decoding reveals what the word is, but not what it means, either in isolation or in context

critics of TBLT

suggest that completion of a task is a poor measure of language improvement - once students reach a certain baseline competence, they can navigate a broad range of performative tasks, but may not be motivated or receive the instructional assistance to improve

critics of reclassification assessments

suggest that the process is often biased toward basic English proficiency but does not effectively measure student English proficiency in the content areas

maxim of manner

suggests that we will avoid ambiguity, use language our interlocutor can understand, and organize our speech in a logical way

stage of greatest support

teacher models skill or task

additive approach

teachers incorporate numerous multicultural themes and concepts into the curriculum, but do so in a superficial way, teaching the issues from a traditional perspective (such as that of the dominant majority)

in-group bias

tendency to attribute positive motivations and personality characteristics to people like ourselves and not to people we perceive as different

fundamental attribution error

tendency to attribute the negative behavior of others to a personality flaw, while attributing one's own negative behavior (or the behavior of people like ourselves) to situational, environmental factors

confirmation bias

tendency to make quick first impressions about a person or situation, overvalue subsequent information that confirms that judgment, and undervalue subsequent information that discounts it

A majority of school-aged ELLs were born in _____.

the U.S.

strategic competence

the ability to avoid or repair communication breakdowns - for example, by paraphrasing or using gestures to overcome the lack of useful vocabulary

connotation

the associations and emotions that a word evokes, either because of personal experience or shared cultural understandings

ethnocentrism

the belief that one's own culture is superior to others

assimilation (form of connected speech)

the blending of two sounds to create a new sound, as when "don't you" sounds like "doan chu" when spoken rapidly

uncertainty avoidance index

the degree to which people are comfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity

language load

the degree to which the lesson language is unfamiliar and stretches a student beyond the range of comprehensible input

power distance index

the extent to which people expect hierarchy versus equality

ideal L2 self

the image the learner has of the person he or she would like to become through the process of language learning

reintegration stage

the individual rejects the new culture

catenation

the joining of the last consonant sound of one word with the beginning vowel sound of the next, as when "an apple" sounds like "a napple"

family reunification

the majority of immigrants qualify to come to the U.S. by virtue of having a close family member who is a U.S. citizen or permanent resident

ELL progress

the rate at which students achieve English proficiency

cultural relativism

the recognition that every culture has value and may serve needs and interests different from those of one's own culture

characterizing

the student internalizes what he or she has learned and acts in principled ways according to this knowledge

pragmatics

the study of how meaning is affected by context

semantics

the study of the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences

sociolinguistic competence

the understanding of how to vary language use depending on the context or audience

phonological rules

the ways in which sounds change depending on where they occur and how they are used in speech

separate underlying proficiency (SUP)

theorizes that each language a person uses is processed and stored separately in the brain, and thus there is no positive transfer between the two

secondary migration and ELLs

these ELLs are more likely to have experienced interrupted or uneven schooling, including potential instruction in a non-English foreign language

primary purpose of language

to allow people to communicate with and understand one another

cultural load

untaught, assumed cultural references embedded in a lesson which may present impediments to an ELL

strategic self-regulation model (S^2R) of language learning

updated version of Oxford's SILL

How might a teacher use Hofstede's cultural dimension theory in the classroom?

use power distance index to understand a student's degree of comfort or formality in interacting with his or her teacher

purpose of summary frames

useful for teaching rhetorical forms, for illustrating how to combine sentences to form logical and orderly paragraphs, and for providing examples of transition words

When should teachers be more liberal with correcting errors?

when correcting written work, both because the affective consequences are fewer and because students need more explicit instruction when learning academic language

ellipses

when writers intentionally leave out parts of a phrase previously used

indulgence vs. restraint

whether or not a culture promotes leisure and self-gratification

intelligibility

whether or not speech is actually understood

How are teachers involved in the TBLT process?

while teachers implementing TBLT might pre-teach key vocabulary needed to perform a task, the method emphasizes student use of their whole repertoire of language skills, including the negotiation of meaning in situations where their formal knowledge of English is inadequate

disadvantage of CBM

while they are helpful in identifying areas of student weaknesses, they do not identify the causes of those weaknesses or provide teachers with strategies for improving instruction

How should ESL teachers handle teaching English conventions?

while they may choose to teach some conventions explicitly, they nevertheless take care to ensure not to let a focus on grammar, punctuation or error correction impede the overall writing process

Do men or women on average use higher-status language?

women (perhaps to compensate for their perceived lower status in society)

mnemonic approach to vocabulary learning

works by building associations between target words and mental images so that when the student hears the target word, the image is also evoked, facilitating recall of the word itself

descriptor

writers may employ lexical cohesion by replacing a word with an appropriate descriptor, as when "Edison" is replaced with "the inventor"