Soc 159 Midterm Review

· Case study: HOW and WHY did Harrison study shrimpers in the Gulf of Mexico?

1/3 of US seafood from Louisiana, leading producer of US shrimp Contemporary Louisiana shrimp industry shaped by industrialization: - motorized boats and nets - refrigeration and shipping technology Shrimp went from obscure, unwanted food in the US to a luxury food (most consumed seafood) Shrimping work often persists across multiple generations ////// "Pink Tsunami" around 2001: flood of farm- raised shrimp imported from outside the US - Shrimp prices significantly declined - Shrimp transformed from luxury to food staple - *Increased hardship for shrimpers, pushing many out of the industry* Harrison's study -- Drawing on ethnographic research more interested in understanding how Louisiana shrimpers have dealt with forces that threaten their occupational livelihood. By far the biggest threat, though, has been competition from imports of farm-raised foreign shrimp, which now account for 90 percent of the U.S. market. Buoyancy on the Bayou recounts with compassion and sympathy the stories of many shrimpers who have suffered from this trend. reactions to the hazards of "globalization." In the first, "Identity," she discusses the shrimpers who have chosen to keep shrimping in the face of occupational decline, even when there are other more economically attractive opportunities available, such as working in the nearby offshore oil industry. These "globalization martyrs" find that their identities--community, family, and cultural--are too closely bound to shrimping to seek other careers (p. 88). The "non-material costs of exit" also weigh on those who have chosen to give up shrimping, often to take higher paying oil industry jobs (p. 110). In the next chapter, "Loss," Harrison observes that the family shrimping roots of those who exit do not run as deep as those who persevere. But those who leave still find the decision agonizing and regrettable. The third main chapter, "Innovation," shows how some shrimpers survived by changing their business practices. They incorporated on-board freezer technology, adopted new marketing strategies, or forged new kinds of commercial partnerships. According to Harrison, the determination to preserve their occupational identity, more so than the profit motive, drove this group to *innovate* - how individuals respond to large-scale economic change and industrial restructuring, largely a consequence of the forces of globalization.. Interviews with 54 current and ex-shrimpers in Louisiana over the course of two years (late 2000s) Objective: "figure out how they were coping and making sense of the import crisis and to ascertain what their future plans included" - "it is a study of how workers make sense of the uncertainties and risk that accompany our continuously shifting, restructuring industrial world. - I bring to the surface a more comprehensive understanding of the consequences of the processes of globalization for those living in smaller communities with long-standing cultural distinctiveness." - reference to Pink Tsunami (overflow of imported shrimp) - She went and helped the community after Hurricane Katrina happened, so she knew almost everyone very well - She built personal relationships with the shrimpers, allowing her to learn much more about their struggles and difficulties*

automation

Automation increases inequality by decreasing middle-wage jobs, increasing low- and high-wage jobs.

· Case study of Cabot Bank (Autor et al): What types of automation did the bank adopt, and what structural factors motivated it?

Automation: 1950s Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) Can automate sorting within- and between-bank checks 1994 Optical Character Recognition (OCR) Automated "capture" and most of "proof" step Structural Factors: 2.8mil checks/day needed processing New regulations require processing within 1 week

o How has earnings inequality between occupations for college- and non-college-educated workers changed over time?

Big earnings difference between college & non- college, with growth in college degrees Earnings difference between college & non-college grew larger Growing inequality within education levels,especially among college-educated workers

· How did inequality increase with expansion of higher education?

Big earnings difference between college and non-college, with growth in college degrees Earnings difference between college and non-college grew larger Growing inequality within education levels, especially among college educated workers

how did the industrial revolution change the nature of work?

Changes to work were associated with changing urbanization, families, and economic well-being. how do we know it? - Census records, historical documents, surveys, and observations why is it impt.? - Changes in the nature of work fundamentally altered the social and economic foundations of society

industrial revolution

Changing nature of work (including division of labor) associated with other changes: - Urbanization• - Shrinking family sizes• - Improvements to health and life expectancy• - Growing economic well-being and inequality• - Form of gender and racial/ethnic disparities

o How do Autor & Dorn show that computer automation increased inequality in the types of occupations?

Computerization replaced many "routine non- manual" tasks Computerization complements "abstract, creative, problem-solving and coordination" tasks for highly educated workers Available jobs for less-educated workers are routine manual jobs (low-wage service jobs)

· What were the three types of shrimpers' responses?

Exiters: - Most of Harrison's sample - Left shrimping for other industries (didn't fear losing their jobs) - Skills as shrimpers (ship operations, repair, machine operations) allowed relatively smooth transitions to oil and supporting industries (transfer of skills) Persisters: - About 1/3 of Harrison's sample - Opted to remain shrimpers despite declining opportunities and earnings - Culturally connected to shrimping, often the 3rd or 4th generation in the industry - They persisted because it was more important to be a shrimper. Adoptive Innovators: - Only a few in Harrison's sample - Remained in shrimping - Changed "their practices in order to avoid having to rely on the low dockside prices offered by shrimp buyers and processors" (p 32) - Adopted new technologies like shipboard flash freezers and internet marketing [adopted new tech. like shipboard flash freezers and internet marketing] - They gambled that investing even more money into new technologies and markets would make shrimping more profitable.

According to the following social theorists, how were major social and cultural changes of the era tied to work?

Emile Durkheim & Division of Labor French sociologist Concerned with social/cultural structure and well-being *Considered a founder of modern empirical social science*

How and why do employers and workers "routinize" interactional service work?

Employers routinize interactional service work by providing scripts and workers are monitored for quality assurance. It helps firms encourage customers to behave a certain way like in McDonald's in addition to ensuring employees project the company's desired image. - efforts to make interaction more routine and predictable can actually help employees do their jobs, w/ the result that they sometimes embrace the protocols and actively collaborate w/ employers in imposing routines - once work is routinized, there exists the potential to replace people w/ machines

What were the costs and benefits? (L. shrimpers)

Exiters - Costs: depressed, deep sense of loss, heartbreaking to leave - Benefits: decent money, stable job Persisters - loss of money, depressed/stressed out, anxiety, some got divorced, unable to support their families, had to take second jobs, scarfing their social lives for 2nd/3rd jobs - Benefits: got to keep their cultural ties to a job they genuinely loved Adoptive Innovators - very uncommon - get loans (for tech. Innovation within occupation), risky (based on returns from investment in the work), a lot more to lose - Benefits: able to stay in a job they love by making innovating aspects of the shrimping industry (which boosts their cultural attachment to their job)

o What are the two ways that the economy has become more "financialized"? o How does financialization increase economic inequality?

Growth of the finance sector (banking and investment) in the US economy Finance, insurance, and real estate industries now a bigger part of US economy ($) than manufacturing(Krippner 2005) Growth of financial services and profits among non- financial firms - Example: Car manufacturers make more profit from financing cars (payment plans) than making them workers' shares of firms' incomes in an industry decline as firms' financial profits increase; income inequality increases as a result

What are consequences for standard workers? (Pedulla)

Lower perceived job security Worse relations with managers and loyalty to employer - Pedulla

o How can we measure deindustrialization and why does that matter?

Manufacturing pays well, esp. for less-educated workers Factories bring large numbers of jobs for local areas Disappearance = higher inequality & poverty

According to the following social theorists, how were major social and cultural changes of the era tied to work?

Marx & Capital: (class inequality) German sociologist and philosopher Concerned with class struggle under capitalism An intellectual founder of Communism Capital: A Critique of Political Economy (1867-1883) - Fueled by capital owners, markets create two classes: the bourgeoisie (owners) and theproletariat (workers) - The domination of the bourgeoisie requires continual and escalating exploitation of workers. - Workers are alienated from their labor, receiving little benefit from it. - The proletariat form a massive economic and political class, with the motivation for revolution. (drives an industrial society) Capitalists are the business owners who organize the process of production and who own the means of production such as factories, tools, and raw material, and who are also entitled to any and all profits. The other, much larger class is composed of labor (which Marx termed the "proletariat"). Laborers do not own or have any claim to the means of production, the finished products they work on, or any of the profits generated from sales of those products. Rather, labor works only in return for a money wage. Marx argued that because of this uneven arrangement, capitalists exploit workers.

o What are internal labor markets?

Old model (for advantaged workers), common in large companies → workers exchange loyalty for security → workers hired with relatively few skills for entry level positions → workers receive greater knowledge and skills as they are promoted up to the career ladder → ex: law firms Access to Internal Labor Markets has been most common for class- advantaged White men.

· What is "old" and "new" about the growth of interactional service work?

Old: perform efficiently and most effectively through routinization New: global industry where technology joins worker with client, communicating effectively and presenting oneself effectively and functioning effectively in social contexts are contemporary skills for jobs - ability to communicate effectively with others, to present oneself appropriately and effectively, and to function effectively in a range of social situations - are essential components of contemporary jobs and are valued highly by employers .

How is understanding work crucial for understanding:

Race & gender inequality: (low-wage service employment) Latina women are in the lead in this category; Asian/ PI men have the lowest percentage of low-wage service employment

· How is understanding work crucial for understanding:

Race & gender inequality: Access to work is a key mechanism for inequalities by gender and race/ethnicity. Figure explanation: (according to this chart, for "unemployment rates") - refer to the next one as well - male American Indians have the highest unemployment rates [9%] - Asians have the least amount of unemployment rates that are more-so evenly distributed among both males and females (compared to other groups) [3%] Occupational inequality greatly affects the socioeconomic status of an individual which is linked with their access to resources like finding a job, buying a house, If an individual experiences occupational inequality, it may be more difficult for them to find a job, advance in their job, get a loan or buy a house. Occupational standing can lead to predictions of outcomes such as social standing and wealth which have long-lasting effects on the individual as well as their dependants. Segregation by gender in the labor force is extremely high, hence the reason why there remain so many disparities and inequalities among men and women of equitable qualifications. White men, however, will demand a higher salary than women or people of other races who have the same education and abilities, thus discriminating employers lose more money.[4] Non-discriminating employers can gain an edge in the competitive market by hiring women and minorities, thereby reducing occupational inequality.[4] This plan, if taken on by employers, could perpetuate over time to other employers in which occupational inequality could decrease nationally. *According to the process of "aging effects", occupational inequality will continue with advancing age* - According to this theory, the labor market consists of two sectors of jobs; one is the "primary" core of good jobs with good working conditions, advancement opportunities and job safety. - The other is the "peripheral" sector of bad jobs with bad working conditions, low advancement opportunities and little job safety. *Mobility between these two groups is very difficult* ////Women and minorities are disproportionately placed into the peripheral sector early on in their careers with little chance of moving into the primary group to achieve equal occupational status.//// *The theory of "homosocial reproduction"* points to a trend where those in high position tend to pick the employees who have similar social backgrounds as their own for advancement.[6] Since the majority of managers are men, women are less chosen for career advancement and thus occupational inequality increases. The greater the segregation in a workplace, the greater the occupational inequality.[9] This is true specifically for jobs dominated by a certain minority or women.[9] They often have bad work environments and less income than white males who usually make up the managerial positions with better work environments and more pay. Gender inequality can also be understood when looking at transgender workers. Workers have different experiences when transitioning at the workplace. Power that was held previously can be lost when transitioning to a woman while workers transitioning to a man can experience a power gain In the workplace the men usually hold the higher positions and the women often hold lower paid positions such as secretaries. The black unemployment rate is typically at about double the rate among white people. White men have many substantial advantages in the workplace.[12] They are offered a larger variety of job opportunities. The positions that earn the most money and have the most power are usually occupied by white men. Though this type of inequality has been lowered in the last 20 years, it is still common Since women were responsible for raising children, they had much less time and flexibility to partake in full-time jobs, and thus women in the workforce were generally only seen in part-time positions. This trend is part of what leads to modern-day inequality.

o How do structure, culture, and agency shaping factory closings (ex: recent GM plant closing in Ohio)?

Structure : factory was closing bc small cars were no longer selling were only going to focus on big cars, cheaper to move the company. Culture: Company valued profit over the well-being of workers Agency: workers could go back to school and learn a new trade (but for what jobs) choose to wait for another factor that will come to their community.

o Have internal labor markets declined? How do we know?

YES → decline in very long job tenure (10 years plus) for men in the private sector → growth in changes from one employer to another and one occupation to another → growth of "nonstandard" employment (i.e., part time, temporary, contract work) → shrinking wage advantage for large firms → ex: software developers in tech industry

skill

earnings or education

Industrialization and gender

occupations of MEN aged 18-64; U.S.

How important is college for earnings in the US over the course of workers' whole careers?

"The evidence indicates that possession of a college degree is much more important now than it was in 1970, not only in respect to earnings potential but also having a job in which there is security and prospects for career growth." (p69) college is worth the investment both young and older Americans are entering lifetime earnings (expected) increase as one excels their educational attainment level much more impt. not only in respect to earnings potential but also having a job in which there is security and prospects for career growth

· What are some key features of the "global economy"?

"The new global economy can be described as a vast international network capable of rapidly developing and diffusing resources, technology, and information across the world. Among the key characteristics of the new global economy are the following:" The immense volume of trade and consumption between societies; The rapid transmission of information between societies; Powerful and transportable technologies implemented throughout the world; Intense "dis-integrated" production, spread over national boundaries; and Flexible arrangements that enable employers to shift production and consumption from one society to another. "It should be added that the new global economy also is characterized by new types of legal and political arrangements designed to promote globalization"

The Division of Labor in Society (1893) - Durkheim

*Anomie*: lacking clear understanding of one's social expectations (how exactly does one live and work in a society) The division of labor can increase anomie, thus reducing solidarity, if: • the division of labor occurs too quickly • the division of labor is too specific ex.) Uber - ride in front or back... The idea of anomie means the lack of normal ethical or social standards. In this book, Durkheim indicated that the rules of how individuals interact with one another were disintegrating and therefore people were unable to determine how to act with one another. As a consequence, Durkheim believed that anomie was a state where the expectations of behavior are unclear, and the system has broken down. This is known as normlessness. Durkheim claimed that this normlessness caused deviant behaviors, and later, as claimed in his 1897 work, Suicide, depression and suicide. Durkheim's theory was based upon the idea that the lack of rules and clarity resulted in psychological status of worthlessness, frustration, lack of purpose, and despair. In addition, since there is no idea of what is considered desirable, to strive for anything would be futile.

§ How did the industry affect cultural norms about "precarious work"? How do we know? (temp service industry)

Created an image of a "good temp" → that temp employment could be a viable alternative to permanent employment → and that the workers on whom the system of temp employment relations depends could be as good as permanent workers and sometimes better

Occupational Stats. - Fishing and Hunting workers - Lec. 3

32,740 workers in US Typical annual earnings: $25,000 93% male 68% White, 16% born outside US 31% have less than HS degree *Fishers have the highest rates of occupational injuries and fatalities*

How did shrimpers decide which response to take?

Dependent upon their culture/ structural/ agency relations to their work. This impacted whether they persisted, exited, or innovated. Globalization had a monumental impact on their work views, yet it was ultimately up to them individually to weigh out the costs and benefits along their connection to the work that resulted in their actions proceeding the influx of shrimp from overseas. Some opted to leave due to declining opportunities/earnings and need to support a family Some stayed because of strong cultural connections to the industry. All shrimpers had strong ties to the job, but some still decided to leave

What are intragenerational and intergenerational mobility?

Intra - the prospect of moving up a career ladder within one's lifetime Inter - the prospect of landing jobs better than those held by one's parents

class structures

Karl Marx- analysis of class structures and how they shaped workplace practices and opp. structures - employers' profits depend on the effort put forth by employees, which created incentives to limit wages and to push workers to labor as hard as poss. (created far greater wealth for employers than employees) - considering these class relations, Marx argued that the tendency for work under capitalism would be toward the creation of a polarized class structure b/w the proletariat and bourgeoisie class affects people's access to work opportunities although the precise way in which it does so has changed over time (before the Ind. Rev., most children inherited their line of work from their parents through "ascription" - women's roles were largely ascribed as well -ex. children of farmers became farmers themselves (cross-generational effects of class) W/ INDUSTRIALIZATION however, the range of jobs expanded - as a result, changes in opp. structures, fewer children could follow in their parents footsteps or inherent occupations from the previous generations - children ventured farther from their home communities to find work (class still mattered b/c it affected one's own access to resources such as education, skills, and connections that determined access to work in an economy where jobs no longer were inherited class also affects structures of workplaces - top-down managerial structures designed to control workers and ensure that the interests of employers predominated (antagonism b/w laborer and employer) - polarized workplaces social class remains one of the most powerful forces shaping employment opportunities and access to resources in the new economy

§ What are consequences of temp work for temp workers?

Lower pay and security (for temp workers)

· How is understanding work crucial for understanding:

Social class and dignity: Dignity: The average adult (ages 25 to 54) spends of 21% their time at work. - 76% of people ages 25 to 54 are employed. They spend more than 25% of their time at work. -Sleeping/personal care is the only activity people spend more time on, on average. (Work is a key dimension of social class, identity, and dignity in US society) //// - "All I want out of life is to be financially set, honestly. To have a nice job and my own place and not have to worry." - "life demands dignity and meaningful work is essential for dignity" - Even in small talk: "What do you do?" or "What's your major?" - accomplishing tasks within work helps one to feel good in knowing that they contributed, their work made a difference, and they overall feel like a great contributor to a working society. - Dignity is widely considered to be an essential element of decent work. - One social identity that is particularly salient for understanding the achievement of workplace dignity is social class, as social class is both a consequence and a source of organizational inequalities. When you build a cabinet or fix a vehicle, you gain dignity from already knowing the worth of what you have done. There is a certain distance from others embodied in this vision: if you depend too much on others, most particularly for the significance or meaning or validation of your work, then you lose dignity

· What is the "gig economy"? How common is "gig" work?

The collection of markets that match providers to consumers on a gig (or job) basis in support of on demand commerce; in basic model, gig workers enter into formal agreements with on demand companies to provide free services to company's clients Personal care, dog walking, cleaning, driving, delivering selling or renting things

· Why were agency and culture both important factors affecting changes in the upstairs department?

The upstairs manager had a lot of agency and took employers opinion into consideration Manager had the opportunity to rethink how the work was done and change it. He wanted to implementation of automation was to improve productivity, customer service and make better jobs that use more skills (values - wanted the workers upstairs to feel better about their work/ and capable and in doing so would provide better customer service.) "The vice president in charge valued high job quality for the workers and included their input in the reorganization." - culture

· Why wonder whether there's a new economy?

There have been extreme changes within work: including decline of mass production and manufacturing work, new skill requirements, the emergence of new cultures of control, the gradual decline of organized labor, the rise of flexible work arrangements, and globalization. Although there have been significant changes there are persistent features that reflect the perpetuation of the old economy. People feel like technology is taking over *automation* (concerned about who will have jobs who won't) - implying a change in inequality and job security

· To sociologically understand work, how can we identify the following types of factors affecting individual workers' experiences?

[Agency] - what someone has control over People's efforts, whether as individuals or in groups, to direct their own biographies, shape the lives of others, and respond to and sometimes modify the structure of culture and work

· To sociologically understand work, how can we identify the following types of factors affecting individual workers' experiences?

[Culture] - why would I want this job? "meaning systems that attach individuals to work" Orientations of workers to work (how loyal/ dedicated they are to the work) Orientations of employers to workers

To sociologically understand work, how can we identify the following types of factors affecting individual workers' experiences?

[Structure] "opportunities and constraints that shape" access to and returns from jobs - *can I get into the job* - Class structures - (you have more opportunities if you're raised in the upper class) - Job markets and demands (availability of jobs) - Demography (age, race, gender) family sizes get smaller -> affects the pool for social security and the economy older people working longer b/c they feel useless (in need to do something)

who has agency and how?

[shrimpers] "strategic action to influence how these arrangements affect their lives" (SM, p 25) Many willingly forgo opportunities in other industries to fulfill what they perceive as their cultural calling They had chosen to suffer for what they love, even when they dont have to Exiters " bene fi ted from the skills learned in their trade and tookadvantage of job openings in the oil industry. Thus " we might be temptedto hold them up as survivors of globalization ' s mighty waves, and maybeeven as victors Last, " innovators " used globalization to theiradvantage by pro fi ting from Internet marketing and onboard freezers, twotools allowing them to eschew low dock prices, eliminate the " middleman, " and stay a fl oat while maintaining their shrimper identity Choice to stay or leave their job [corporations] Choice to import more shrimp instead of using Louisiana shrimp [collective agency] Collective agency-Southern Shrimp Alliance

What is the "lean and mean" way of doing business?

accepted goals of modern business - to restructure continually - even as a number of critics argued that this often has negative effects on corporate profitability in both the short term and the long term -- extending the power to displace employees at will

Why do S&M argue there might not be a new economy?

many of the features introduced by the old economy remain. These "old" features are not simply vestiges destined to eventually die out; they are thriving and may be permanent features of the new economy that will continue to develop during the twenty-first century.

mechanical vs. organic solidarity

mechanical- social cohesion based on sameness --- its cohesion and integration comes from the homogeneity of individuals. People feel connected through similar work, educational and religious training, and lifestyle. Mechanical solidarity normally operates in "traditional" and small-scale societies, and it is usually based on kinship ties of familial networks. organic- social cohesion based on difference and interdependence of the parts - social cohesion based upon the dependence individuals have on each other in more advanced societies. It comes from the interdependence that arises from specialization of work and the complementarities between people—a development that occurs in "modern" and "industrial" societies. - "Organic" refers to the interdependence of the component parts. Thus, social solidarity is maintained in more complex societies through the interdependence of its component parts (e.g., farmers produce the food to feed the factory workers who produce the tractors that allow the farmer to produce the food). = As a simple example, farmers produce food to feed factory workers who produce tractors that, in the end, allow the farmer to produce more food.

What are the "old" and "new" economy features of "high tech" work?

new a more educated workforce - "knowledge economy" or "information economy" - tech. sophisticated employees rather than low-skill workers needed by mass production industry - as the STEM workforce has grown, so have hopes that the new economy will create large numbers of well paying, secure challenging jobs - not all jobs in high-tech. science based sectors are well paid , high skilled jobs (ex. the computer industry employs many professionals but also needs unskilled workers to assemble, package, and transport its products - can reduce the upward pressure on salaries produced by the shortage of well-trained workers by importing qualified employees from overseas - There are more high-skilled and more educated positions available in new economy, but there are modifications to systems of accountability where collective pressure is built. Workplaces do not operate on trust and cooperation and workers and managers remain skeptical of each other's intentions and motivations- - - Old - like manufacturing employers in the past, who encouraged immigration to lessen labor costs, contemporary IT employers look to countries such as India for source of affordable labor - Certain tech workers, like IT workers, have jobs that can be outsourced such as manufacturing jobs were. Some tech jobs in computer programming can be routine and formulaic work and have to operate on a schedule. Employers tend to seek to limit the costs of labor and attempt to manage and control it - "Much like manufacturing employers in the past, who encouraged and even sponsored immigration to keep labor costs down, contemporary IT employers look to countries such as India for sources of affordable labor. - .the more creative kinds of programming work are often managed in ways familiar to the old economy. Rather than being given a free hand to design and create whatever and however they please, computer professionals typically have to design programs on schedules set for them by managers or external customers (in the case of suppliers and subcontractors to larger firms).

· The Status Attainment Model

o What is it? A theoretical approach for examining how occupational attainment depends on family background through human capital (i.e., education) o How do children's occupations depend on parents' occupations? - Children with parents in upper WC occupations are more likely than others to work in upper WC occupations - Gender differences in occupations these children don't do Children with parents in upper WC occupations are more likely to have college degrees o Without a college degree, how do children's occupations depend on parents' occupations? - Without a college degree, parents' occupations matter for children's upper WC employment - With a college degree, parents' occupations don't matter much Workers' occupations depend strongly on their parents' occupations. About half of the similarity in parents' and adult children's occupations is due to (dis)advantages in access to college education. Among college graduates, children's occupations do not depend strongly on their parents' occupations.

industrialization and gender

occupations of women aged 18-64; U.S. many -> unpaid family work - small % of white collar (non-manual work) - women not getting paid enough - blue collar -> much smaller percentages - small amount of agricultural work NOW, more recently, women are getting paid and occupying more paying jobs

Definition of structure

opportunities, as well as constraints, that shape what types of jobs can be pursued, by whom, and the returns received

o What skills and jobs are easiest to automate?

routine, non manual tasks office/admin, butchers, bank tellers, cashiers, file clerks and secretary/typist

The Division of Labor in Society (1893) - Durkheim

these are 2 categories of societal solidarity [Mechanical Solidarity] = strict and rigid - little division of labor - bonds through similarity - repressive law - high collective consciousness *notice the arrow going from mechanical solidarity to organic solidarity* (in pic.) [Organic Solidarity] = less rigid; still connected to one another despite our diff.s - high division of labor - bonds through interdependence - restitutive law - low collective consciousness Mechanical solidarity is found in less structurally complex societies while organic solidarity emerges in industrialized societies. (Organic solidarity is social cohesion based upon the dependence individuals have on each other in more advanced societies. It comes from the interdependence that arises from specialization of work and the complementarities between people.) - In mechanical solidarity social cohesion and integration comes from the homogeneity of individuals: People feel connected through similar work, educational and religious training, and lifestyle, which is often based on the kinship ties of familial networks. The two types of solidarity (bonds of unity) can be distinguished by morphological and demographic features, type of norms in existence, and the intensity and content of the conscience collective.

collective agency

workers make efforts to carve out work lives for themselves, but they also collaborate to reshape the contours of work and create more satisfactory work opp's for others (ex. unions or professional associations)

· How did the "upstairs" department change with automation, in terms of: o the assignment of tasks to jobs? o workers' average pay and inequality?

specialized tasks combined into single job needed 28% fewer workers per check average pay higher but not more unequal before automation: separate workers for each tasks needed more workers per check similar average pay

o What are typical jobs for workers with and without college degrees?

with - About 4/5 have high-status white collar jobs ex: managers, teachers, doctors, nurses w.o - About 1⁄2 have low- status blue collar jobs truck drivers, construction laborers, janitors w.o (females) About 1⁄2 have low- status white collar jobs secretaries, nursing assistants, cashiers, restaurant servers

job markets and demands

workers - especially those laboring in times of economic change - face challenges in locating and adapting themselves to opportunities the Ind. Rev. of the early 19 century reshaped the types of jobs available to workers - fewer people were employed in agriculture and many more were employed in factory work new tech. and new ways of organizing work pushed older approaches aside some jobs that used to be plentiful in America have virtually disappeared and the skills needed to obtain jobs are challenging as well new methods of organizing work can also be used to reduce production costs by moving jobs to locales where labor costs are lower - tech. have not only replaced workers, but also introduced entirely new markets and jobs chaining employment opp's also have redefined skills needed, reshaped job demands, and introduced new rewards - also pose burdens on worker's lives - emphasis in interaction in work = emotional numbness or burnout (ex. flight attendants helping passengers feel safe and comfortable) job opp's may be less rigidly tied to space and time than in the old economy - today many workers have opp's to telecommute and work from home offices (working alternate shifts and reconfiguring work around families)

mass production in non-manufacturing industries

"United Parcel Service (UPS) and Walmart (the world's largest private employer) use vast conveyor belt systems to sort and funnel parcels for delivery." (p33) - their successes are not built on unique products or customized services; rather, they are based on the application of mass production distribution techniques built w/ high tech. and advanced accounting systems "And then there is Amazon, whose "fulfillment centers" now employ huge numbers of workers across the globe ensuring that online orders reach their destinations promptly and accurately." (p33) - "Each McDonald's, for instance, is little more than a small factory, composed of deskilled jobs designed to execute production of a limited array of standardized goods. Every aspect of the process, including the dispensing of condiments, the design of the stores, and the way in which customers are greeted, has been standardized so that the experience of eating (or working) in a McDonald's is essentially the same wherever it is located." (p33)

· How did global trade impact shrimpers?

"the worldwide diffusion of practices, expansion of relations across continents, organization of social life on a global scale, and growth of a shared global consciousness." the process by which businesses or other organizations develop international influence or start operating on an international scale. advances in communications and shipping technology facilitates global trade differences in costs of labor/production incentivize shift from US to foreign employment (hurts domestic employment) - cheaper abroad Effects for the U.S Benefits - - higher avg. incomes in U.S. around 1,300 (this also provides growth in inequality) - Lower prices = more purchasing power Costs - - Some loss of certain types of jobs (i.e., manufacturing, shrimping) - More income inequality It resulted in a loss of livelihood for shrimpers, after an influx of shrimp from Southeast Asia got shipped to U.S. instead of Europe

· What is the "social contract" between workers and employers? What is "precarious work"?

(1945-1970s), An understanding that: → workers provided a steady supply of productive labor → employers provided secure, well-paying jobs *social contract was supported by sustained economic growth and strong labor unions The understanding that employers give in steady employment and good benefits, worker gives labor and loyalty (1940 - 197) //// Employment that is uncertain, unpredictable, and risky from the point of view of the worker

collective consciousness

(sometimes collective conscience or conscious) is a fundamental sociological concept that refers to the set of shared beliefs, ideas, attitudes, and knowledge that are common to a social group or society. informs our sense of belonging and identity, and our behavior. Founding sociologist Émile Durkheim developed this concept to explain how unique individuals are bound together into collective units like social groups and societies. He concluded that society exists because unique individuals feel a sense of solidarity with each other. This is why we can form collectives and work together to achieve community and functional societies. The collective consciousness, or conscience collective as he wrote it in French, is the source of this solidarity. " Durkheim observed that in traditional or primitive societies, religious symbols, discourse, beliefs, and rituals fostered the collective consciousness. In such cases, where social groups were quite homogenous (not distinct by race or class, for example), the collective consciousness resulted in what Durkheim termed a "mechanical solidarity" — in effect an automatic binding together of people into a collective through their shared values, beliefs, and practices. Durkheim observed that in the modern, industrialized societies that characterized Western Europe and the young United States when he wrote, which functioned via a division of labor, an "organic solidarity" emerged based on the mutual reliance individuals and groups had on others in order to allow for a society to function. In cases such as these, religion still played an important role in producing collective consciousness among groups of people affiliated with various religions, but other social institutions and structures would also work to produce the collective consciousness necessary for this more complex form of solidarity, and rituals outside of religion would play important roles in reaffirming it. It is through collective consciousness that values, beliefs, and traditions can be passed down through generations. Though individual people live and die, this collection of intangible things, including the social norms connected to them, are cemented in our social institutions and thus exist independent of individual people. Most important to understand is that collective consciousness is the result of social forces that are external to the individual, that course through society, and that work together to create the social phenomenon of the shared set of beliefs, values, and ideas that compose it. We, as individuals, internalize these and make the collective consciousness a reality by doing so, and we reaffirm and reproduce it by living in ways that reflect it.

· How is understanding work crucial for understanding:

Economic well-being: Work is the cornerstone of economic well- being in the United States. Earnings are the majority of household income for 3⁄4 people Earnings are at least 90% of household income for most people (53%) Employability is the life-long, continuous process of acquiring experience, new knowledge—purposeful learning—and skills that contribute to improving one's marketability for enhancing their potential to obtain and maintain employment through various shifts in the labor market. (*based on a set of individual characteristics*) Essentially, employability is a person's relative ability to find and stay employed, as well as make successful transitions from one job to the next—either within the same company or field or to a new one at the discretion of an individual and as circumstances or economic conditions may dictate. --- Employability will vary with economic conditions (some employment may be more security than others, ex. healthcare industry) Employability applies to almost everyone who is part of the labor force, as the ability to obtain, maintain and switch employment over time is imperative to anyone's survival as well as success in life, and thus, one has to be able to possess a set of skills that are usable in the labor market. the business landscape is constantly evolving - provides gainful employment but it is also a contributing factor to the individual's personal well-being and growth. From the ongoing, life-long process perspective, employability is not a final product since the individual keeps improving her/his skills until retirement age or an age where the individual deems further skill advancement is no longer necessary.

o What are the consequences for workers, families, and communities? (deindustrialization)

Loss of job, factory jobs were often dull and strenuous; high tension between workers and management, offered a buyout for workers with factory closing, accepted by ¼ of workers instead of transfer Workers: lost their jobs, high tension between workers/ management Families: became homeless, have to move Communities: could become devastated

Definition of culture

Meaning systems that attach individuals to work, harness their commitments, and direct their efforts

The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1905) - Max Weber

Protestant Ethic: afterlife was predetermined, but economic success and prudence could be a sign of salvation profits should be accumulated as much as possible, including developing new and more efficient means - *productive as possible* profits should not be spent frivolously, but reinvested in business provided an ethical justification for success or failure - showing off your material wealth -> you're a good person Frugality was an essential attitude needed to encourage saving and investment, an important element of capitalism and the industrial revolution. They said, furthermore, that they did not need a large, corrupt and decadent organisation to tell them how to think, and that independence of thinking contributed to people starting their own businesses, and contributing to the growth of the capital owning class. The Protestant Reformation, according to Weber, was the main cause of the Industrial Revolution and the rise of Capitalism Protestant ethic, in sociological theory, the value attached to hard work, thrift, and efficiency in one's worldly calling, which, especially in the Calvinist view, were deemed signs of an individual's election, or eternal salvation. in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1904-05), held that the Protestant ethic was an important factor in the economic success of Protestant groups in the early stages of European capitalism; because worldly success could be interpreted as a sign of eternal salvation, it was vigorously pursued. He argued that it was in the basic tenets of Protestantism to boost capitalism. Thus, it can be said that the spirit of capitalism is inherent to Protestant religious values.

Structure and Agency affecting Louisiana shrimp fishers

Structure: - Technology shaping shrimp fishing - Changing demand for shrimp - Global trade affecting shrimp supply and price Agency: - "strategic action to influence how these arrangements affect their lives"

According to the following social theorists, how were major social and cultural changes of the era tied to work?

Weber & Spirit of Capitalism: German sociologist and political economist Concerned with social changes surrounding the rise of capitalism religion -> societies organized in a certain way into capitalism (protestant ethic) wrote The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1905) "spirit of capitalism" = system of positive moral evaluation for acquisition, particularly in the West - in contrast to "traditional" approaches to labor and wealth, which emphasize stability - *based on social, not individual values* (if you have enough wealth, you are good, what makes us want more? (compared to diff. societies) - more than just "greed", which occurs everywhere - emphasized rational accumulation of profits /// manifested in the Protestant Reformation - Among the various values advocated by the protestants, were ideas of self sufficiency, frugality and independent relations with God instead of through a priest.////

How has globalization looked in China and India? Is that similar to or different from the more general trend in economic inequality between countries?

came at an environmental cost land, water, and air in the US became cleaner in the latter part of the 20th century Chinese rivers are dangerously polluted; unsuitable for human contact (some waterways) Indians are commonly expected to write component pieces or debug systems within larger programs designed abroad. They are less often engaged in the creative work that results in the development of a Google or YouTube. As a result, India is unlikely to emerge as a new knowledge creation center but rather is more likely to remain an upstream link in knowledge creation, which will continue to be centred in America and other highly developed societies In India, like China, there exists a significant, and perhaps growing, divide b/w the opportunity structures and rewards characteristic of rural agrarian work, urban industrial work, and employment in the emerging high-tech sector

What are contingent and contract work?

contingent = a large portion of the workforce labors in this area; are "as needed" positions, filled by short-term agreements b/w workers and employers (on call work, temp. help, agency work, and contract work positions designed to be temp. and unstable) (b/c of their short-term employment arrangements, contingent workers are commonly treated diff. from regular workers ) [ex.] temp. workers are sometimes given diff. colored security badges, assumed by coworkers to be less competent, not offered employer-sponsored training, and excluded from office rituals such as birthday parties (marginal status -> refer to them as "the temp") - they earn considerably less pay, have less access to health insurance, and are less likely to receive pension benefits than those who work in more conventional arrangement) - nearly all long for secure jobs, something harder to find in the new economy NOT ALL CONTINGENT WORKERS ARE ALIKE ---- = while many of them labor in marginal temp. jobs, others operate as *contract workers*, - they provide services to an organization but do not work for them directly as employees (some companies may use contract arrangements to get around labor laws that protect employers or to avoid having to pay benefits to some of their workers) - however, their is also strong evidence that many contract workers enjoy a sense of freedom in not attaching themselves to long-term commitments to organizations - these contract workers can sometimes command high compensation in exchange for the temporary use of their expertise, and many feel a sense of liberation by removing themselves from the confining walls of any particular organization's bureaucracy - still, these workers usually lack the conventional security offered by longer-term employment, so their careers hinge on continually seeking replacement work

What are global supply chains?

decentralized production and internationalization hallmark of 21st century in the US, workers seldom create commodities from start to finish at a central location within a nation-state more often, production is network driven, divided up b/w companies spread across the world (ex. Nike, the Gap, Liz Claiborne) - do not directly employ any production workers - instead these companies develop designs and marketing strategies and then contract work w/ ind. manufactures operating abroad highly sensitive to costs; they seek out regions where labour costs and the other costs of production are low. Global supply chain also creates in inequality between developed and developing worlds (wealth)

o What is dual labor market theory? What kind of occupations are in the primary and secondary sectors?

divides opp's into 2 diff. strata of jobs the favored jobs are located in the primary labor market which offers higher pay, predictable career paths, opportunities for skill dev., and enhanced job security (good jobs) secondary labor market - jobs that offer low pay, unstable opportunities, low security, and limited skill expansion (most of the low skilled jobs that workers hold today are nestled in this market) - offering neither significant material rewards nor stepping stones to greater opportunity - dead end positions that lack benefits, provide little security, and offer scant economic reward

Scientific management & its consequences

encouraged the replacement of skilled workers w/ cheaper, more dispensable low-skill workers, while removing discretion from the shop floor and placing it in the hands of managerial control over what was happening in the workplace were all central to the approach - finding ways to enhance productivity through job simplification, replacing people w/ tech. and improving managerial control over what was happening in the workplace were all central to this approach - ex. - the assembly line - instead of relying on a skilled (and hard to replace) craft worker who controlled how the work was done, the assembly line created jobs that required very little training, involved relatively simple repetitive operations, and dictated to the worker how the job should be performed. = the worker lost control over the pace of work, as the assembly line pushed work forward at a speed primarily determined by management, = legions of deskilled jobs, the dissolution of many craft skills, and a decline in the worker's ability to control the conditions and rewards of work fostered distrust and hostility b/w workers and their bosses., who dev. us versus them mentality, - conflict of interest - thus as managers tried various tricks to speed up work, those laboring on the front lines dev. alternate approaches to try to restrict production

how have employees' expectations of long job tenure changed over time?

even dedicated, long-service employees are displaced at will and often in ways that show little or no appreciation for employees' past contributions workers, on average, have lesser tenure with their employers, meaning that they are less likely to stay with the same employer for the same amount of time compared to the old economy, and this is especially true among older white males (who were the biggest beneficiaries of tenure-based security systems) other workers (especially women and younger workers) were much more likely to have shorter tenure and less enduring relationships w/ employers even before the transition to the new economy suggestive that w/ the transition to the new economy, workers, like their employers, no longer see loyalty as a virtue - may be true for some employees, interviews w/ displaced workers did not indicate this to be as common as is often argued - for the most part, they continued to behave according to preexisting models of what a good employee should be and to give as much as they could to their employers and to their coworkers most importantly, far fewer workers expect, or plan, to stay with their current employers throughout their career, a sharp departure from the old ways of working - suggests that workers may be redefining career paths, as well as their strategies for navigating labor markets over the life course

How do workers experience difficulties finding new jobs of similar quality? Which workers have more difficulty?

even when employees have some advanced knowledge of impending layoffs, the consequences can be significant. - this is particularly true when layoffs affect declining regions, single-employer communities, and older workers ==== in these situations, workers often have great difficulty finding new jobs b/c little else is available locally to employ them or b/c of discrimination or skill mismatches younger workers may be willing to move away, but older workers typically are more reluctant and are more likely to experience prolonged or even permanent unemployment (can be both economically and psychologically devastating, undermining a worker's sense of self as a breadwinner and causing workers, both young and old, to look at work more as a way to pay the bills and less as a source of personal satisfaction and community) women and racial minorities are especially vulnerable when organizations downsize, reflecting their comparatively tenuous (weak) attachments to careers -- isn't; fair --- if the rule is that employees with the longest job tenure or highest rank have the greatest job protections, this tends to favor white men, as women and racial minorities tend to have held jobs for shorter durations (however, if decisions are based on individual evaluation of each employee's individual contributions to the organization and their performance review, gender and race play a far lesser role in the outcomes 1 in 4 workers who lose jobs actually report that their lives (but not their finances) improved in the aftermath - the layoff forced these workers out of a bad situation and made their lives better in a sense

what are the ways of measuring job insecurity in the US? what can and can't these measures tell us?

examine the percentage of workers who are unemployed, that is, people who are actively looking for work but cannot find it = at any given point in 2014, over 11 mill. Americans (1 in 15) working aged adults - were unemployed (rates for men were somewhat higher than for women , and African American men were unemployed at 2x the rate of white men = unemployment rates have fluctuated considerably during the past 40 years (low of 3.5% in 1969 to a high of 10.1% in 2010) - these rates vary monthly, within industries, and by geographical locale (ex. construction workers are commonly laid off during the winter months, but retail employment opp's grow in advance of the holiday season unemployed - def. by the Bureau of Labor Stats. = not currently working and actively seeking a job (these stats exclude discouraged workers - forced to accept jobs that are inappropriate to their qualifications and need, and those laboring in jobs that offer no protection beyond short-term contracts --- one illustration of the limitations of these figures can be observed by examining job creation data (notable is that when new jobs are created, the numbers of unemployed do not go down proportionately b/c better job prospects encourage more people to seek work - *in other words, unemployment stats fail to recognize many potential workers, people who could be working but are not* unemployment stats. also do a poor job of revealing the number of people who lose their jobs involuntarily Jacob Hacker (2006) - many people who lose jobs find replacement jobs that are inferior to their previous positions w/ lower pay and benefits, and are mismatched to their education and experience = fear & experience employment insecurity (they are NOT however unemployed) although reliable data on mass layoffs are not available for a long-term analysis, the number increased sig. in the early 1970s, particularly in the manufacturing sector, and has remained high (bureau of lab. stats. is no longer tracking mass layoff events, making it harder to document the extent of insecurity present today)

What are the kinds of flexible work arrangements? How common are they

flexibility is not always intended to help ease the balancing of work and family or to maximize the liberating potential of tech. move work arrangements - programs and practices that enable schedule variability, changes in starting and quitting times on a time to time basis, compression of workweeks, and opp's to work at home, off-site, or at diff. worksites *note that for these arrangements the amount of work remains the same, but the place or time at which the work is to be performed varies* pause work arrangements - programs and practices that enable workers to take temporary career breaks, sabbaticals, or paid or unpaid time for education or training to improve job skills reduce work arrangements- programs and practices that enable workers to scale back work hours, to job share, to phase into retirement with reduced hours, or to work part of the year for a reduced amount of time (these options offer the prospect of temporarily limiting the amount of work to be performed) over half of the employers provided no flexible work arrangements to most or all employees (varies across sectors) organizations in the manufacturing sector are the least likely to enable employees to move, reduce, or pause work, within 75% of organizations not offering any of these options to the majority of their workforce in contrast, employers in the professional, scientific, and technical services sectors and in the accommodation and food services sectors are much more likely to offer access to flexible work arrangements among employers that offer flexible work arragements, the most common approach is to enable workers to alter where or when they did their work (39%) few employers provided most of their workers w/ the option to reduce work or pause work

o What is "Skill-Biased Technological Change"?

growing use of technology (especially personal computers) increases inequality because many "low-skill" workers can be replaced by automation (decreasing jobs and wages) many "high-skill" workers become more productive (increasing jobs and wages)

In what ways do S&M argue we can see both the decline and continued importance of mass production?

if manufacturing is in decline, is mass production? - consider work as it is performed in diff. megasectors -broad groupings of diff. types of economic activity - each of these sectors makes a distinct contribution to the economy - extracting resources in processing resource, in delivering goods, and in providing services growing impt of service sector work for most of human existence, most workers engaged in the extraction of raw materials - working in the areas of farming, fishing, forestry, or mining, - by early 20th century, these workers composed only a relatively small segment of the workforce - most farming occurs as part of agribusiness in which methods of mass production have been applied to the raising of livestock, poultry, and produce mass production has contributed to the creation of a divided opp. structure that limits prospects for workers (such as migrant farm laborers) to grow and advance all newer mining tech. require the application of greater skills than the older manual operations, but they also substitute massive equipment and sophisticated tech. for human labor - this is one enduring persistent feature of the old economy, the drive to improve productivity by replacing labor through the use of complex tech. and managerial innovations there is tendency to assume that the declining importance of manufacturing in the US economy means that mass production is on the wane. IT IS NOT. - what has happened is that mass production techniques have been widely integrated not other sectors of the economy including the rapidly growing service sector many of the key elements of traditional mass production, including the use of tech. to pace work tasks, and the use of insecurity and performance pressures to motivate worker now characterize types of work that, in the past, were rarely organized in this way those same machines and methods have also replaced many workers, both in manufacturing and elsewhere, and the persistence and spread of mass production methods cannot be ignored the reality is that the new economy relies on both high skilled and low skill work, and it uses both mass production techniques and new flexibility specialized systems to produce goods and services

How do cultural attitudes toward work and workers vary between countries and over time?

in many cultures, work is defined as the means for day to day survival subsistence economies operate on the basis of cultural assumptions that work is primarily a means to end, so that once individuals have enough food and shelter, labor is expected to cease in today's american culture, this would indicate a moral weakness and be perceived as a threat to social order (but from the p.o.v. of other cultures, our embrace of work could be considered pathological varied life course scripts result in some cultures expecting 10 or more years of additional attachment to the labor force than others, with policies that match these expectations societies in the forefront of the Industrial Revolution had been swayed by changing religious doctrines - created anxieties about one fates in life (in response, Western European and American culture advanced the value of the work ethic, a belief that work if not something people simply do - it is a God given purpose - devoting oneself to work and doing a good job were considered to be ways of demonstrating that a life of virtue reflects grace - As members of the societies embraced the idea that work is "a calling", they applied themselves to their jobs with greater vigor, creating wealth and affirming to themselves and others that God was looking favorably on their actions --- many of those driven to work long hours do so b/c they are driven by organizational cultures that bestow rewards on those who live, breathe, and eat their jobs Why would people work above and beyond economic need? - attitudes to work are bound up w/ materialistic values held in American culture - markets of status include luxury autos, large homes, and expensive clothing (all of these commodities are conspicuously consumed, put on display to be seen and admired, and set standards for others to follow (drive to purchase social status) --- saturated w/ media images of success & have dev. numerous ways to accumulate debt

are some jobs designed to be insecure?

job insecurity is expanding b/c of the changing composition of the labor force, as well as the changing organization of work in an economy dominated by dual-earner families, the loss of one spouse's job creates strong prospects that the other partner ---- even one w/ a secure job --- may need to reconsider career options (those partners can be put into the position of trailing spouses and be forced to rework their careers to match the direction chartered by their partner secure working conditions are the exception, rather than the rule, for dual earner professional couples insecurity has been intentionally built into the design of some jobs w/ the purpose of maximizing the power and control of employers - relation to Taylorized "McJobs" in the secondary labor market, where complaints concerning work conditions can be countered w/ "if you don't like the job, find another one - you are replaceable" marginal employment have become more common as employers have found ways to avoid regulations through subcontracting work to smaller companies that rely on this type of labor ---- many of these laborers are undocumented workers and have no recourse other than to accept whatever terms are offered. Other day laborers use their jobs to buy drugs, and these relationships feed into a vicious cycle of substance abuse and economic marginalization, while at the same time securing the employer's ability to obtain low-wage work on an "as needed" basis

o How has the earnings difference between workers with and without college degrees changed over time for male and female workers?

males Without a college degree saw a decrease in earnings over time whereas those with a college degree saw an increase in earnings females Both women with and without a college degree saw an increase in earnings over time

· What contributed to the decline of labor unions in the US?

one reason for falling union membership is that a declining proportion of the workforce is employed in manufacturing, the sector in which unionization has traditionally been strongest as American manufacturing employment has contracted, employers have become increasingly willing to close facilities or to relocate both within the US and abroad, so that unionization in the manufacturing sector has declined in some cases, employers have moved away from areas where unions are strong to those where they are not efforts to unionize have been stymied by threats to close shop and by actual relocation the dev. of complex supply chains, w/ major producers being supplied by a network of smaller companies scattered across the globe, has also contributed to union decline (not only are the supplier companies small and mobile (making them hard to organize), they are also less economically secure, which in turn discourages collective bargaining the real reason for declining unionization may be the failure of American unions to organize workers in the growth sectors of the new economy

· How did the "downstairs" department change with automation, in terms of: o the assignment of tasks to jobs? o workers' average pay and inequality?

operated on deposit processing capture, sort, and proof deposits using MICR; forwards exceptions b each workers did all tasks needed more workers per check similar average pay tasks not done by computer divided among specialized workers whereas before everyone was doing the same job and getting paid the same. Needed 21% fewer workers per check This contributed to economic inequality, because now those who have a job that is more skilled gets paid more than a person who is working a low skilled job.

· How did changes in low, middle, and high incomes contribute to the growth of income inequality?

really signifiant gains in income went to top earners in contrast, the lowest two fifths of all households continued to earn incomes similar to what households earned in the early 1970s and any diffs observed probably do not reflect any substantial improvement (for better quality of life) even if they lower three fifths of households are making modestly more than they did in 1970, they are not substantially better off in terms of their economic situation. They may be earning a little bit more, but they are working much harder to do so, and usually because they need to while there has been some modest income growth even for these strata, as well as for the 3rd quintile, the conclusion that they are modestly better off is open to debate, given that the incomes achieved are sometimes the consequence of working harder either to maintain one's standard of living or to satisfy new needs critical to career and family success in the new economy in short, the distribution of income is directly related to a polarized opp. structure, with an expanding chasm that separates higher paying jobs from lower paying jobs and far fewer jobs available that fit somewhere in b/w -> dual labor market theory

Couples and career study

survey 1998-2000 by Cornell Careers Institute - surveys dual earner middle class workers in upscale NY revealed that most higher level workers were only about 80% to 85% confident that their jobs would exist for the next 2 years (only 1 in 4 men 27% and 1 in 3 35% of women in this study were fully certain that they could keep their jobs

· How do social protections differ in the US vs other countries?

the U.S. has private insurance (health & long-term disability insurance) --- has become outrageously expensive today/ fraternal organizations (Masons & the Odd Fellows) - collective ethnic and class-based strategies for mitigating the risk of personal hardship --- provided member fam.'s w/ small death benefits and health insurance in some cases ---- *mutual assistance* -- adopted by trade unions (mutual assistance) - distributed mutual assistance to members of occupational groups, providing skilled workers w/ resources that could help them survive unemployment and disability - collective bargaining agreements provided unionized workers w/ some protections from the risk of job loss (many non unionized workers -- who were disproportionately women and minorities were left lacking social supports and job protections in the US, approaches to managing risk is the access to job security and benefits is heavily dependent on what kind of job workers have and for whom they work (their ability to make ends meet requires holding a job and, if that job is lost, finding a replacement job quickly) IN CONSTRAST, in most European countries = entitlements addressed the problem of risk = rights and resources available to ALL citizens independent of attachment to the labor force (unemployment, disability, sickness, old age, housing, family leave, and child care) only 20% of the US GDP is directed to public social assistance, considerably less than the percentage budgeted in most European countries = workers in Europe have access to greater quantity of resources that can be used if they lose jobs, and workers in the US assume far greater amounts of individual risk such programs are costly for Europe though (struggle to generate funds needed) - magnified by the aging workforce which creates greater resource demands to service larger proportions of the population in retirement and increases burdens on those who remain in the labor force American workers do have some protections: - Social Security Act (1935) - supports for those who cannot work, including aid to the elderly , the disabled, and some children - Fair Labor Standards Act - (1938) workplace regulations - short terms unemployment insurance and a national minimum wage - primary buffer against job loss in America is unemployment insurance - provides short-term assistance to workers to have the financial resources to seek suitable replacement jobs (eligibility and compensation varies within states) -- unemployment insurance does not cover temp. workers, the self-employed, agricultural workers, part-time workers, those out of the labor force for extended periods of time, those who quit their jobs, or those trying to reenter the labor force after an extended absence, and parents (mostly women)

job insecurity

the anxiety felt at the prospect that one's own job might disappear

What is "corporate paternalism"?

the belief that it is the employer's responsibility to provide for their employees, much as it is parents' responsibility to provide for their children *jobs are insecure in the new economy in part b/c of a growing acceptance, especially among managers and captains of industry, that jobs should be insecure* (employees are costs to be minimized in order to maximize profits)

Deindustrialization

the decline of manufacturing employment as a main part of the labor force Deindustrialization eliminated many middle/high- wage jobs for less-educated workers. Factory closings have profound consequences for local communities.

Deindustrialization

the decline of manufacturing employment as a main part of the labor force. process by which manufacturing declines in a society or region as a proportion of total economic activity. It is the opposite of industrialization, and therefore sometimes represents a step backward in the growth of a society's economy.

demography

the paid labor force today has a far greater number of women workers, and the racial and ethnic makeup is also diff. how age structures affected the availability of jobs, the availability of workers, the need to work, and the returns received from work the US labor force is becoming older - if people are living longer and staying healthy longer, perhaps work careers should be lengthened (however, older workers generally do not want jobs that demand heavy schedules) how an aging society will provide economic support for the growing numbers of older people the aging of societies creates a pressure point b/c of the dependency of those outside of the labor force (the young and the old) on those in the labor force - ex. social security - if the pool of retired workers becomes larger and the pool of employed workers becomes smaller, the revenues available to fund the system will be squeezed demographic factors - age, gender, and race affect virtually all aspects of the economy and workplace (play a role at the organizational level, as the experiences of ethnic minorities and women are commonly shaped by their scarcity at the top levels of organizational hierarchies)

what was the industrial revolution?

the shift from agrarian societies and small-scale production to powered machinery and mass production began in England in late 1700s, occurring throughout Europe and the US through the 18th and 19th centuries marked a period of development in the latter half of the 18th century that transformed largely rural, agrarian societies in Europe and America into industrialized, urban ones. Goods that had once been painstakingly crafted by hand started to be produced in mass quantities by machines in factories, thanks to the introduction of new machines and techniques in textiles, iron making and other industries. Fueled by the game-changing use of steam power, the Industrial Revolution began in Britain and spread to the rest of the world, including the United States, by the 1830s and '40s. Though many people in Britain had begun moving to the cities from rural areas before the Industrial Revolution, this process accelerated dramatically with industrialization, as the rise of large factories turned smaller towns into major cities over the span of decades. This rapid urbanization brought significant challenges, as overcrowded cities suffered from pollution, inadequate sanitation and a lack of clean drinking water. Regardless of these questions, the Industrial Revolution had a transformative economic, social and cultural impact, and played an integral role in laying the foundations for modern society.

agency

the ways in which people direct their life courses and how access to diff. resources and constraints shapes how lives are constructed over time people forge careers people w/ unlimited resources at their disposal are in a far better position to design their own lives than are those who have few resources (an impt. consideration is whether the new economy advances agents capacity or undermines it) many old structural barriers have been removed (such as segregation laws) and so have the cultural barriers that funneled women and ethnic minorities into restricted ranges of occupations women and minorities are at distinct disadvantages in securing many types of jobs; more and more workers are in precarious jobs undermining their control and the capacity to engage in planful action agency also operates at a collective level - workers make efforts to carve out work lives for themselves, but they also collaborate to reshape contours of work and create more satisfactory work opportunities for others (unions or professional associations) - use the strength of numbers to press for needed changes

Why do S&M argue there is new economy?

there is no typical worker careers of workers are influenced by demands and social ties off the job workers are making career decisions in the context of their linkages to others work is being dispersed; impact on workers lives at home and abroad lower skilled production jobs are increasingly being exported to countries such as China and India new jobs demand new sets of skills, and new tech.'s and organizational systems also are transforming many familiar jobs structural configurations freedom to choose work (and the kind of work despite social scripts) changes in culture, structure, and application of agency

Distinction between "old economy" and "new economy"

this dichotomy helps us idenfify the very real changes that occurred in the work in the latter part of the 20th century, including the introduction to new computer tech, the expansion of global economy, shifts in the composition of the workforce, new organizational and managerial paradigms, and other transformations Old economy - --- represents the various ways of assigning and structuring work that developed in the wake of the industrial revolution through the mid 20th century --- this economy has operated w/ systems oriented to mass production, gendered division of labor, unionized labor, and a variety of other enduring workplace practices - it was also an economy in which the US was a central and dominating economic force (is used to examine the question of whether the nature of work has changed and if it has the extent to which these changes are affecting lives on and off the job New economy: - many of the present day contours reflect the way work evolved in the old economy - there are new jobs, new workers, and new work designs, and these are changing some of the ways work is performed, by whom, and the returns received - but many of these features introduced by the old economy remain (these old features are not simply vestiges destined to eventually die out; they are thriving and may be permanent features of the new economy that will continue to develop during the 21st century - is intended to pose the question of whether the nature of work has changed, and if it has, the extent to which these changes have affected lives on and off the job

o How have intergenerational transfers of resources changed over time?

today's older workers are expected to provide more resources to their children far later in their lives than was the case for previous generations have resulted from shifts in the timing of work and family careers, a sustained redefinition of parent-child and child-parent responsibilities, and new opp. structures that block the younger generation from independently achieving sustainable careers as they enter adulthood transfer of resources can vary in these ways: - type of resource (direct transfer of finances or provision of care work) directionality (from parent to child or child to parent) volume (how many resources are being channeled) intensity (amount of effort involved) duration (how long) timing (age and life course station)

How do "flexibility" and insecurity differ from the perspective of workers and employers?

workers are less well equipped individually or collectively to fight for improved job security or to resist employers' efforts to gain "flexibility" and undercut seniority protections - hourly workers in most industries, skilled or unskilled, unionized or not, can no longer count on the security provided by large employers and seniority rules high tech sector has been characterized by the same pattern of job loss and mass layoffs as traditional manufacturing although some employers continue to place emphasis on retaining high skill employees, many employers have responded to increased economic competition and unstable market conditions by weakening their commitment to reward structures designed to encourage employee loyalty = thus, efforts to promote flexibility encourage looser commitments to all employees the "flexibility push" is reinforced by stockholder pressures to engage in periodic bouts of downsizing and layoffs, by new forms of work organization that assign managerial tasks to worker groups, and by new organizational structures that make it harder to advance careers by moving up within a single organization ---- managerial and professional employees once could count on generous benefits packages and stable, steadily growing incomes - today, these workers have good reason to feel less confident that these arrangements will be available and that security among the many pros employed in the public sector have taken steps to limit the ability of public-sector employees to collectively bargain instead of defined-benefit health care plans, employees are encouraged to open health care savings plans (which means they risk not saving enough) - instead of traditional pensions, employees are offered stock ownership plans, investment opp's, and other market based opps that promise greater payouts but also involve the risk of loss - companies engaging in legal maneuvering to get out of pension commitments to current and retired workers are now commonplace

Why does advanced notice of involuntary job loss matter for workers?

workers becoming displaced in their jobs increases anxiety and stress in the workplace when they do not expect that their job loss is forthcoming (can lead to failed marriages, embarrassment, shame) ---- this stress CAN be moderated if employers make visible the rationale for organizational restructuring, provide advance notification of that job loss may occur, and give evidence that procedural justice has been used to determine who will (and who will not) lose jobs === only then are they in a stronger position to adjust their lives accordingly (if workers know that jobs have to be lost, agree that job losses are necessary, and are given opportunities to plan) ---- unfortunately the resource of advanced knowledge is seldom provided to displaced workers advanced notification can be the key to helping workers adjust in anticipation of job loss = if workers know ahead of time that layoffs are being planned, they are in a position to seek additional training well before they find themselves w/o a job - in addition, it can give workers and their representative s time to negotiate with employers either to limit the numbers of people affected or to arrange for assistance of various kinds for those employees who are displaced (in the US, the only "right to know" about job futures was established by the Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification (WARN) Act) - mandates that companies w/ more than 100 workers provide 60 days of notice if they anticipate terminating or laying off 50 or more employees (this benefits large companies, but not smaller ones - those who are not part of mass layoff, those who have worked for the company for less than 6 months, and part-time workers -- unfortunately, most employers are reluctant to extend advance notification of impending job loss