SOC 170 EXAM 1 (CTK)
fundamental causes of health
-Threats to good health change over time -The means of improving health change over time -When this happens, who faces these threats and who has access to these means will continue to widen disparities
second demographic transition
-postponement/delay of marriage and childbearing -increase in cohabitation, divorce, and non-marital childbearing -increase in maternal labor force participation
race discrimination system
1. disparities systematically favor certain groups 2. disparities across subsystems are reinforcing (hard to overcome with simple policies because other reinforcing racial institutions are overbearing) 3. One source of within subsystem disparities is discrimination-system --> culmination of reinforcing racial institutions whose effect is greater than sum of parts -change must be multi-system to be effective due to reinforcing nature -system is composed of various institutions that are all reinforcing to each other.
postponement transition -3 steps? -4 reasons for?
1. first birth delayed to later ages 2. delayed fertility -> some delayed births never occur 3. Delayed births -> cause a temporary dip in period TFR ("temp effect") Reasons: CUDO 1. Changing values (secularization, individualism, children, and happiness) -> how children are viewed, education, goals, etc... 2. Uncertainty (divorce, poor employment prospects, etc...) -> risky to have kids. ex: rebound in jobs after US recession lead to many more low-income jobs and hollowing of middle-class jobs. 3. Differential levels of gender equity in the family and marketplace -> women gain more rights and go out to do more 4. Opportunity cost of women's -> having children "costs" more for women because she misses out on other stuff -increasing educational attainment and labor force participation of women. -sources of fertility decline -> attitudes, financial support, and migration.
Population pyramid
A bar graph representing the distribution of population by age and sex. 1. rapid growth - lots of young 2. slow growth - small amount of young 3. zero growth or decreasing growth - roughly equal numbers of population ages tapering off at older ages
Technological critique of Malthus
Cornucopian, solution to poverty and resource scarcity is to increase population because humans are the ultimate resource. More people yields more brain power and ability to advance technology in society. -PROBLEMS: life expectancy has stayed similar over years even with population increase, innovativeness is not directly tied to societal size but rather to social circumstances that encourage innovation, try to solve and not prevent problems, technology can't solve everything. -Boserup --> population growth stimulates the need for more effective farming practices. Technology is not innovation and need is at work not brainpower. Rapid population growth presents problems. Environment limits idea and resource overuse comes into play -green revolution and rice miracle --> rice led to a number of unexpected problems. Fertilizer run off, killing of fish, and other pesticide problems along with land farming rotations disruption
natural increase
Crude birth rate - crude death rate
Helm's amendment to foreign assistance act of 1973 -key change? -put strict limits on?
Global US policy; no foreign assistance fund may be used to pay for the performance of abortion as a method of family planning or to motivate/coerce any persons to practice abortion -key change to US support to family planning abroad -put strict limits on how US funds could be spent abroad
Mexico City Policy 1984-sometimes called? -specificity and differs based on?
Global US policy; nongovernmental organizations receiving US family planning assistance cannot use separately obtained non-US funds to inform the public or advocate to their government on making safe abortion available, providing legal abortion services, or provide advice on where to get abortion -sometimes called "Global Gag Rule" -broad and differs based on political party in white house
biological racism
Idea that one racial group is genetically superior to others; used to justify discriminatory laws and policies -idea has been widely rejected based on decades of research +Genetic variation is large, subtle, and complex; idea of a few "natural" categories is overly simplified +main critique --> Biological explanations of differences ignore social structure
Bongaarts analytic framework-fertility is intersection of ?
In picture!-top is about view of children-bottom is about ability / effectiveness of contraception-fertility -> intersection of contraceptive technology and attitudes (often about children and socioeconomic status idea)... mix of both!
re-emerging infectious disease
Infectious agents that have been known for some time, had fallen to such low levels that they were no longer considered public health problems & are now showing upward trends in incidence or prevalence worldwide -old disease gains resistance to modern medicine and becomes dangerous again 1. Shifting zones and disease transmission and exposure; infection outbreaks return as large population interact and spread disease fast. ex: Zika went from Polynesia to Brazil and then spread fast 2. Antibiotic resistance/pathogen evolution --> diseases can mutate and gain resistance to medicine. ex: MRSA and VRE 3. New infectious disease --> new infections can emerge that devastate populations because we don't have medicine developed yet to deal with them. ex: HIV/AIDS in Botswana 4. Vaccination coverage / loss of herd immunity --> not enough of population is vaccinated to prevent outbreak of disease! ex: measles-herd immunity --> sufficient % of population is immune (previous exposure or vaccination) to disease to prevent an outbreak; different thresholds for different diseases --> vaccination coverage threshold required to achieve herd immunity-could still be outbreaks in small communities even if large state or national population as whole are safe+ex: small communities that choose not to vaccinate kids could have an outbreak
Growth balance equation
PopulationT2 = PopulationT1 + B - D + I - O -population at time 2 equals the population at time 1 plus births from 1-2 minus deaths from 1-2 plus in migration from 1-2 and minus out migration from 1-2
population policies
Strategies and activities aimed at achieving a certain pattern of population -often sponsored by government
Environmental Externalities
The cost of good does not reflect the cost of its environmental consequences (i.e. the private cost of production is lower than its social cost) -Ex: Industrial pollution, Farm runoff, Logging in upstream watersheds
Rate (demographic rate)
The frequency of demographic events in a population during a specified time period (usually a year) divided by the population "at risk" of the event occurring during that time period. -how common it is for given event to occur. - # occurrences between [0, T] / person years lived between [0, T] that are at risk -ex: 10 births per year from 2010-2012 for girls ages 16-17 in Madison.
Population aging
The increase in the number or proportion of older individuals in the population -common causes --> longevity (people live longer), migration, and fertility +migration and fertility are more important -solutions: work longer, reduce pensions, increase taxes, increase migration, increase fertility, increase time in work force, incentivize saving for old age -consider: pace, geography, generational equity, and socioeconomic equality
Crude death rate
The number of deaths per year per 1,000 people. -# of deaths from [O,T] / # of person years lived in population from [O,T]
population momentum
The propensity for a growing population to continue growing even though fertility is declining because of their young age distribution -can be many years before a decline in fertility leads to a slow down in growth. -planetary effects also depend on consumption of resources and technology to replenish resources
Ratio
The relation of one population subgroup to the total population or to another subgroup; that is, one subgroup divided by another. -ex: 1.1 males : 1 female in American births
Crude Birth Rate (CBR)
The total number of live births in a year for every 1,000 people alive in the society. -# of births from [O,T] / # of person years lived in population from [O,T]
Bucharest Conference -views of 2 parties?
U.S. & allies: rapid population growth is a serious impediment to development. Supporting national FPP (family planning programs) is the most promising way to encourage economic development -Many delegates from developing countries including China, India, Argentina, and Algeria argued that the population problem was a consequence and not a cause of underdevelopment: investing in economic development will lead to declines in fertility because "development is the best contraceptive"
natural decrease
When the death rate is higher than the birth rate -D > B and population decreases
Thomas Malthus
Wrote Principles of Population in 1798, very controversial book. -states that unless checked population will grow until it hits environmental limits which will leads to poverty, hunger, misery, and resource scarcity.... eventually resulting in a population crash! -world is only so big! -exponential growth will harm planet (size and rate increase) -growth rate increments can increase even if growth rates decrease because population in successive previous increments are larger -2% growth - doubles in 34 yrs -positive and preventative checks limit population growth! -believed exponential growth was greatest threat to population!
aging in place
a phenomenon in which many rural areas have disproportionately high numbers of older adults because young persons seek opportunities elsewhere and leave the older persons behind -old tend to move from city to rural -young tend to move from rural to city
Racial ideology
a set of popular ideas about race that allows the discriminatory behaviors of individuals and institutions to seem reasonable, rational, and normal -various types!
IPAT equation
a simple model showing how population size, affluence, and the beneficial and harmful environmental effects of technologies help to determine the environmental impact of human activities. - I (impact) = P (population size) x A (affluence) x T (tech) -Ehrlich and Holdrens formula
drug overdose
a strong, sometimes fatal reaction to taking a large amount of a drug -major cause of health reversal in the US; common OD drug is opioid and is decreasing life expectancy of public -oversupply of opioids --> 3 stages; 1. increase in prescribed opioid deaths; 2. increase in heroin deaths;3. increase in synthetic opioid deaths (ex: fentanyl) which is the highest increase because these strong drugs are easy to OD on.
Count
absolute number of a population or any demographic event occurring in a specified area in a specified time period. -ex: 10 babies born in New Zealand in 1992
Conformism
accept both the goals and the means -behaves in accordance with the group
colorblindness
acting like there are no races and treating people on individual basis; individual explanations used to explain disparities between people with disregard of race -emphasis on individual rather than group experiences-relies on culturally based explanations rather than structural factors -denial that racism persists and limits opportunities for members of non-white groups -does not recognize how racial disparities are generated and supported by society +"I dont see race" --> "I dont see racism -post-racial society --> idea that racism is thing of the past and we dont face it as a nation anymore; likely not true!
cohort
aggregate of all units that experience a particular demographic event during a specific time interval. -can be people or events -ex: people born in 2012 are part of that birth year cohort
absolute income hypothesis
an individual's health depends on their own (and only their own) level of income; health is linked to individual units of income and allow for better food, leisure, exercise, nutrition, healthcare, etc.... -graphs with same slope and green dots at various points show this idea because only own income is affecting health disparity (difference between 10% and 90% on graph)... show compositional effects that produce health disparities; people gain less health advantage at higher incomes and graph levels out (logarithmic) -compositional, higher incomes could grow health disparities because higher income translates to better health outcomes
cultural essentialism
attribution of disadvantaged groups lack of prosperity to their behavior and culture; ex: family disintegration, lacking work ethic, culture of poverty. -saying people are poor because they have a lazy culture or behaviors -main critiques +lacking reference to structural factors (history, public policies, racialized institutions) that influence behavior. +victim-blaiming --> life outcomes come from cultural attributes and not social interactions people have had
life expectancy -2 types? -relation of 2? -life expectancy is not? and why?
average age of life in a population (same as average at of death in a population). 1. cohort life expectancy -> average age of death in birth cohort-takes a long time to find out (all people in cohort must die to know) -> diagonal on plot 2. Period life expectancy -> summary measure of ASMR's in a give year; hypothetic (synthetic) cohort is exposed to ASMR's in given year and then average age of death is computed -> vertical line on plot -Period life expectancy of birth cohort often underestimates the true birth cohort life expectancy because mortality rates tend to decrease over time and better medicine comes out! -life expectancy IS NOT the modal life expectancy; life expectancy is a mean and therefore is pulled down a lot by deaths at young at.
healthy life expectancy
average years lived in good health by members of a cohort
neo-malthusians
believe we are going to run out of other resources, not just food -advocate for human population planning to ensure we don't run out of resources.
structural racism
between-institution interactions (including over time) that reproduce racial inequality; societal level +ex: blacks live in low-income neighborhoods --> worse schools --> worse jobs and lower incomes --> worse houses and cycle
social gradient of health
classify populations into subgroups, measure health of the subgroups, and then examine differences in health between the subgroups -usually not a 2 category system (gradient is not poor vs not-poor); rather has numerous subgroups and the patterns of health between them +ex: low SES has lower health than high SES and middle SES also has lower health than high SES but higher health than low SES --> shows pattern (linear or non-linear trend)-analysis --> often reveals inequities with resources and plays role in health outcomes
Population
collection of persons alive at a specified point in time who meet a certain criteria. -collectivity often persists through time because members in population are always changing which must be accounted for. -ex: 100 people alive in Madison in 2017
period effects
consequences of historical change -broad, society-wide events that impact all ages at a point in time -ex: WW2
Consumption Externalities
consuming a good has consequences for others that aren't accounted for in the price of the good .-ex: industrial production: C footprint from flying plane or smoking cigarette. -consume good -> impact environment -> impact on environment not factored into good cost.
net migration
crude in migration rate - crude out migration rate
systemic racism
daily set of practices: microaggressions and anti-black ideologies; individual level
preventative checks
decrease birth rates; population is limited by social practices. -marrying later, abstinence, birth control, homeosexuality
Demographic critique of Malthus
development and modernization may lead to higher population levels but these population levels with stabilize at relatively constant higher level 1. stage 1 -> pre-modern times, death and birth rates cancel. Lots of death compensated with lots of babies 2. stage 2 -> new discoveries lead to increased health and more food resources. Mortality falls and birth rates climb leading to increased population size 3. stage 3 -> likely children will survive so birth rate slows. Urbanization decreases birth rate as kids are not need for farms. Children become economic burden and not economic asset
mid-life mortality
dying in mid life, painkiller abuse, alcohol abuse, economic insecurity -common in white males age 40-54 in the US (non-hispanic) +related to alcohol poisoning, OD's, deaths of despair, suicide, etc....
preston curve
empirical cross-sectional relationship between life expectancy and real per capita income -graph showing that as GDP per capita increases, so does life expectancy
positive checks
events that limit reproduction either by causing the deaths of individuals before they reach reproductive age or by causing the deaths of large numbers of people, thereby lowering the overall population -disease, death, war starvation!
social security
federal program of disability and retirement benefits that covers most working people -defined benefit example!
diversity gap
generations have different amounts of minorities (young is more diverse than middle and old is least diverse) -gap seems to be closing slightly
relative income hypothesis
health depends not just on one's own level of income, but also on the incomes of others in society; distribution of income in society affects health (relative effects); change health disparities via income distribution and other mechanisms... health matters in relation to where they fit in income distribution... leads to feeling poor due to large wealth gaps in society -slope of graph may entirely change based on how much the wealthy decides to support in society... -structure inequality affects people's health because of how they may perceive (health effects like stress) or experience living in those societies... consider distribution of societies resources (healthcare, education, housing, transportation, etc...)
demographic transition
implicit critique of Malthus; suggests that instead of populations growing until lack of environmental resources causes it to crash, that populations will grow and then stabilize on their own. -same factors that lead to growth will eventually lead to stability -allow poor countries to grow and follow natural trajectory of growth until they stabilize -PROBLEMS -> growth rates in underdeveloped are much higher now than rates were in earlier European countries, birth rates are higher, poverty caused by seeping of wealth to core countries, some don't want "Western development," environment critique. -poor countries will likely have to follow different path to demographic transition than European countries did.
Population growth
increase in the number of people who inhabit a territory or state
Reproductive Externality
individuals or families do not bear the full cost (or benefit) of raising families -ex: families do not pay for the impact that the children have on the environment... people have more children than societally desirable.
human lifespan
length of an individual life
low fertility
low fertility rate - below replacement fertility (TFR<2.1) -difference between lowest-low and low is significant because population growth varies proportionately with fertility rates and therefore small changes in fertility rates result in significant changes in population growth levels.
lowest low fertility
lowest-low rate (ultra-low) = period TFR < 1.3-1.5 -countries rarely remain at this level for a long time because lowest-low rates are often caused by delay of births and the birth rates often bounce back when some people have their delayed births. -difference between lowest-low and low is significant because population growth varies proportionately with fertility rates and therefore small changes in fertility rates result in significant changes in population growth levels.
health inequality
measurable differences in the distribution of health among persons or groups within a population. Often used interchangeably with the term health disparities. -often thought of as not modifiable, facts that disparities exist; ex: women live longer is mostly biological and cannot be modified
centenarian
one who is 100 or older
racialized institutions
ones where experiences differ based on people's racial categorization
family planning programs -6 goals?
organized effort to make effective contraception accessible to those who want to determine the number and timing of pregnancies 1. reduce population growth 2. reduce environmental burden 3. improve maternal survival rates (moms benefits from longer intervals between births) 4. improve infant/child health and survival 5. empower women and improve their welfare (women usually care for children more than men) 6. support people's ability to achieve reproductive goals
alcohol-attributable mortality
poisoning death; common among middle-aged (40-54) non-hispanic white males in the US; contribute to the health reversal in this group along with OD's, heroine, liver problems (alcohol related), and deaths of despair (suicide)
institutional racism
policies, laws, and institutions that reproduce racial inequalities -institutions interact with one another in a system
Inequality critique of Malthus
poverty and hunger cause population growth and environmental decline (opposite of Malthus thoughts) -look at social and economic inequality that has fostered unequal development of nations -colonization by large powerful countries lead to unequal development -large wealth gap between various countries widens even with modernization efforts -accumulation of advantage; core countries benefit from peripheral countries... even with programs set up to help like the world bank. -poverty throughout world is not just population issue. It is an issue of historical development and favorable events for certain countries over others. -problem is access to food and not availability of food. Redistribute access to food! -poor people have kids for economic reasons to make more money from their labor. -makes important case for social origins, population growth, poverty, and hunger. PROBLEMS: all farmland isn't equally productive, entitlement to food can be lost (war), countries that can access or produce suffer.
compression of morbidity -when does it occur?
reduction in proportion of lifetime lived with illness; pushing disease to very end of life! -occurs when increase in the age of onset of disease is greater than the increase in the expected age of death
compression (rectangularization) of mortality -why does it occur? -ideal?
reduction in the inequality of death across ages or reduction in lifespan inequality; only inequality across age NOT social groups -decrease in childhood, adolescent, and young adult mortality that allows the majority of people to survive to older ages and leads to survivorship curve approaching a rectangular shape. -ideal -> perfect rectangle in which all people live to oldest age and then die
age composition
relative numbers of individuals of specific ages within a population
Tragedy of the Commons
shared resources are overconsumed (past point of what is best for overall society) until they are depleted
health inequity
subset of health inequalities that are modifiable, associated with social disadvantage, and deemed to be unfair or stemming from some form of injustice. Can be linked to forms of disadvantage due to poverty, discrimination, and lack of access to services or goods. -thought of as modifiable, judgment that disparities are unjust and do not have to exist; ex: differences in health across education groups
herd immunity
sufficient % of population is immune (previous exposure or vaccination) to disease to prevent an outbreak; different thresholds for different diseases --> vaccination coverage threshold required to achieve herd immunity -could still be outbreaks in small communities even if large state or national population as whole are safe +ex: small communities that choose not to vaccinate kids could have an outbreak
US fertility differentials??
tend to push back births -1940's and 1950's unique because women have births at earlier age than previous generations... different than trend of generations pushing back births (mothers of baby boomers) -post baby boom moms -> fertility more even across ages with increasing fertility rates after age 35 -ASFR's of 15-19 and 20-24's decreases faster after 2008 because of programs in place, IUD's, and LARC's
Competitive Consumption
the idea that spending is in large part driven by a comparative or competitive process in which individuals try to keep up with the norms of the social group with which they identify-a "reference group."
Carrying Capacity
the largest population that an environment can support at any given time -The carrying capacity of a biological species in an environment is the maximum population size of the species that the environment can sustain indefinitely, given the food, habitat, water, and other necessities available in the environment.
Contraceptive Prevalence
the proportion of women of reproductive age who are using a contraceptive method at a given point in time
parity
the state or condition of being equal, especially regarding status or pay
health reversals
when the health of a population declines (especially when life expectancy begins to decline) or counteracting trends prevent life expectancy from improving; ex: Europe industrialization --> could be man-caused by pollution and what not. -2 --> deaths of despair (social alienation) and re-emerging infections disease
Elderly support ratio
# of supporters (14-64) / # elderly dependents (>64 )
Unmet Need
(women not using any method of contraception) *and dont want to be having kids / (women wanting no more children or wanting to delay the next birth (delay atleast 2 years) ) -number of women who want to use contraception but don't have access to it